UNIT 1 | REVIEW YOUR SOLID KNOWLEDGE

LESSON 1 | GRAMMAR AND STRUCTURE

TOPIC 1 | PARTS OF SPEECH (Word Class)

There are eight main parts of speech:

Nouns:
➢ Proper nouns: specific names given to particular individuals, places, organizations,
or things and are typically capitalized like Egypt, Samsung, Adam, etc.
➢ Common nouns: general, non-specific names given to people, places, things, or
ideas. Unlike proper nouns, common nouns are not capitalized unless they begin a
sentence like chair, board, laptop, etc.
➢ Concrete nouns: refer to physical objects that can be perceived by the senses like
water, sand, car, etc.
➢ Abstract nouns: words that represent concepts, ideas, qualities, or states that
cannot be perceived through the senses like love, hatred, honesty, beauty, etc.
➢ Countable nouns: nouns that can be counted as individual units like a pen, a table, a
book, etc.
➢ Uncountable nouns: substances, concepts, or qualities that cannot be easily
counted as individual units like money, salt, furniture, oil, etc.
➢ Collective nouns: words that represent groups of people, animals, or things like
team, family, orchestra, flock, etc.

Pronouns: They replace the nouns

➢ Subject pronouns: I, we, he, she, it, they, you.

➢ Object pronouns: me, us, him, her, it, them, you.
➢ Possessive pronouns: mine, ours, his, hers, its, theirs, yours.
➢ Reflexive Pronouns: myself, ourselves, himself, herself, itself, themselves, yourself
/ yourselves.
➢ Demonstrative Pronouns: This, these, that, those.
➢ Relative Pronouns: Who, whose, whom, which, that, where, when.
➢ Interrogative pronouns: who, where, whose, when, why, what, how, which, etc.

Verbs:
Words that express an action, occurrence, or state of being. Examples include "run," "eat,"
and "is." Modal verbs have different usages; they can be used to show possibility, to permit,
to give advice, to show necessity, etc.

Adjectives: Words that describe or modify a noun or pronoun, providing additional

information about it. Examples include "happy," "red," and "tall." They can be simple
adjectives, comparative, superlative, compound or coordinating.

Adverbs: Words that modify a verb, adjective, or other adverb, providing information about
the manner, place, time, or degree of an action or quality. Examples include "quickly,"
"very," and "here."

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Prepositions: Words that show the relationship between a noun (or pronoun) and other
elements in a sentence. Examples include "in," "on," and "under."

Conjunctions: Words that connect words, phrases, or clauses in a sentence. Examples

include "and," "but," and “although”.

Interjections: Words or phrases used to express strong emotion or sudden exclamations.

Examples include "Wow!" "Ouch!" and "Oh!"

How Parts of Speech Questions Appear in the Exam (Reading)

1. What does it in ... refer to? (Stage 7, Progression 2023, Paper 1)
2. The writer uses personal pronouns in the ...paragraph. What effect does this create?
(April 2023, paper 1).
3. Why does the writer use imperatives in paragraph...? (April 2023, paper 1).
4. Why does the writer use a conjunction in ... (Progression 2023, paper 1).
5. What part of speech are the hyphenated (-) words? Tick one box (Progression 2022
Paper 2).
6. The writer uses a grammatical function to refer to the influence of the game of chess.
Which one word does the writer use to do that? (Stage 9 Progression 2023, Paper 2)

Parts of Speech and Writing

Regarding word class, the following tips can help in your writing:

1. Make sure you are using the correct noun, adjective, adverb form in your writing.

Wrong form example: We need time of relax.

Correct form example: We need time of relaxation. √

2. Make sure to capitalize the initial letter of the proper nouns even in the middle of the
sentence.

Example: My favourite month is may. (Wrong)

Correction: My favourite month is May. √

3. Make sure you are using the correct pronoun when replacing a noun.

Example: Mobile phones are important in our lives. It helps us to be on touch with the

people we love and contact him all time. (Wrong)

Correction: Mobile phones are important in our lives. They help us to be on touch with the
people we love and contact them all time. √

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 LESSON 1 | GRAMMAR AND STRUCTURE

TOPIC 2 | PHRASES AND CLAUSES

A phrase is a group of words that is part of, rather than the whole of, a sentence. Phrases
usually lacks one of the main components of a sentence (subject or verb).

The Most Common Types of Phrases:

1. Noun Phrase
Example: Her beautiful smile brightened up the entire room.

2. Prepositional Phrase (It always begins with a preposition)

Example: She was excited about the upcoming vacation.

3. Adverbial Phrase (modifies the verb or the adjective and works as an adverb)
Example: He spoke very confidently.

4. Adjectival Phrase (modifies the noun and works as an adjective in the sentence)
Example: They lived in a town near the mountains.

5. Participle Phrase (verb+ ‘ing’ or ‘ed’ + the other necessary elements)

Example: Exhausted from the long trek, the explorer set up camp near river.
Example: The ship, sailing under a cloudless sky, reached its destination.

6. Gerund Phrase (the verb + ing ‘gerund’+ the other necessary elements; it functions as
the noun of the sentence)
Example: Travelling to new places is on her bucket list.

7. Infinitive Phrase (to+ the base form of the verb+ the other necessary elements)
Example: To avoid sunburns, apply the sunblock every two hours.

A clause is group of words that contains a subject and a verb that have a relationship.
The Most Common Types of Clauses:

1. Independent Clauses (Main Clauses): An independent clause is a group of words that can
stand alone as a complete sentence because it expresses a complete thought.
Example: She went to the store.

2. Dependent Clauses (Subordinate Clauses): A dependent clause is a group of words that

cannot stand alone as a complete sentence because it does not express a complete
thought. It relies on an independent clause to form a complete sentence.
Dependent clauses can be formed with a subordinate conjunction or with a relative
pronoun.
Example: Because she was out of milk, she went to the supermarket. (Dependent clause
with a subordinate conjunction)
Example: The book that I borrowed from you is on the table. (Relative clause)

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N.B.: Opening the sentence with a phrase or a dependent clause can have various effects
depending on the opening phrase or clause; it may be to add more focus on a certain
action, place, feeling, etc. Read the tips below about phrases and clauses usages in writing
for more clarification.

How Phrases and Clauses Questions Appear in the Exam (Reading)

1. Look at the ... paragraph. What effect does the writer create by beginning the paragraph
with subordinate clauses? (Stage 7, Progression 2024, paper 1)
2. Look at the ... paragraph. The writer begins three of the sentences with a prepositional
phrase. Explain the effect this has (Stage 8 October 2023, paper 1).
3. Which adverbial phrase marks the beginning of... (Stage 8 April 2023, paper 2).
4. Look at the ... paragraph. Identify the main clause in the third sentence (Stage 8
Progression 2022, paper 1).
5. Look at the ... paragraph. The writer uses a subordinate clause to begin the sentence.
Give one reason for this (Stage 9 Progression 2022, paper 1).

How Phrases and Clauses Can be used to Enhance your Writing

To enhance your writing and make it more creative, varying your sentences style through
using different types of phrases and clauses and positioning them in different places is
essential.

Tips:

1. Use the phrases as sentence openers to grab your reader’s attention, arouse their
curiosity, indicate a feeling, add more focus on an action, direct the reader’s attention to
where things are or a place.

Basic sentences: She entered the room. She was walking confidently.
Modified Sentence: Walking confidently, she entered the room / With confident steps, she
entered the room / Confidently, she entered the room.
Basic sentence: The moving image of an armoured knight was on a big screen on the wall
of a windowless room
Modified Sentence: On a big screen on the wall of a windowless room is the moving image
of an armoured knight.

