Ideal Types Max Weber

UNIT 14 IDEAL TYPES 14.2 IDEAL TYPES: MEANING,

CONSTRUCTION AND
Structure CHARACTERISTICS
14.0 Objectives To Max Weber, the term ‘ideal type’ has a distinctive meaning and there
14.1 Introduction are certain underlying principles pertaining to its construction. Here in this
section we shall explain the general and Weberian meanings of the term
14.2 Ideal Types: Meanings, Construction and Characteristics
‘ideal type’, its construction and characteristics.
14.2.0 Meaning
14.2.1 Construction 14.2.0 Meaning
14.2.2 Characteristics Let us begin with the dictionary meaning of the terms ‘ideal’ and ‘type’.
14.3 Purpose and Use of Ideal Types According to New Websters Dictionary (NWD 1985), ‘ideal’ is a
14.4 Ideal Types in Weber’s Work ‘conception or a standard of something in its highest perfection’. It refers
to a mental image or conception rather than a material object. It is a model.
14.4.0 Ideal Types of Historical Particulars
The Collins Cobuild English Language Dictionary says: ‘Your ideal of
14.4.1 Abstract Elements of Social Reality something is the person or thing that seems to you to be the best example
14.4.2 Reconstruction of a Particular Kind of Behaviour of it’.
14.5 Let Us Sum Up
The term ‘type’ means a kind, class or group as distinguished by a particular
14.6 Keywords character (NWD 1985). Thus, generally speaking, we may conceptualise
14.7 Further Reading ideal type as a kind, category, class or group of objects, things or persons
with particular character that seems to be the best example of it.
14.8 Specimen Answers To Check Your Progress
Weber used ideal type in a specific sense. To him, ideal type is a mental
construct, like a model, for the scrutiny and systematic characterisation of
14.0 OBJECTIVES a concrete situation. Indeed, he used ideal type as a methodological tool to
understand and analyse social reality.
After reading this unit you should be able to
Methodology is the conceptual and logical research procedure by which
z discuss the meaning and characteristics of ideal types
knowledge is developed. Historically much of the methodological concern
z describe the purpose and use of ideal types in social sciences in the social sciences has been directed towards establishing their scientific
credentials (Mitchell 1968: 118). Max Weber was particularly concerned
z narrate Max Weber’s use of ideal type in his major works. with the problem of objectivity in social sciences. Hence he used ideal
type as a methodological tool that looks at reality objectively. It scrutinises,
classifies, systematises and defines social reality without subjective bias.
14.1 INTRODUCTION The ideal type has nothing to do with values. Its function, as a research
tool, is for classification and comparison. To quote Max Weber (1971:
This is the first unit of the block on Max Weber. It deals with the concept
63):
of ideal type as part of Max Weber’s concern with methodology of social
sciences. This unit gives a perspective and a background to analyse the “The ideal typical concept will develop our skill in imputation in research.
major theoretical formulations of Max Weber. It is not a description of reality but it aims to give unambiguous means of
expression to such a description”.
In this unit first we clarify the general meaning of ideal type and explain
the sociological concept and characteristics of ideal-type as reflected in In other words, ideal types are concepts formulated on the basis of facts
the writing of Max Weber. Here we also answer two questions as to how collected carefully and analytically for empirical research. In this sense,
and why of social scientists’ construction of ideal type in their researches. ideal types are constructs or concepts which are used as methodological
Weber used ideal type in three distinctive ways. We explain these three devices or tools in our understanding and analysis of any social problem.
ways of use of ideal type in Weber’s work in terms of (a) ideal types of
historical particulars, (b) ideal types of abstract elements of social reality To understand ideal types, as used by Max Weber, we explain how ideal
and (c) ideal types relating to the reconstruction of a particular kind of types are constructed.
behaviour. We examine each of these kinds with suitable illustrations.
9 10
14.2.1 Construction Ideal Types Max Weber 14.2.2 Characteristics
Ideal types are formulated by the abstraction and combination of an From the above discussion we can draw some important characteristics of
indefinite number of elements, which though found in reality, are rarely or ideal types.
never discovered in specific form. Therefore, Weber does not consider that
he is establishing a new conceptual method. He emphasises that he is i) Ideal types are not general or average types. That is, they are not
making explicit what is already done in practice. For the construction of defined by the characteristics common to all phenomena or objects of
ideal types, the sociologist selects a certain number of traits from the whole study. They are formulated on the basis of certain typical traits, which
which is otherwise confusing and obscure, to constitute an intelligible entity. are essential to the construction of an ideal type concept.
For example, if we wish to study the state of democracy in India (or for ii) Ideal types are not a presentation of total reality or they do not explain
that matter of secularism, communalism, equality a court of law) then our everything. They exhibit partial conception of the whole.
first task will be to define the concept of democracy with the help of its
essential and typical characteristics. Here we can mention some of the iii) Ideal types are neither a description of any definite concept of reality,
essential characteristics of democracy, namely, existence of a multi-party nor a hypothesis, but they can aid both in description and explanation.
system, universal adult franchise, formation of government by peoples Ideal types are different in scope and usage from descriptive concepts.
representatives, peoples participation in the decision making, equality before If descriptive concepts can be used, for instance, in the classification
law, respect to majority verdict and each others’ views as well. This of different sects, and if one wants to apply the distinction in order to
formulation of a pure type or an ideal type concept of democracy will analyse the importance of these for the economic activity, then one
guide us and work as a tool in our analysis. Any deviation from or has to reformulate the concept of sect to emphasise the specific
conformity to it will unfold the reality. Ideal types, therefore, do not components of sectarianism which have been influential in the
represent the common or the average characteristics but focus on the typical economic pursuit. The concept then becomes an ideal typical one,
and the essential characteristics. For instance in his book The Protestant meaning that any descriptive concept can be transformed into an ideal
Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, Weber analyses the characteristics of type through abstraction and recombination of certain elements when
the ‘Calvinist Ethic’. These characteristics are taken from various historical we wish to explain or analyse rather than describe a phenomenon.
writings and involve those components of Calvinist doctrines which Weber iv) In this sense we can say that ideal types are also related to the analytic
identifies as of particular importance in relation to the formation of the conception of causality, though not, in deterministic terms.
capitalist spirit. Ideal types are thus a selection of certain elements, certain
traits or characteristics which are distinctive and relevant to the study v) They also help in reaching to general propositions and in comparative
undertaken. However, one thing which should be kept in mind here is that analysis.
though ideal types are constructed from facts existing in reality, they do
vi) Ideal types serve to guide empirical research, and are used in
not represent or describe the total reality, they are of pure types in a logical
systematisation of data on historical and social reality.
sense. According to Weber ‘in its conceptual purity, this ideal mental
construct cannot be found empirically anywhere in reality’. This then is After learning about the meaning, construction and characteristics of ideal
the way in which ideal types are constructed. To facilitate our understanding type it will not be at all difficult for you to complete Check Your Progress
later in this unit we will take up those ideal type concepts which have 1.
been used by Weber. Let us have a close look at construction of an ideal
type of a court of law shown in figure 14.1. Check Your Progress 1
i) Tick mark the correct answer to the following question.
What are ideal types?
a) Ideal types are general types.
b) Ideal types are average types.
c) Ideal types are pure types.
d) Ideal types are normative types.
ii) Tick mark True or False box given below each of the following
statements.
a) Ideal type is a description of reality. True/False
11 12

