UNIT-1 (Introduction)

Operating Svstem
Operating system is a system program that act as an interface bctween hardware and user.
I t manages system resources.
I t provides a platform on which other application programs are installed.

Core Part of Operating System is called kernel.

Goals of operating System
Primary Goal:To make system user friendly (convenient).
Secondary Goal:To make systemefficient.
Role of Operating System: We can explore operating Systems from two viewpoints that of the
user and that of the system.
User's View: In user's view operating system is designed to maximize the work (CPU
utilization) that the user is performing. In this context OS is designed mostly for ease of use with
some attention paid to performance and none paid to resource utilization.
System's View: In system point of view operat1ng system is a program that works as a resource
allocator. Every computer system has many resources like CPU Time, Memory Space, File
Storage Space, VO Device and so on. The operating system act as manager of these resources.

Functions of Operating System

Operating System is responsible for following activities.

Process Management: Operating System is responsible for following activities in connection

with Process Management.
Scheduling Processes and threads on the CPUs.
Creating and deleting both user and system processes.
Suspending and resuming processes
Providing mechanisms for process synchronization.
Providing mechanism for process communication.
Memory Management: Operating System is responsible for following activities in connection
with Memory Management.
Keeping track of which parts of memory are currentiy being used and
by whom
Deciding which processes and data to move into and out of memory
Allocating and de-alocating memory space as needed
Disk Management: Operating System is responsible for
connection with Disk
following activities in
Management
 F r e e space management in disk.
Storage Allocation in disk.
Disk Scheduling.
File Management: Operating System is responsible for following activities in connection with
File Management.
Creating and deleting files.
Creating and deleting directories to organize files.
Supporting primitives for manipulating files and directories.
Mappingfiles onto secondary storage.
Backing up files on stable storage media.
/O Device Management: Operating System is responsible for /O Device management needed
by various processes.
Network Management Operating System is responsible for network management.
Security and Protection:Operating System also provides security and protection to computer
system.

Servicesof Operating System

An operating system provides an environment for execution of programs. It provides mainly
following services to programs and to the users.
User Interface: Almost all operating systems provide user interface to the users.

Program Execution: Operating system provides the service of program execution.

Program is loaded into the memory and CPU is assigned to it for its execution.
Aceso
Access 1/0 Devices: Operating system provides I/O devices to running program.

File System Access: Operating system provides services like read and write files and
directories, search for a given file and directory, access and deny to files and directories
etc to the running program.

Error Detection and Response: Erors may be generated by the user programs or
hardware. Operating system should take the appropriate action to ensure correct and

consistent computing.

Communication: There are many circumstances in which one process needs to exchange
information with another process. Such communication may occur between processes
that are executing on same computer or between processes that are executing on different
computer systems tied together by a computer network communication may be
implemented via shared memory or througn message passing by the operating system.
 Components of Computer System
A computer system canbe roughly divided into following four components.

1. Hardware: Basic computing resources like CPU, Memory, I/O Devices etc.

2. Application Programs: Programs that are used to solve users" computing problems e.g.
web browsers, compilers, word processors etc.

3. Operating System: It controls the hardware and coordinates its use among various

application programs for different users. Operating system is similar to government, just like
govermment it provides an environment within which other programs can do useful work.

4.
4. Users: Users perform the computation with the help of application program.

user usar usor

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system
system and application programs

operating systern

computer hardware

Abstract view of the components of a computer system.

JOB: When we combined program, input data and control instruetions together, it is called Job.

JOB

Program

Input Data

Control Instructions
 Classification of Operating System
Real Time
Decreasing Memory Size Systemm
Increasine waitingtime Multi Tasking
And Response time
Decreasing speed of CPU
System
Multi Programming
Decreasing CPU utilization
System
Increasing CPU idle time
Simple Batch System

Serial System

Serial System
In this system, Operating System is not needed. Programs interact directly with computer
hardware.

Batch System
Batch means set of jobs with similar need.
I n this system, Operator makes Batch of jobs and loads it into punch card.
Similar types of jobs batch together and execute at a time.

Balch

(u -jobs

Operator
Computer
(Ua
Satch

Advantages
Save time from activities likc loading
compiler.
No manual intervention by user is needed.

Disadvantages
Limited Memory
 Interaction of1/0 directly with CPU.
CPU is often idle.