2. Open your sentence with a dependent clause to urge the reader complete reading the
sentence, withhold the information or add drama by delaying the climax of an incident.

Basic sentences: You decided to refuse my proposal. You have no place among us.
Modified Sentence: Since you decided to refuse my proposal, you have no place among us
anymore.
Basic sentence: There was a frantic knock on the door as we were nibbling on nuts.
Modified Sentence: As we were nibbling on nuts, there was a frantic knock on the door.

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3. Expand your sentences by using relative clauses and phrases for extra details.

Basic sentences: My sister decided to quit her job. This job was draining all her power. It
caused her many physical problems.
Modified Sentence: My sister decided to quit the job that was draining all her power,
causing her different physical problems.

4. Use short phrases for effect.

Basic sentences: His ears caught strange whispers. They were deadly whispers. They were
announcing his death.
Modified Sentence 1: His ears caught strange whispers. Deadly ones announcing his end.
Modified Sentence 2: His ears caught strange whispers that were announcing his end.
Deadly ones. (A relative clause is used and a short phrase).

LESSON 1 | GRAMMAR AND STRUCTURE

TOPIC 3 | CONNECTIVES
A connective is a word phrase used to combine other words, phrases, or clauses to create
a cohesive sentence or to link the paragraphs of a piece of writing.

Connectives can be any part of speech; they can be a conjunction, a preposition, an adverb,
etc. They can be a single word or a whole phrase.

➢ Conjunctions are connectives and they are of three types:

1. Co-ordinating conjunctions: For, and, nor, but, or, yet, so
2. Subordinating conjunctions: While, when, as, just as, although, though, even though,
because, if, until, unless, after, before, as soon as, by the time, since, in order to, whenever,
wherever, whereas, otherwise.
3. Co-relative conjunctions: pairs of conjunctions that work together:
• Either...or: You can either eat now or wait until later.
• Neither...nor: Neither the teacher nor the students knew the answer.
• Both...and: She is both intelligent and hardworking.
• Not only...but also: Not only did she complete the project, but she also exceeded
expectations.
• Whether...or: I don't know whether he will come or not.
• So...as: She is not so much a teacher as a mentor.
• Such...that: It was such a difficult exam that many students struggled to pass.

➢ Adverbs can also function as connectives:

Examples: Additionally, moreover, furthermore, however, nevertheless, consequently,

meanwhile, subsequently, therefore, nonetheless, similarly, likewise, hence, thus, indeed,
furthermore, alternatively, instead, conversely, firstly, secondly, finally, then, etc.

Notice that conjunctive adverbs can also function as sentence openers.

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 ➢ Some idioms can function as connectives:

Examples: By the way, in a nutshell, to cut a long story short, on the other hand, by
contrast, in contrast.

➢ Some phrases can function as connectives:

Examples: all in all, in conclusion, to conclude, to sum up, in the meantime, in spite of, due
to, as a result, for this reason, as a consequence, for example, such as.

➢ Some prepositions can function as connectives:

Examples: Despite, because of, since.

A Collective List of Common Connectives and Their Usage

Connectives of Similarity Connectives to Give Connectives to Summarise

Examples

Like Like In conclusion, ...

Likewise Such as To conclude, ...

Similarly, For example, ... All in all, ...

Both To sum up, ...

As a whole, ...

In a nutshell, ...

To cut a long story short

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 A Collective List of Common Connectives and Their Usage

Connectives of Addition Connectives of Contrast and Connectives for Cause and

Negation Effect
And But For

Both...and Yet So

Not only...but also Nor As

In addition to Neither...nor Because

Additionally Although Because of

Moreover Though Due to

Furthermore Even though Since

In the meantime Whereas In order to

Notice that ‘Both...and, However Therefore

Not only...but also’ are used
to connect to equally On the other hand Hence
important information.
Nevertheless Thus

Nonetheless Consequently

Despite Subsequently

In spite of As a result

By contrast As a consequence

In contrast For this reason

conversely Accordingly

N.B: ‘Nevertheless’ and N.B: • ‘Hence’ and ‘Therefore’

‘nonetheless’ have the same mean ‘for this reason’.
meaning as ‘however’. • ‘Thus’ has the same
meaning as ‘consequently’.
• ‘Accordingly’ can be used
in the same way as ‘as a
result’.

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 A Collective List of Common Connectives and Their Usage

Connectives of Alternatives Connectives of Sequencing Connectives to Set

(giving options) and of Time Conditions
Or Firstly If

Either...or Secondly Unless

Whether...or Finally Until

alternatively Then Or else

To begin with Or

First of all

Afterwards

Gradually

After

Before

As soon as

By the time

Just as

When

While

At the same time

Meanwhile

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 How Connectives Questions Appear in the Exam (Reading)

Connectives questions usually appear under the category of how to structure a text.
1. The writer uses however in line ... to introduce a contrast between the third and fourth
paragraph. Explain what this contrast is. (Stage 7, Progression 2023, paper 2).
2. How does the writer connect two equally important pieces of information in the
sentence? (Stage 8, Progression 2023, paper 1).
3. The word ‘Though’ links two ideas. What is the link? (Stage 9, Progression 2022, paper 1).
4. The writer uses ‘But’ to contrast two ideas. What are they? (Stage 9, Progression 2022,
paper 2).
5. In the second sentence, the words, ‘To attract the bees...’ link the first and second
sentences. What kind of connective is this? Tick one box (Stage 9, Progression 2020,
paper 1).

How Connectives Can be used to Enhance your Writing

Connectives are used to make your writing coherent and logical. They guarantee the
smooth flow and transition between sentences and paragraphs.

Tips to vary your connectives:

1. Avoid using the same connective in the paragraph; you have variety of connectives that
serve the same purpose.

Usual student’s paragraph: There has been a growing awareness of the importance of
eating healthy food, and studies have highlighted the positive impact of a balanced diet on
overall well-being, and it is evident that adopting healthier eating habits can contribute
significantly to long-term health and vitality. So, the government health agencies
worldwide exert great efforts to encourage more consumption of fruit and vegetable.
Unhealthy food companies try to hinder the health agencies efforts, but this adds nothing
but more determination from the side of the health agencies to change the wrong diet
habits people usually follow.

Enhanced Paragraph: In recent years, there has been a growing awareness of the
importance of eating healthy food; additionally, studies have highlighted the positive impact
of a balanced diet on overall well-being. Furthermore, it is evident that adopting healthier
eating habits can contribute significantly to long-term health and vitality. In consequence,
the government health agencies worldwide exert great efforts in order to encourage more
consumption of fruit and vegetable. Despite the trials of unhealthy food companies to
hinder the health agencies efforts, the health agencies are not only striving to achieve their
target but are also determined to change the diet habits people usually follow.

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2. Use connectives to sequence the events and link them in your fiction writing.

Usual student’s paragraph: Juli approached the door and heard some strange sounds. She
had some fears. She was supposed to be alone in the house. She decided to open the door.
she was curious to know what was going on, but her fear was growing, but her curiosity
was more.

Enhanced Paragraph: While Juli was approaching the door, she heard some strange
sounds. She had some fears as she was supposed to be alone in the house. In spite of her
fear, she decided to open the door since she was curious to know what was going on;
however, her fear was growing.

But her curiosity was more.

(The enhanced paragraph focuses only on varying the connectives; however, other
language techniques can be used to enhance the paragraph).

3. Use connectives to link your paragraphs: linking your paragraphs by connectives keeps
the reader focused and helps him follow the ideas you present them.

