GENETICS AND VARIATION -1

Genetics is a branch of science which deals with the study of inheritance and variation.

Definition of terms

1. Heredity

Is a passing of features from parents to their young.

2. Variation

Possessing of characteristics which are different from these of the parents and other
offsprings.

3. Genotype

Is the genetic constitution or make up of an organism

4. Phenotype

Is the outward or physical appearance of an organism

5. Dominant gene

Is a gene that prevents the expression of another gene.

6. Recessive gene

Is a gene that is masked by another gene.

7. Homozygous

Is a condition where by the two genes for a given trait are similar/ alike

8. Heterogeneous

Is a condition where the two genes for a trait are different.

9. Gene

Is a part of chromosome that carries the genetic material called DNA. Are also referred to
as nucleotide chemical units of inheritance arranged along the chromosomes. They are
called hereditary factors.
 10. Trait

Are characteristics inherited by individual from their parents

11. Allele

Is an alternative form of a gene controlling the same characteristics but produce different
effect

Example: T-tallness and t- shortness

12. MONOHYBRID CROSS

Are offspring produced by crossing two individual with different character

e.g. homozygous green podded plant (GG) and homozygous yellow podded plant (gg)

13. FIRST FILLIAL GENERATION (F1)

Is the first generation of offsprings produced after crossing the parental genotypes.

14. SECOND FILLIAL GENERATION (F2)

Are offsprings produced by selfing the F1 generation

15. MONOHYBRID INHERITANCE

This is inheritance of one pair of contrasting (different characteristics e.g height where an
individual is either tall or short).

16. DIHYHIBRID INHERITANCE

This is inheritance of two pairs of characteristics

Example: - pure tall pea plant with colours flowers and dwarf pea plant prossesing white flowers.

17. EPISTASIS

It is the interaction between the two different known as allelic dominant genes

18. PEDIGREE

Is the historical or ancestral record of individuals shown in a chart ,table or diagram

19. CHROMOSOMES

They are thread like structures found in the nucleus of the cell they are only visible when a cell
nucleus is about to divide. Every nucleus of the cell of the same species has a constant number of
chromosomes e.g.

Drosophila has 8 chromosomes, fruit fly pea plant has 40chromosomes sheep has 56 wheat has
14 chromosomes maize has 20 chromosomes.

Each member of the chromosome pair is known as homologous chromosome

Types of chromosomes

There are two types of chromosomes in the human body

1. Autosomes
2. Heterosomes

Autosomes
These are also known as autosomal chromosomes. They carry all genetic information except that
of sex. In humans autosomes are 44 in numbers forming 22pairs

Heterosomes

These are also known as sex chromosomes these chromosomes determine the sex of the
organism in humans. One pair is responsible for the determination of sex

Diploid and haploid nuclei

Diploid nucleus has the chromosomes occurring as homologous pair e.g 23 pairs in the human
this is denas 2n diploid nuclei are found in the gametes

Haploid nuclei have only one set of unpaired chromosomes. In 23 chromosomes are there
haploid nuclei are denoted as n diploid cells are formed after fertilization

GENETIC MATERIALS

Genes are nucleotide chemical units of inheritance arranged along the chromosome and are
capable of being replicated and mutated.

Each gene occupies a specific location on a chromosome this location is known as locus (plural
is loci) each chromosome contains many genes.

Homologous chromosomes when paired together will have similar or different genes called
alleles.

An alleles is an alternative form of gene controlling the same character out producing different
effects. The gene can control color of the skin

NUCLEIC ACID

Nucleic acids are polymericmacromolecules, or large biological molecules, essential for all
known forms of life. Nucleic acids, which include DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA
(ribonucleic acid), are made from monomers known as nucleotides. Each nucleotide has three
components: a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. If the sugar is
deoxyribose, the polymer is DNA. If the sugar is ribose, the polymer is RNA.

Together with proteins, nucleic acids are the most important biological macromolecules; each is
found in abundance in all living things, where they function in encoding, transmitting and
expressing genetic information—in other words, information is conveyed through the nucleic
acid sequence, or the order of nucleotides within a DNA or RNA molecule. Strings of
nucleotides strung together in a specific sequence are the mechanism for storing and transmitting
hereditary, or genetic, information via protein synthesis.

DNA (deoxyribo nucleic acid)

- DNA has a double stranded shape or coil twisted like a ladder to form a double helix.

- DNA is the genetic material contained in the genes.

COMPONENTS OF DNA

 Deoxyribose sugar
 Phosphate group
 Organic base or Nitrogenous bases.

Nitrogenouse base

 Adenine (A)
 Guanine (G)
 Uracil (U)
 Cytosine (C)
 Thymine (T)

Functions of DNA

1. There are genetic material which are responsible for genetic characteristics
2. They assemble the amino acids to form a protein molecule

RNA (ribonucleic acid)

The RNA molecule is responsible for carrying genetic information from the DNA molecule to
the ribosome which is the sight of the protein synthesis

TYPES OF RNA

Messenger RNA – carries information from the nucleus in from of base triplets.