Multiprogramming Operating System

*Main objective ofmultiprogramming is to maximize CPU utilization.
*More than one process can reside in main memory which are ready to execute i.e. more
than one process is in ready state.
I n this system if any running process performs /O or other event which does not require
CPU, then instead of sitting idle, CPU performs context switching and picks another
process for execution.

Advantages
High CPU utilization.

Less waiting time, response time etc.

Useful in current scenario when load is high.

Disadvantages
Process scheduling is difficult.

Main memory management is required.

Problems like memory fragmentation may occur.

TimeSharingor Multi-Tasking Svstem

I t is also called fair share system or multi programming with round robin System.

I t is extension of multi Programming System.

I n this system CPU switches between processes so quickly that it gives an illusion that all
executing at same time.
This system canbe used to handle multiple interactive tasks.

Advantages
High CPU utilization.

Less waiting time, response time etc.

Useful in current scenario when load is high.
Disadvantages
Process scheduling is difficult.

Main memory management is required.

Problems like memory fragmentation may occur.

Multiprocessing System
A system is called multiprocessing system iftwo or more CPU within a single computer
communicate with each other and share system bus memory and I/O devices.
I t provides true parallel execution of processes.

Type of Multiprocessing svstem

1. Asymmetric Multiprocessing System: In this system, each processor is assigned
a specific task. A master processor controls the system. The other processors
called slave processors either look to master for instruction or have predefined
tasks i.e. master-slave relationship hold in this type of system.
2. Symmetric Multiprocessing System: In this system each processor performs all
tasks within the operating system i.e. all processor are peers, no master-slave
relationship exists between processors.

Advantages:
Increased Throughput: By increasing number of processors, we expect to get more
work done in less time.
Economy of Scale: multiprocessor system can cost less than equivalent multiple single
processor systems.
Increased Reliability: Since work is distributed among several processors; failure of one
processor will not halt the system only slow it down.

Disadvantages
I t is complex system.
Process scheduling is difficult in this system.

I t required large size of Main memory.

Overhead reduces throughput.

 Real Time System
A real time system has well-defined, fixed time constraints. Processing must be done
within the defined constraints, or the system will fail.
A real time system functions correctly only ifit returns the correct result within its time
constraints.
This system is used when we require quick response against input.

I n this system, task is completed within specified time.

I t is classified in following two types-

1. Hard Real Time System: In hard Real Time system task will be fail if response time
against input is more than specified time.

2 Soft Real Time System: In Soft Real Time system inaccurate result will be found if

response time against input is more than specified time.

Interactive System
Time sharing requires an interactive computer system, which provides direct communication
between the user and the system. The user gives instructions to the Operating System or to a

and waits for immediate

program directly, using an input device such as a keyboard or mouse,
a

results on an output device. Response time in interactive system should be short.

Multi-user operatingsystem
Multi-user operating system is a computer operating system that allows multiple users on
on it. These
different computerS or terminals to access a single system with one OS
and must be able to properly manage the necessary
programs are often quite complicated
tasks required by the different users connected to it. The users will typically be at terminals
orcomputers that give them access
to the system through a network, as well as other
machines on the system such as printers. Example Ubuntu,Unix
e
 Monolithic Kernel
Monolithic means all in one piece.
*In monolithic kemel userservices and kernel services are implemented under same
address space, It increases size of the kernel thus increase size of operating
Example: Linux
system.

User Mode User Process User Process User Process

2

Kernel Mode
Monolithic Kernel

System Hardware

Advantage
Execution is faster.

Disadvantages
Size is larger.
Hard to extend.
Hard to port.
More prone to errors and bugs.
 Microkernel
I n microkernel, user services and kernel services are implemented in different address space,
therefore it also reduces the size of kernel as well as the size of Operating system.
I n this architecture, only the most important services are present inside kernel and rest of the
operating system services are present inside system application program.
Communication between client process and services running in user address space is established
through message passing thus reduce the speed of execution.
Example: Mach OS

Uver iece Uer Proces User Process

terne Space C inter Process Communication)

Microkernel

System Hardware

Advantages
Size is smaller.
Easy to extend.
Easy to port.
Less prone to errors and bugs.

Disadvantage
Execution is slower.