Usual student’s paragraphs:

There's a growing interest in eco-friendly energy solutions. Solar power stands out as a
key player in this movement. The technology behind solar panels has become more
efficient and affordable, making it a viable option for many.

Solar power brings benefits beyond just being green. It creates jobs, boosts the economy,
and makes communities more resilient during power disruptions.

The move toward solar energy isn't just about the environment; it's about a greener, more
sustainable and prosperous future.

Enhanced Version (with internal connectives too):

Nowadays, there's a growing interest in eco-friendly energy solutions. Solar power stands
out as a key player in this movement due to the fact that the technology behind solar
panels has become more efficient and affordable, making it a viable option for many.

Furthermore, solar power brings benefits beyond just being green; for example, it creates
jobs, boosts the economy, and makes communities more resilient during power
disruptions.

Consequently, the move toward solar energy isn't just about the environment; it's about
both a greener future and a more sustainable, prosperous one.

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Do you want to try?

Try to use connectives to link the sentences of the following paragraph for cohesion and
fluency.
The process of making chocolate goes through many steps:
• Harvesting ripe cacao pods from the cacao tree.
• The pods are cracked open to reveal the beans inside.
• The beans are fermented to develop their rich flavor.
• The beans are dried and roasted to bring out the chocolatey aroma.
• The roasted beans are ground into a paste known as chocolate liquor. It contains
both cocoa solids and cocoa butter.
• This paste is processed to separate the cocoa solids from the cocoa butter.
• Adding sugar and milk depends on the desired end products.
• The chocolate texture is refined to smooth it.
• The chocolate is tempered, cooled and modeled into bars.

Here’s the beginning:

The process of making chocolate begins with harvesting ripe cacao pods from the cacao
tree. Once harvested, the pods are cracked open to reveal the beans inside, which are then
fermented to develop their rich flavor. .......................................................................................................

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Example answer:

The process of making chocolate begins with harvesting ripe cacao pods from the cacao
tree. Once harvested, the pods are cracked open to reveal the beans inside, which are then
fermented to develop their rich flavor. After fermentation, the beans are dried and roasted
in order to bring out the chocolatey aroma. Following this, the roasted beans are ground
into a paste known as chocolate liquor, which contains both cocoa solids and cocoa butter.
Afterwards, this paste is processed to separate the cocoa solids from the cocoa butter.
Depending on the desired end product, additional ingredients like sugar and milk may be
added to the mix. By the end of this process, the resulting chocolate is conched, a refining
process that smoothens its texture. Finally, the chocolate is tempered, cooled, and molded
into bars.

LESSON 1 | GRAMMAR AND STRUCTURE

TOPIC 4 | BUILDING UP SENTENCES (TYPES & LENGTH)

According to sentence structure, there are four types of sentences:

1. Simple sentences: They have only one main (independent) clause and expresses one idea.
Example: My sister travels a lot.

2. Compound sentences: They contain at least two main (independent) clauses and express
two main ideas.

There are three ways to form compound sentences:

➢ Use one of the coordinating conjunctions (FANBOYS) and a comma before it.
Example: My brother is a football addict, but he doesn’t play in any team.

➢ Use a semi-colon (the two clauses must be related to each other).

Example: They studied really hard; they got very high grades.

➢ Use a conjunctive adverb (a semi-colon comes before it and a comma after it)
Example: They studied really hard; consequently, they got very high grades.

3. Complex Sentences: They contain one main (independent) clause and at least one
dependent (subordinate) clause.

There are two common ways to form complex sentences:

➢ Use a subordinate conjunction.

Example: After they had finished their homework, they went to the club.

➢ Use a relative clause.

Example: The project that we are working on is almost finished.

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4. Compound-Complex Sentences: They contain at least two main (independent) clauses
and at least one dependent (subordinate) clause.
Example: If you study hard, you will get high grades, and you will excel.

Notice that
➢ Compound and complex sentences are used to build up description / further details
/ descriptive details.
➢ Longer sentences can add a sense of calmness and relaxation in some contexts
(specially in fiction texts).
➢ Short sentences be used to emphasise certain information, highlight the importance
of a piece of information or to add surprise / excitement / drama.
➢ Short sentences can fasten the pace or add a sense of urgency and tension.

How Sentence Structure Questions Can Appear in the Exam

(Reading)

1.Look at the ... paragraph. Why are the sentences in the fourth paragraph mostly complex
sentences? (Stage 7, Progression 2024, Paper 1).
2. Look at the ... sentence. How does the writer create a sense of calm? (Stage 7,
Progression 2024, Paper 2).
3. The writer begins the paragraph with a short sentence about Steve’s job. What effect
does this have? (Stage 8, Progression 2024, Paper 1).
4. Look at the ... paragraph. How does the writer build up detail in the first sentence?
(Stage 8, Progression 2024, Paper 1).
5. Look at the ... paragraph. What type of sentence is the first sentence? Tick one box
(Stage 8, October 2023, Paper 1).
6. Look at the ... paragraph What does Ashley emphasise by using a simple sentence?
(Stage 8, October 2023, Paper 1).
7. Look at lines ...Explain one way the writer uses sentence structure to add detail to the
description of Beamabeth. Support your explanation with a quotation (Stage 8, October
2023, Paper 2).
8. Look at lines .... The writer uses sentence length to show a change of pace of the
narrative. Give two ways the writer does this and explain how each way reflects what is
happening in the text. (Stage 8, April 2023, Paper 2)
9. Look at the ... paragraph. Explain the difference in structure between the first and
second sentences (Stage 8, Progression 2023, Paper 1).
10. Look at lines .... Why does the writer use long sentences in this paragraph? (Stage 9,
Progression 2023, Paper 1).
11. Look at lines ... How does the writer use sentence structure to build up a lot of detail?
(Stage 9, Progression 2024, Paper 2).
12. Look at line ... and lines ... What are the two different sentence types? (Stage 9,
Progression 2023, Paper 1).

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How Can You Vary the Sentence Structures to Enhance your Writing?
Getting high marks in your writing is not only about using correctly structured sentences;
it’s about using variety of chosen sentence structures for effect.

Tips to vary your sentence structures:

1. Use at least two different types of sentences in each of your paragraphs.

2. Don’t stick to one style in forming your compound, complex or compound-complex

sentences. For example, if you use a compound sentence with a coordinating conjunction
in your first paragraph, use a compound sentence with a semi-colon in your second one
and one with a conjunctive adverb in the third paragraph.
Example 1: Virtual learning provides various multimedia elements, so it helps students to
enjoy the experience of learning.

Example 2: Virtual learning provides various multimedia elements; it helps students to

enjoy the experience of learning.

Example 3: Virtual learning provides various multimedia elements; thus, it helps students
to enjoy the experience of learning.

3. When forming complex sentences, vary the positions of the subordinate clause
according to the effect you want to create (Bring the part you want to focus on more at the
beginning)
Example 1: After the night had drawn its curtains, she sneaked out from the house.
Example 2: she sneaked out from the house after the night had drawn its curtains.

4. Form complex sentences using relative clauses to add further details and vary their
positions.
Example 1: The book that I borrowed from the library last week turned out to be an
intriguing mystery novel.
Example 2: The book I borrowed from the library last week turned out to be an intriguing
mystery novel that captivated my attention from beginning to end.

5. Vary your sentences length: Longer sentences for detailed description and to create a
sense of comfort and short sentences to highlight the important information, add emphasis
on it, fasten the pace of the incidents and create suspense and tension in some contexts.
Example: Originating in India more than 1,500 years ago, Chess is a game of strategic
smartness played on an 8-by-8 board. Two players engage in a battle of wits; the take
turns to position their pieces, whether rooks, knights, bishops, or the mighty queen. The
rules are simple. But playing is not.