Transfer RNA – It transfers the appropriate amino acids to the ribosome.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DNA & RNA

DNA RNA
Has a deoxyribose sugar Has a ribose sugar
Has a double stand has a single stand
Found in the nucleus, mitochondria and
Found in nucleus and cytoplasm.
chloroplast
Has organic bases, cytosine, guanine adenine Has organic bases, cytosine guanine,
and thymine adenine and uracil

PRINCIPLES OF INHERITANCE.
Concept of inheritance.

Historical background of genetics

Father of genetics is Gregory Mendel

Mendel’s experiment

Mendel has selected garden pea plants [pisum sativa]

Reasons for selecting pisum sativa

 1. The garden pea has many contrasting and easily recognized characteristics.
2. The hybrid obtained from the cross fertilization was fertile
3. The flowers of a garden pea are bi sexual and naturally self pollinated
4. The garden pea plant matures relatively fast producing many off springs (seeds)

MENDELIAN INHERITANCE.

1. LAW OF SEGREGATION

It states that “characteristics of an organism are controlled by internal factors

(genes)occurring in a pair is carried in each gamete”

2. LAW OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT

“ Each of the 2 alleles of one gene may combine randomly with either of the alleles of
another gene independently”

PUNNET SQUARE

 Is a chart showing the possible combination of factors among the offspring of a cross.

 It is used to show the formation of zygotes.

Female gametes are placed on the right while male gametes are placed on the left side.

Male

Female

Example:

A cross between homozygous tall (TT) and homozygous dwarf (tt) plant can be illustrated as
follows:
Let assume tall is male and dwarf is female

Test cross

A cross used to cross an individual of unknown genotype with a homozygous recessive

individual

Example:- A homozygous dominant individual (TT) will phenotypically appear the same.

BACK CROSS

In the crossing of individual of unknown genotype with the homozygous parent.

This is another form of test cross, but the difference is that in test cross, it is crossed with any
individual while in back cross with a parent.g: if the individual is homozygous (bb)
DOMINANCE

Dominance is a state of one character /gene from one parent masking the corresponding
character from another parent.

Types of dominance

1. Mendelian inheritance - Complete dominance

2. Non-Mendelian inheritance - Incomplete dominance

- Co-dominance

1. COMPLETE DOMINANCE

 Is the dominance where by one gene masks the expression of the other gene.
 A dominant gene always masks a recessive gene when the two occur together.

EXAMPLE:

1. A man homo zygote for brown iris marries a women who has blue iris. Show the results
of F1. What colour would the iris of the cross between 2 members of F1?

Solution: -

The gene for brown iris is completely dominant over gene for blue iris in woman.

Let gene for brown be B and b for blue

Genotypes - All are Bb.

Phenotype - All have brown iris.

Selfing F1
Genotypes - BB,Bb,bb

Phenotypes - 3 Brown iris, 1 brown iris

Genotypic ration - 1 : 2 : 1

Phenotypic ratio - 3:1

BB Bb bb

2. A pure purple flowered pea plant was crossed with pure white pea plant. Offsprings for F1
were phenotypically all purple flowered plants when F1 was selved a mixture of purple pea
flowered and white pea plant were produced at an approximate ratio of 3:1

Solution: -

Let gene for purple be P and white be p

Genotypes : all are Pp

Phenotypes : all have purple flower

Self F1

Genotype - PP, Pp, pp

Phenotypic ratio - 3:1

Genotypic ratio - 1:2:1

2. INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE

In incomplete dominance there is no dominant or recessive gene, but both express themselves
equally. It results in a heterozygous individual which does not resemble any of the heterozygous
individual which does not resemble any.

Example: -

1. A red flowered rose was crossed with white rose and all members of F1 were pink. When
pink were selfed, a mixture of red, pink and white flowered plants were obtained.

Solution:-

Let, R – Red , G – White

Genotypes : all are RG

Phenotype : all are pink

Genotypes - RR, RG, GG

Genotypic ratio - RR : RG : GG

1 :2 :1

Phenotypic ratio - 1 red : 2 pink : 1green

3. CO-DOMINANCE

In co- dominance genes from both parents are dominant and are phenotypically expressed in the
offspring.
Example: A red cow is mated with white bull. In F1 generation all of offsprings have equal
patches of red and white fur. Therefore neither red or white gene is dominant over the other such
cattle and called Roan.

When a roan cow is mated with roan bull, offsprings may be red, roan or white mated in the ratio
of 1 : 2 : 1

Let;

W - white bull

R – Red cow

Genotypes – all are RW

Phenotype – all are Roan

Phenotypes ratio - 1 Red : 2 Roan : 1 White

Genotypic ratio - RR : RW : WW
1 : 2:1