Difference between microkernel and monolithic kernel

Microkernel Monolithic
Parameter
Kernel

Size Small Large

Speed of Easter looes SHower fastes
execution

Easy | Hard
Extendibility
Easy Hard
Portability
Less More
Error prone
capability
 Lavered Kernel
I n layered approach, the OS consists of several layers where each layer has a well
defined functionality and each layer is designed, coded and tested independently.
Lowest layer interacts and deal with underlying hardware and top most layer provides an
interface to the application programs and to the user processes.
*Each layer relies on the serviceofthe layer below it. Communication takes place between
adjacent layers.
Each layer knows what services are provided by the layer above it but the details about
how the services are provided are hidden.
Different layers can be file management layer, process management layer, memory
management layer etc.

uyer N
er itertacs

layer 1

leyer0
hardware

A layered operating systen.

Advantages
Easier to add new feature or change in one layer without affecting the other layer.
make

Easy to add new layer when required.

without affecting other
A particular layer can be debugged correctly redesigned
or

layers.

Disadvantages
is if no of layers is more.
Overhead incurred to maintain more,
cause low system performance.
are not properly divided it may
I f functionality of layers
 Reentrant Kernel
A reentrant kernel is one that consists of executable code stored in memory such that
several processes can use this code at same time without hindering the working of other
processes.
Thus in reentrant kernel several processes may be executed in kernel mode at same time.
Since multipleconcurrent processes execute in kernel mode therefore they also share data
that may affect the functionality of other processes. Hence, to avoid this condition,
reentrant function and locking mechanism is used.
Reentrant functions are one which allow processes to modify only the local variables and
do not affect global data variables.
I n locking mechanism several processes can execute reentrant function concurrently but
only one process at a time can execute non reentrant function, this will ensure that global
data is modified by only one process at a time and thus each process has same copy of
global data that is being shared among them.
Example: UNIX.
 Multithreading
Thread: Light weight Process is called Thread.

Thread Vs Process

Thread Process
Light weight Process Heavy WeightProcess
ThreadSwitching does notneed interaction with OS ProcessSwitching needsinteractionwith OS
Thread can share Code segment, Data Section, File Processes own their separate Code segment, Data
Descriptor, address space, heap etc Section, File Descriptor, address space, heap etc

Threads has its own

Register
Program1
Counter

Stack

Threads of same process share

Data Section

Code Segment

Heap
Address Space

File Descriptor

| Message Queue

Note: Local variables of the Process are stored in Stack, Global variables are stored in Data Section and dynamically
created variables are stored in Heap.

User Level Thread vs. Kernel Level Thread

User Level Thread Kernel Level Thread

Implementation is easy_ Implementation is difficult
OS don'trecognizeduser levelthread Kernel Level Thread is recognized by OS
Context switch is fast because it requires no hardware Context switch is slow because it requires hardware
support and less information to be stored during context support and more information to be stored during
switching. context switching.
If one user level thread performs blocking operation then If one kernel thread
perform blocking operation then
entire process will be blocked. anotherthread can continue execution
 Benefits of Multithreading Programming
1. Responsiveness: Multithreading allow a program to continuerunning even part of it is
blocked or is performing a lengthy operation, thereby increasing responsiveness to user
2. Resource Sharing: Since in multithreading multiple threads of a process sha
and data that enables an application to have several different threads of activity within the
same address space.
3. Economy: Allocating memory and resources for process creation is costly because
thread share resource of the process to which they belong, it is more economical to create

and context switch thread.

4. Scalability: Benefit of multithreading can be greatly increased in a multiprocessor
architecture, where threads may be running on different processors.

Multithreading Models
Many to One Model
I t maps many user level threads to one kernel level thread.
I n this model Entire Process is blockedif a thread makes blocking system
call.
Since only one thread can access the kernel at a time multiple threads are

unable to run in parallel on multiprocessor.

wser hreasd

k o r vead

Many-to one rmodel.

One to One Model

I t maps each userthread to a kernel thread.

I t provides more concurrency because it allows another thread to run in
parallel on multiprocessor.
I t allows multiple threads to run in parallel on multiple processors.
Creating a user thread requires creating the corresponding kernel thread.

e r tread

k e n e d hrees

One-to-one mode.

Many to Many Model

I t maps many user level threads to a smaller or equal number of kernel
level threads.
Developer can create as many user level threads as required.
Kernel level threads can run in parallel on a multiprocessor.
When a thread performs blocking system call the kernel can schedule
another thread for execution.

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Many-t0 many model.