6. Use repetition and one-word sentences.

Example: She was getting ready to her first day at school; she had all her things ready: the
new uniform, the new bag, the new hair cut she has always dreamed of and the new pair of
shoes, but the old past was still there. It turned her hopes upside down.

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Ready for a challenge?

The following two paragraphs consist of only simple sentences. Can you rewrite them so
that the sentence structures vary?

Playing sports is crucial in our life. it helps maintain physical health by promoting exercise
and fitness. Regular physical activity, such as running and playing games, helps us to
remain healthy. It can protect us from many heart diseases and obesity. Obesity can lead to
diabetes.

Additionally, sports play a vital role in developing social skills. Team sports foster
teamwork, communication, and cooperation among players. Engaging in sports instills
discipline and a sense of responsibility. Players learn to follow rules and respect
teammates and opponents alike.

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Example Answer:

Playing sports is crucial in our life, for it helps maintain physical health by promoting
exercise and fitness; moreover, regular physical activity, such as running and playing
games, helps us to remain healthy as it can protect us from many heart diseases and
obesity, which can lead to diabetes.

Additionally, sports play a vital role in developing social skills because team sports foster
teamwork, communication, and cooperation among players; furthermore, engaging in
sports instills discipline and a sense of responsibility; players learn to follow rules and
respect teammates and opponents alike.

LESSON 1 | GRAMMAR AND STRUCTURE

TOPIC 5 | ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE

The active voice represents the sentence structure in which the subject comes at the
beginning of the sentence.
Example: The president honoured the brave soldiers.

The passive voice represents the sentence structure in which the object comes at the
beginning of the sentence.
Example: The brave soldiers were honoured by the president.

Forming passive depends on the tense of the verb in the sentence as follows:

Tense Form Example

Present simple tense V.to be in the present (am, The dogs are fed every day.
is, are) + the past participle
of the main verb.
Present continuous tense V.to be in the present (am, The dogs are being fed now.
is, are) + being + the past
participle of the main verb.
Present perfect tense Has, have + been+ the past The dogs have been fed.
participle of the main verb.
Past simple tense V.to be in the past (was, The dogs were fed
were) + the past participle yesterday
of the main verb.
Past continuous tense V.to be in the past (was, The dogs were being fed.
were) + being + the past
participle of the main verb.
Past perfect tense Had + been+ the past The dogs had been fed
participle of the main verb. before I reached home.

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 Tense Form Example
Future with will Will + be + the past The dogs will be fed before I
participle of the main verb. reached home.
Future with going to Going to + be + the past The dogs are going to be
participle of the main verb. fed.
Modal Verbs Modal verb + be + the past The dogs must be fed.
participle of the main verb.

What are the usages and effects of the passive voice?

1. To add more emphasis on the action itself rather than the doer.
Example: The bridge was bombed.

2. The object is more important than the subject.

Examples: Ten million dollars were given to the winner.

3. The subject is known, so there is no need to mention it.

Example: The robbers were sent to prison.

4. To withhold / delay information in order to create suspense / arouse the reader’s

curiosity.
Example: The wall was covered by letters. The letters were being written one after the
other continuously. Words were formed one after the other, waiting for those who can
decode the message.

N.B: Using the passive voice is one of the features of formal language.

How Active and Passive Voice Questions Can Appear in the Exam
(Reading)
1. Give two examples of a passive verb form from the third paragraph. Give one example
using a present verb form and one example using a past verb form (Stage 7, Progression
2020, Paper 1).
2. Give one example of the passive voice (Stage 8, Progression 2022, Paper 1 & Stage 9,
Progression 2020, Paper 1).
Tip: when asked about the passive verb form, you should copy the v.to be + the past
participle of the verb (was robbed, has been sent, is being watered, etc.).

How Active and Passive Can be used to Enhance your Writing

Tips:

1. Use the passive voice in your formal writing to add more seriousness and politeness.
Basic Sentence: We would like to inform you that we have suspended your account.
Enhanced Sentence: Kindly be informed that the account has been suspended.

Relax your mind, study with purpose, and let success unfold. 22
2. Vary the style of your sentences by using active and passive alternatively.

3. Use the passive voice if you want your reader’s attention to be focused on the action
itself.
Basic Sentence: The old spell, that everyone had forgotten for many years, waked the
monument from its deep sleep.
Enhanced Sentence: The monument was waked from its deep sleep by the old long-
forgotten spell.

4. Use the passive voice to create suspense and to withhold the information.
Basic Sentence: The serial killer murdered another victim and signed the initials of a name
on her forehead. The police officers found her body covered with blood.
Enhanced Sentence: Another victim was murdered. The initials of a name were signed on
her forehead. Her body was found covered with blood. Again, it was the serial killer.

. LESSON 1 | GRAMMAR AND STRUCTURE

TOPIC 6 | REPORTED SPEECH

Reported speech is when we tell someone what another person said. To do this, we can
use direct speech or indirect speech.
Direct speech: 'I travelled last year,' said Daniel.
Indirect speech: Daniel said that he had travelled the year before.

Changing from direct into indirect / reported speech requires some changes in the
pronouns, tenses (when ‘said’ is used before / after the direct speech), some time and
place adverbs, ...etc.

The below table illustrates some of these common changes:

Direct Speech Indirect Speech

Present simple tense Past simple tense

Present continuous tense Past continuous tense

Present perfect tense Past perfect tense

Present perfect continuous tense Past perfect continuous tense

Past simple tense Past perfect tense

Said to Told

Will Would

Can Could

Shall Should

Relax your mind, study with purpose, and let success unfold. 23
 LESSON 1 | GRAMMAR AND STRUCTURE

TOPIC 6 | REPORTED SPEECH

Reported speech is when we tell someone what another person said. To do this, we can
use direct speech or indirect speech.
Direct speech: 'I travelled last year,' said Daniel.
Indirect speech: Daniel said that he had travelled the year before.

Changing from direct into indirect / reported speech requires some changes in the
pronouns, tenses (when ‘said’ is used before / after the direct speech), some time and
place adverbs, ...etc.

The below table illustrates some of these common changes:

May Might

Must Had to

This That

These Those

Here There

Now Then

Yesterday The day before

Last week / year… The week / year before

Tomorrow The next / following day

Tonight That night

Ago Before

When changing direct ‘Wh.’ questions into indirect ones, we turn the question into a
statement by placing the subject after the ‘Wh.’ word and replacing the question mark with
a full stop.

Example (Direct Speech): “Why did you punish little Joe?” Jane asked.
Indirect Speech: Jane asked why I had punished little Joe.

When changing direct ‘Yes / No’ questions into indirect ones, we replace the auxiliary verb
with ‘if / whether’, apply any needed changes, and replace the question mark with a full
stop.

Example (Direct Speech): “Is Jake watching a movie now?” Adam said.
Indirect Speech: Adam asked if Jake was watching a movie then.

Relax your mind, study with purpose, and let success unfold. 24
What are the usages of indirect speech?
1. To introduce a person’s exact words; these words can be an expert opinion, a person’s
viewpoint, a famous quote, etc.
2. To introduce a new character.
3. To shift from narrative to dialogue.
4. To tell more about the character through showing their exact words; direct quotations
can tell us how the character feels, the way they speak, whether they are native speakers
or not, etc.

How Direct and Indirect Speech Questions Can Appear in the Exam
(Reading)

1. Look at the ... paragraph. Why does the writer use direct speech instead of indirect
speech? (Stage 8, Progression 2023, Paper 1).

How Direct and Indirect Speech Can be used to Enhance your

Writing
Tips:

1. When using direct and indirect speech in your writing, use both alternatively; do not stick
to only one of them.
Student’s Style Example: The earthquake resulted in many deaths and destruction. “They
were terrifying moments; our building was shaking fiercely and we felt it was about to
collapse,” said one of the survivors. A member of the rescue team stated, “The number of
the victims has not been confirmed yet. Rescue efforts are still ongoing.” Another survivor
said, “The Earthquake was violent and lasted for a long time. My building collapsed, but
thanks God my family and I were not there.”

Enhanced Example: The earthquake resulted in many deaths and destruction. “They were
terrifying moments; our building was shaking fiercely and we felt it was about to collapse,”
said one of the survivors. A member of the rescue team stated that the number of victims
had not been confirmed and that rescue efforts were still ongoing. Another survivor
pointed out that the earthquake had been violent and had lasted for a long time; he added
that his building had collapsed, but for his good luck he and his family had not been there.

2. Make sure to apply the required changes when converting from direct into indirect.

3. Use the correct punctuation when using direct speech (The speech marks for example).

4. Do not over use direct speech in your fiction writing when creating a conversation / a
dialogue between your characters in order not to change your text into a play script. If the
conversation is a bit long, write the direct speech in separate lines.

5. You can use direct speech in a separate line if you want to introduce a new character /
speaker, highlight the beginning of a new section / incident in your writing, or if you want to
draw your reader’s attention to the shift from one part of the writing (setting for example)
to the other.

Relax your mind, study with purpose, and let success unfold. 25
6. You can add description to the way direct speech was said if you want to deliver certain
emotions / impression.

Example: “I don’t know where I am,” Nora said, her voice trembling with fear.

7. Use alternatives for said / asked according to the context and to the impression you want
to create.

The following is a list for said and asked alternatives:

Alternative for ‘Said’ Alternative for ‘Asked’
Declared Inquired
Whispered Questioned
Exclaimed Wondered
Murmured Posed
Muttered Demanded
Uttered Checked
Sighed Investigated
Gushed Popped the question
Chirped Requested
Roared Excused
Snapped Pleaded
Interrupted Suggested
Insisted
Joked
Stated
Asserted
Affirmed
Expressed
Confirmed
Announced
Proclaimed
Claimed
Suggested
Emphasised
Denied
Pleaded
Begged
Cried / shouted / yelled

Example in Sentences:
• “Promise to keep this secret between us,” whispered Sara.
• “So, this weapon does not belong to you?” inquired the detective, his eyes filled with
suspicions.

Relax your mind, study with purpose, and let success unfold. 26
 LESSON 1 | GRAMMAR AND STRUCTURE

TOPIC 7 | IF CONDITIONALS

"If conditionals" are sentences that describe situations based on certain conditions.

There are four types of conditional tenses:

1. Zero Conditional: Expresses general truths or facts.

Example: If you heat water, it evaporates. (Present simple tense, present simple tense)

2. First Conditional: Expresses real and possible situations in the future. (Preset simple
tense, will + the base form of the verb)

Usages:

➢ Making promises
Example: If you get a good mark, I will get you a gift.

➢ Warnings / Threats:
Example: If you touch that wire, you will get an electric shock.
Example: If you don't finish your homework, you will fail the class.

➢ Offers:
Example: If you need help, I will be happy to assist you.

➢ Predictions:
Example: If it rains tomorrow, mum won’t allow us to go to the park.

3. Second Conditional: Expresses imaginary, unlikely to happen situations. (Past simple

tense, would + the base form of the verb).

Usages:

➢ Making wishes
Example: If I won the lottery, I would buy a mansion.

➢ Hypothetical situations:
Example: What would you do if you found yourself trapped in an elevator?

Relax your mind, study with purpose, and let success unfold. 27
 ➢ Giving advice or suggestions
Example: If I were you, I would apologise to her.
Example: If you spoke to your boss, he might consider your proposal.

➢ Polite Requests:
Example: I would be very grateful if you helped me with this project.

4. Third Conditional: Expresses a condition that did not happen in the past neither did its
results (Past perfect tense, would + have + the past participle of the main verb).

Usages:

➢ Regret
Example: If I had controlled my nerves, he wouldn’t have been upset with me.

➢ Missed Chances:
Example: If he had studied harder, he would have passed the exam.

➢ Mistakes in the Past

Example: If you hadn't told him, he wouldn't have known the truth.

➢ Unrealized Plans
➢ Example: If it hadn't rained, we would have gone to the beach.
N.B: Unless is an equivalent for if + not.

How If Conditionals Can be used to Enhance your Writing

1. Use the first conditional and its equivalent (unless) to create the worst-case scenario or
the best-case scenario in your persuasive writing.
Example: If serious steps are not taken to reduce the pollution rate, our planet will be in a
real danger.
Example: If we encourage people to donate, the poverty rates will increase rapidly.

2. Use the first conditional to give promises to your reader in your persuasive writing.
Example: If you try this product, all your sufferings with your untamed hair will vanish in
the air.

3. Use the second conditional in your persuasive writing if you want to provide your reader
with a piece of advice to encourage them adopt your concept / persuade them with an
opinion.
Example: If I were you, I would not hesitate to book the next flight to the Land of Dreams.

4. Use the second conditional in your fiction writing to convey a dreamy tone, or to show
the reader that what the character wants is only wishes / difficult to be reached.
Example: “If I came up on this stage, I would make all of them regret bullying me.”

Relax your mind, study with purpose, and let success unfold. 28
5. Use the third conditional in your fiction writing if you want to show your character’s
regret or to convey that they had wishes in the past, but they couldn’t achieve them.
Example: “If had met my old me – that 17-year-old arrogant kid, I would have stopped him
from making the mistake that would cost him his life.”

LESSON 1 | GRAMMAR AND STRUCTURE

TOPIC 8 | FORMAL AND INFORMAL LANGUAGE

Formal language is the language style used in professional and academic situations.
Informal language is everyday language; it is friendly and chatty.

Writers tend to use informal language for various reasons:

1. Engage them by making the language simple, friendly and chatty.
2. Create a chatty tone, especially in persuasive writing in order to convince the readers
with their point of view.
3. Address a wide range of audience, regardless their ages, educational level.
4. Involve the reader and make them part of the topic.

The differences between formal and informal language:

Formal Language Informal Language

Advanced and technical vocabulary Simple, chatty and colloquial vocabulary
Variety of sentence structures, especially The sentence structures tend to be simple
compound and complex ones. ones.
No contractions are used. Contractions are used.
No abbreviated words Abbreviated words can be used
Numbers from one to ten are written in Numbers can be written in digits.
letters.
No idioms are used. Idioms can be used.
Assertive and straight to the point The language can carry some implied
language. meanings (through using idioms and
figures of speech for example).
It sticks to the conventions and standards Non-standard English can be used for
of English (regrading grammar, spelling, certain effects.
punctuation, etc.).
Third person pronouns are usually used. All types of pronouns can be used.
Passive voice is used for more politeness Active voice is used.
and formality.
Exclamation marks and ellipsis are not All punctuation marks can be used.
used. Dashes are not commonly used.
It does not directly address the reader The reader can be directly addressed.
(Second person pronouns are not used (Second person pronouns are used and
neither imperative / commanding verbs). imperative / commanding verbs).

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 NON-STANDARD ENGLISH

Using non-standard English is one of the features of the informal register; it can appear in
different forms:

➢ Non-standard word form / spelling (phonetic spelling, elision ‘omission’)

Example: “Go strait and you’ll fine da shop in the secon floor.” (Go straight and you’ll find
the shop in the second floor) [Phonetic spelling ‘spelling words as they sound’].

Example: “Come on guys! It’s time to bring ’em back alive.” (“Come on guys! It’s time to
bring them back alive.”) [Elision / omission].

Example: “We were diggin’ up when they appeared.” [Elision / omission by dropping the
last letter of ‘digging’).

➢ Non-standard grammar
Example: “I were in the ship when they found the dead body. They tells me to stay on the
ship.” [Incorrect subject and verb agreement and verb tense ‘told’].

Example: “Ever imagined yourself on the top of a mountain watching all creatures as
tiny as a grain of sand?” [Omission of the helping verb ‘Have’ and the pronoun ‘You’].

Why is non-standard English used?

1. To engage / interest the reader.

2. To highlight the different voices in a text (For example if a whole text is written in
standard English except for one sentence in inverted commas, the reader learns that this
sentence is quoted and not the writer’s own words).
3. To make the character’s speech sound interesting and arouse the reader’s curiosity
about the character.
4. To show the speaker is not a native English speaker.
5. To show the speaker is not highly educated.
6. To reveal the personality of the characters and show how they interact / their social
standard.

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 How Formal and Informal Questions Can Appear in the Exam
(Reading)

1. How does the writer engage the reader in paragraph...? ‘The answer would mostly be one
the features of informal writing’ (Stage 8, October 2023, Paper 1).
2. The writer uses non-standard grammar in the ... paragraph. Explain what is non-
standard about the grammar and give one example from the text to support your answer
(Stage 8, April 2023, Paper 2).
3. Text B is less formal than Text A. How does the writer achieve this effect? Give two ways
(Stage 8, Progression 2023, Paper 1)
4. Look at the ... sentence. The writer has omitted the words ‘Have you’ from the beginning
of the sentence. Give one reason for this (Stage 9, Progression 2022, Paper 1).
5. Look at lines .... What is unusual about the short sentences in this paragraph? (Stage 9,
Progression 2022, Paper 2).
6. Give two features of informal language used in the text. Give a quotation from the text to
support your answer. (Stage 9, Progression 2024, Paper 1).

How Formal and Informal Language Can be used to Enhance your

Writing

1. Use formal language in non-fiction genres like informational texts, news reports, non-
chronological reports, biographies, auto-biographies, etc.

2. Use informal language in non-fiction genres like persuasive writing, diary entries,
recounts (If personal), etc.

3. In your fiction writing, you can use different registers in your characters’ dialogues for
different reasons:
➢ to show the reader your characters’ background and personal traits
➢ to show how they interact and react in different situations and in different settings
(for example a character’s way of speaking when being with his family is more
sophisticated than his way of talking when being with his friends)
➢ to distinguish between the voices of the characters.

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 Informal Vocabulary and its Conversion into Formal

Informal Formal
If … or not. Whether … or not.
If … Should …
And, also As well as …, Furthermore, Moreover, ...
About … Regarding / Concerning …
Because … As a result of / due to (the fact) …
But... However, ...
sorry Apologise
Find out Discover
Go up Increase
Go down Decrease
Make sure Ensure
Point out Indicate / illustrate
Put off Postpone / Delay
Go against Oppose
Get in touch with Contact
Need to Require
Leave out omit
Stop Suspend
Ask Inquire
Answer Reply
Reply Respond (Verb), Response (Noun)
Refuse Reject / decline
Accept Approve
Stand for Represent
Blow up Explode
Think about Consider
Deal with Handle
Show Demonstrate / Illustrate
Let Permit
Replace Substitute
Set up Establish
Buy Purchase
Good Positive
Bad Negative
Tell Inform
Come Attend
Leave Depart
Show up Arrive
Arrive Reach
Get Receive
Fill me in Inform / Tell

Relax your mind, study with purpose, and let success unfold. 32
 Informal Formal
Wrong Incorrect / inaccurate / imprecise
Right Correct / accurate / precise
Smart Intelligent
Cheap Inexpensive
Kids Children
Men Males
Women Females
Lots of / a lot of Many / Much
Really + adjective Considerably + adjective
Very Definitely
Totally Completely
All right Acceptable
I think In my opinion / In my point of view
In the end Finally,
Anway Notwithstanding
In the end In conclusion

Relax your mind, study with purpose, and let success unfold. 33
 LESSON 1 | GRAMMAR AND STRUCTURE

TOPIC 9 | TEXT STRUCTURE

Text Structure is one of the most important topics whether in the reading section or the
writing one. Text structure is about how the text is built, how its parts are connected and
how coherence and organistion are achieved. In reading, text structure questions appear in
many ways, the following are some of these common ways:

1. The structure of the text reflects the different stages ... and how the writer felt at each
stage. Complete the flow chart by choosing a word from the box describing how the writer
felt in the relevant paragraphs (Stage 7, Progression 2024, Paper 1).

2. Explain how the writer uses text structure to slow down the pace of the story, almost to
a stop. Give two ideas (Stage 7, Progression 2024, Paper 2).

3. Look at the whole text again. The text is structured into chapters. Why does the writer
choose to end each chapter and begin another? (Stage 7, Progression 2024, Paper 2).

4. Look at ... sentence. What does the writer use this sentence to do? Tick one box. (Stage
8, Progression 2024, Paper 1).

5. Look at the ... and ... paragraphs. Which idea links these paragraphs? Tick one box (Stage
8, Progression 2024, Paper 1).

6. Give one phrase from the final paragraph that links it back to the first paragraph (Stage
8, Progression 2024, Paper 1).

7. Look at the fourth paragraph. Why might the reader expect to see the fourth paragraph
at the beginning of the text? (Stage 8, October 2023, Paper 1).

8. Why has the writer chosen to insert the fourth paragraph at this point in the text?
Tick one box. (Stage 8, October 2023, Paper 1).

9. The text is structured to make the information accessible to the reader. Match the main
topic to each paragraph (Stage 8, April 2023, Paper 1).

10. How does the writer structure the text to show the passing of time? Give two ways
(Stage 8, April 2023, Paper 2).

11. Look at the ... sentence. Explain how the last sentence links the first paragraph to the
second paragraph (Stage 8, Progression 2023, Paper 1).

12. Explain how the sentence beginning ... connects the ... paragraph to the ... paragraph.
(Stage 8, Progression 2023, Paper 1).

13. Look at lines ... How has the writer structured the text here? (Stage 9, Progression
2022, Paper 2).

Relax your mind, study with purpose, and let success unfold. 34
 Tips to Solve Structure of Texts Questions (Reading)

To answer this variety of text structure questions, let’s categorise them and suggest some
ways to help you solving them easily:

Type 1: Organisational features

Example question 1: The text is structured so that information is easy to access.

Give two ways the writer does this. (Stage 7, Progression 2023, paper 1).

The following points can be the answer:

• (Bold) Subheadings
• Bullet points
• Bold words
• Short paragraphs
• Using numbers
• Using line breaks between the paragraphs
• Use of rhetorical questions and their answers
• Use of glossary
• Use of chronological order / dates in order

Example question 2: Why does the writer use subheadings / bullet points...etc.?

The following points can be the answer:

• to make the information easy to read
• to make the information easy to access
• to organise the information to make it easy to access, etc.

Type 2: The main idea of each paragraph

Example question 1: Look at the ... and ... paragraphs. Which idea links these
paragraphs? (Stage 8, Progression 2024, Paper 1).
Example question 2: Match the main topic to each paragraph.

Tip to solve:
• Identify the main idea of each paragraph by paying attention to the topic sentence of
each.

Example question 3: Explain how the sentence beginning ... connects the ... paragraph to
the ... paragraph. (Stage 8, Progression 2023, Paper 1).
Example question 4: Give one word in the first sentence that refers back to information
in the first paragraph (Stage 7, Progression 2023, Paper 1).

Relax your mind, study with purpose, and let success unfold. 35
Tips to solve:
• Identify the main idea of each of the required paragraphs by paying attention to the
topic sentence of each.
• Pay attention to the repeated words or the common idea that appear in the two
mentioned paragraphs.

Let’s apply:

“Wrege and his colleagues have collected around 900 000 hours of recordings from central
African forests, which include thousands of hours of elephant vocalisations. They have
found, for example, that low frequency rumbles keep groups in contact with each other,
while long, overlapping rumbles serve as greetings.

Such insights provide not only clues about elephant communication, but also an early
warning to rangers that something might be amiss if the sensors pick up on elephant
alarm calls or noises made by poachers, such as gunshots and human speech. It remains
to be seen, Wrege says, ‘whether technology can make it possible to do this at a truly
meaningful landscape scale – tens of thousands of square kilometers where standard
methods just won’t work.’

Let’s apply the tips:

The main idea of the first paragraph is the findings of the scientists about the elephant
vocalisations.
The main idea of the second paragraph is what can be learned from this / the implications.

So, both paragraphs have points in common:

➢ The first one is about the scientists’ findings.
➢ The second paragraph is about the implications of the scientists’ findings.

In conclusion, the answer of a question asking to give one idea that connects the
information in the final paragraph back to the second paragraph would be any of the
previous points in common between the two paragraphs, and our evidence for this is the
phrase ‘such insights’ that refers back to the information in the first paragraph.

Relax your mind, study with purpose, and let success unfold. 36
Example question 3: Paragraph...is different from the rest of the text. Explain.

Tips to solve:
Search for the points of difference which can be any of the following:
• Different language style (Formal and informal for example).
• Different purpose: For example, the whole text is to inform, but the required
paragraph is to give recommendation, or the whole text is a description, but the
required paragraph is to provide information, etc.
• Different view point: For example, the whole text is written in the third person, but
the required paragraph is written in the first-person point of view.
• Different tenses: For example, the text is written in the past tense, but the required
paragraph is in the present tense.
• Different mood / tone: For example, the whole text has a negative tone, while the
required paragraph has a positive one.
• The idea of the required paragraph contrasts with the ideas provided in the text: For
example, the text is defending a specific point of view and the required paragraph
presents the opposite point of view.

Let’s apply:

“Fiji is a captivating island haven nestled in the South Pacific Ocean. Stretching over a
length of 322 kilometers, it offers an idyllic setting for travelers seeking a perfect getaway.
With a tropical climate, Fiji enjoys predominantly clear skies, making rain a rarity with an
annual average of less than 60 centimeters.

Fiji is a mosaic of diverse cultures, boasting a harmonious blend of influences from its over
300 islands. The numerous beaches showcase powdery sands and crystal-clear waters,
creating an ideal environment for swimming and sunbathing in a delightful 26–30 °C
climate. Apart from the coastline, Fiji has a network of hiking trails, leading to hidden
waterfalls, traditional villages, and remnants of ancient civilizations spread across its
18,270 square kilometers.

Want to reach there? Embarking on a journey to Fiji has never been easier. Fiji is well-
connected by numerous airlines, ensuring seamless access to various parts of the globe.
Its over 120 flights weekly, including direct connections to the United States, makes
reaching there a piece of cake; I tried one of these flights once, and it was an amazing
experience. Stay updated on the most current flight schedules by consulting your travel
agent or checking online resources for the latest information.”

Relax your mind, study with purpose, and let success unfold. 37
Question: How does the final paragraph differ from the rest of the text?

Let’s apply the tips:

• Formality: The final paragraph is less formal (Directly addressing the reader, non-
standard grammar in the rhetorical question, use of an idiom).
• Purpose: The first two paragraphs are to inform and describe Fiji while the final is to
persuade to go there and telling how to reach the place. Also, the first two
paragraphs offer facts while the final one offers an opinion.
• Viewpoint: The first two paragraphs are written in the third person while the final
paragraph is using first person pronouns.
• Different tenses: The first two paragraphs use present tenses while the final
paragraph includes both present and past ones.

So, the answer to this question can be any of the previous points.

Example question 4: The text is structured to make the information accessible to the
reader. Match the main topic to each paragraph (Stage 8, April 2023, Paper 1).
Example question 5: Look at the fourth paragraph. Why might the reader expect to see
the fourth paragraph at the beginning of the text? (Stage 8, October 2023, Paper 1).

Tip to solve Example question 4:

• Identify the main idea of each of the required paragraphs by paying attention to the
topic sentence of each.

Tip to solve Example question 5:

• Pay attention to the main idea of the mentioned paragraph and whether it is linked
to the title of the text, contains phrases that introduces the topic or words that make
the paragraph more suitable to be put in anywhere else but the body (the
introduction for example).

Relax your mind, study with purpose, and let success unfold. 38
Type 3: Linkers between paragraphs

Example question 1: Look at the ... sentence. Explain how the last sentence links the
first paragraph to the second paragraph (Stage 8, Progression 2023, Paper 1).
Example question 2: What does the writer use in paragraph... to refer back to the
information in paragraph...?

Tips to solve:
• Pay attention to the connectives
• Pay attention to the pronouns
• Pay attention to the repeated words (especially at the ends and the beginnings of the
sentences)

Let’s apply:

Sample 1 ‘connectives’:

“Eating healthy food is essential in our lives, as it helps us stay fit and guards against
obesity and related diseases. Maintaining a healthy diet meets the body's basic needs and
prevents the accumulation of excess fat.

On the other hand, a junk food-heavy diet leads to a gradual decline in health, beginning
with increased fat storage, elevated sugar levels, and weight gain.”

COMMENT: In the previous sample the connective ‘on the other hand’ connects the two
paragraphs showing a relation of contrast.

Sample 2 ‘pronouns’:

“Jack had been to Sierra Leone. He knew the country and he knew the fauna. I was
convinced, however, that if the television programmes were to be a success, the expedition
should have one particular objective – a rare creature that had never been seen in any zoo
anywhere else in the world; an animal so romantic, rare and exciting that the quest for it
would keep viewers watching programme after programme. We could call the series Quest
for… but what?

It was a difficult bill to fill. The only animal Jack could think of in Sierra Leone that might
remotely qualify was a bird called Picathartes gymnocephalus.”

COMMENT: In the previous example, the pronoun ‘it’ in the second paragraph is used to
refer back to the information in the first paragraph (the quest to find a unique animal) /
connect the ideas of the two paragraphs.

N.B: (All the pronouns can be used for this purpose ‘referring back to information /
persons / incidents, etc.”

Relax your mind, study with purpose, and let success unfold. 39
Sample 3 ‘repeated words or synonyms’:

“While this kind of attitude may work for some, the latest research suggests this mindset
can also seriously backfire for many people. According to this view, happiness is best seen
as a kind of timid bird: the harder you strive to catch it, the further it flies away.

Happiness really is like a shy animal. And once you stop chasing it, you might just find that
it appears naturally of its own accord.

COMMENT: In the previous example, the writer links the ideas between the paragraphs by
using synonyms ‘timid / shy’ and ‘bird / animal’

*Keep going with Type 3: Linkers between paragraphs...

Example question 3: Why does the writer begin the third paragraph with (word /
connective / pronoun...?)
This question is an alternative version for example questions 1 and 2. Here, the answer can
be as follows:

• to link the information of the third paragraph to the information in the second one.
• To refer back to the information in the previous paragraph.
• To indicate a contrast (or any other relation like emphasis / addition “depending on
the linker use”) between the information in the third paragraph and the previous
one.

Let’s apply:

“When crafting 'Island Serenity,' the filmmaker was well aware of the trend favoring movies
with dialogues. Despite considering the option of creating a talkie, the director ultimately
decided against it. 'Island Serenity' relies on a combination of music and sound effects,
rather than spoken words.

Spoken words are not the chosen mode of expression for the central character. The
protagonist engages with the world through actions, emphasizing the character's unique
way of navigating through life.”

Question: Why does the writer begin the second paragraph with the phrase ‘spoken
words”?

In this case, the answer can be as follows:

• to link the second paragraph back to the first paragraph
• the first phrase of the second paragraph (‘spoken words’) is the same as the last
phrase of the first.
• to emphasise the point more
• to refer back to the information in the first paragraph.

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Type 4: Creating effect

Example question 1: How does the writer structure the text to grab the reader’s
attention?
Example question 2: What does the writer use to structure the text for impact (fear,
suspense, surprise, emphasis, etc.)?

Tips to solve:
• Pay attention to the short sentences
• Pay attention to the single sentence paragraphs
• Pay attention to the one-word sentences
• Pay attention to the repetition
• Pay attention to the triplets
• Pay attention to the rhetorical questions
• Pay attention to the direct address to the reader (Using you / imperative verbs)

Let’s apply:

All right, contemplates the man. You've asked for it! Abruptly, he halts his steps. Seating
himself across from the woman. He fixes his gaze upon her. Not a mere glance. It’s a
deliberate stare, a fixed stare.

The park is devoid of any other observers.

There's only the man.

And the woman with a determined expression.

So, you want a staring contest? Fine. I'll meet your gaze. And we'll soon find out what
truths lie within this silent exchange...

Question: How does the writer structure the previous part for impact? / How does the
writer build up tension / suspense? / What text structure features does the writer use to
create impact or to build up tension? Explain how the writer uses text structure to slow
down the pace of the story, almost to a stop. Give two ideas.

Possible answers:
• Using single sentence paragraphs
• Using short sentences
• Using repetition
• Using a one-word sentence.

Relax your mind, study with purpose, and let success unfold. 41
Example question 3: Look at the whole text again. The text is structured into chapters.
Why does the writer choose to end each chapter and begin another? (Stage 7, Progression
2024, Paper 2).
Example question 4: Why is the sentence ... written on a separate line? / The sentence ... is
written on a separate line. Why does the writer do this?
Example question 5: Why are short sentences used in this section?

The possible answers for this type of questions vary. Here are some
examples of these answers:
• To Indicate the beginning of a new section
• To Introduce new speaker / a new character
• To shift focus to a new setting / topic / incident
• To show a new day / the next day has begun
• To shift from narrative to dialogue or vice versa
• To create suspense and tension
• To create surprise
• To emphasise information
• To fasten the pace of the incidents
• To highlight the beginning of the climax (or any other stage) / the beginning of the
transformation or development of the character, etc.

Let’s apply:

Evelyn clutched the bars of the cage on her lap, her fingers aching with fear. Mr. Thompson
fixated eyes on the cage sent a shiver down Evelyn's spine. Leaning forward across the
desk, his wiry frame leaned in with curiosity, his eyes were narrowing more and more.
5
"You omitted to say in your acceptance letter that you were bringing...a...parrot," he
remarked.

A sense of anticipation washed over Evelyn as she stole a glance at her father, who sat
upright in his chair, shoulders taut. The room's atmosphere became charged with
unspoken tension.
10
"Jack and Jill went up the hill. Pail of water. Snicker-squawk!" echoed a lively voice from
within the parrot cage.

Mr. Thompson's forehead furrowed at the colorful bird.

Relax your mind, study with purpose, and let success unfold. 42
Notice the following point in the previous sample:
• Single sentence paragraphs / sentences on separate lines / short sentences are
used three times:

➢ “You omitted to...”

➢ "Jack and Jill went up...”
➢ Mr. Thompson's forehead furrowed at the colorful bird.”

However, the effect of each is different. Let’s see how through the questions:

Question: Why is the sentence "You omitted to say in your acceptance letter that you were
bringing... a... parrot.” (Line 4)
The possible answer can be as follows:
• to build up tension
• to shift from narrative to dialogue
• to grab attention to a reaction / an incident

Question: The sentence "Jack and Jill went up the hill. Pail of water. Snicker-squawk!" (Line 10)
is written on a separate line. Why does the writer do this?
The possible answer can be as follows:
• to introduce a new speaker
• to show the bird is speaking
• to create surprise.

Question: Why a short sentence is used in line 12? / The sentence “Mr. Thompson's
forehead furrowed at the colorful bird.” (Line 12) is written on a separate line. Why does the
writer do this?
The possible answer can be as follows:
• To build up tension
• to shift focus to the idea that a reaction may be awaited
• to indicate the beginning of a new sequence of incidents (the reaction)
• to fasten the pace of the incidents (Related to the question about the short
sentence).

Notice that, the answers to these types of questions depend mainly on the CONTEXT.

Relax your mind, study with purpose, and let success unfold. 43
Type 5: Text structure and time sequence

Example question 1: How does the writer connect the narrative of the past with the present?
Give ... way / s
Example question 2: How does the writer structure the text to show the passing of
time? Give two ways. (Stag 8, April 2023, Paper 2).

Tips to solve:
• Pay attention to the time connectives / Adverbial phrases of time
• Pay attention to the flashbacks and memories
• Pay attention to the tenses used (Shifting to using past perfect tense narrative along
with the past simple one).
• Writing out of chronological order
• Pay attention to the short sentences / one or two sentence paragrphs

Notice that, using flashforwards and foreshadowing, on the other hand, links the present
to the future and prepare the reader for the coming incidents.

Let’s apply:

Evelyn furrowed her brow. Mr. Thompson appeared less than impressed with parrots,
though his sister seemed a bit more receptive. Thoughts of Comet's arrival four years ago
flooded Evelyn’s mind. Her father had willingly parted with more than a month's salary to
acquire the parrot as a birthday gift for her mother. The shopkeeper had recommended a
fancier (and pricier) parrot with golden feathers, but Mother remained resolute.

"Thank you, sir, but I do not desire this parrot for his looks. It is his voice and personality
that amuse me. I have a feeling he will be the perfect addition to our small family," her
mother had declared with a broad smile, rebuffing the shopkeeper's suggestion.

Question: How does the writer connect the narrative of the past with the present?
The possible answer can be as follows:
• Use of flashback and memories / Writing out of chronological order (The incidents
were going on between Evenly and Mr. Thompson when we were moved to Evelyn’s
mind and knew her memories).
• The past perfect tense is used along with the past simple one (Her father had
willingly parted...,” “The shopkeeper had recommended...”
• Use of an adverb of time “four years ago”.

Notice that, all the previous points are only common questions and techniques; they are
suggested ways that can give you hints about how to answer the question. Answering any
type of questions depends mainly on the context of the text provided; there is NO SPECIFIC
ANSWER THAT CAN SUIT A CERTAIN TYPE OF QUESTIONS.

Relax your mind, study with purpose, and let success unfold. 44