Figure 14.1: Ideal Type of Court of Law

 b) Ideal type helps in the analysis and explanation Ideal Types Max Weber historical problems. For this he constructed ideal types, that is, to understand
of a social phenomenon. True/False how events had actually taken place and to show that if some antecedents
or other events had not occurred or had occurred differently, the event we
c) Ideal types are constructed by selection of typical are trying to explain would have been different as well. For example,
and essential traits. True/False because of the implementation of the land reform laws and penetration of
d) Ideal types are hypotheses. True/False other modernising forces, like education, modern occupation etc., the joint
family system has broken down in rural India. This means that there is a
e) Ideal types represent a total reality. True/False causal relation between the event (land reform, education and modern
f) Ideal types help in the causal and in comparative occupation) and the situation (the joint family). In this way ideal type
analysis. True/False concept also helps in the causal explanation of a phenomenon.
This, however, does not mean that every event has a particular or a specific
cause. Weber does not believe that one element of society is determined
14.3 PURPOSE AND USE OF IDEAL TYPES by another. He conceives the causal relations both in history and sociology
as partial and probable relations. It means that a given fragment of reality
Ideal types are constructed to facilitate the analysis of empirical questions. makes probable or improbable, favourable or unfavourable to another
Most researchers are not fully aware of the concepts they use. As a result fragment of reality. For instance, certain Marxists would say that private
their formulations often tend to be imprecise and ambiguous, or as Weber ownership of the means of production makes inevitable the political power
himself says, ‘the language which the historians talk contains hundreds of of the minority possessing these means. Weber would say that an economic
words which are ambiguous constructs created to meet the unconsciously regime of total planning makes a certain type of political organisation more
conceived need for adequate expression, and whose meaning is definitely probable. In Weber’s work such analysis of causal relations was related to
felt, but not clearly thought out’ (Weber 1949: 92-3). his interest in world wide comparisons or in analysis of events and
It is however the job of social scientists to render subject matter intelligible establishment of general preposition. That is, he used ideal types to build
by avoiding confusion and obscurity. For example, we may talk about the up a conception of a particular historical case, and used the same ideal
construction of ideal types of authority. Weber distinguishes three types of type conceptions for a comparative analysis. This interdependence of history
authority, namely, rational, legal, traditional, and charismatic, each of which and sociology appears most clearly in Weber’s conception of the ideal type.
was defined by the motivation of obedience or by the nature of legitimacy Besides examining any particular historical case Max Weber also used ideal
claimed by the leader. Reality presents a mixture or confusion of the three types to analyse the abstract elements of social reality and to explain
ideal types and because of this very reason we must approach the types of particular kinds of social behaviour. We shall discuss these in greater detail
authority with a clear idea. Because these types merge in reality each must in the following section, dealing with ideal type in the body of Weber’s
be rigorously defined. work.
Ideal types are not formed out of a nexus of purely conceptual thought, Check Your Progress 2
but are created, modified and sharpened through the empirical analysis of
concrete problems. This, in turn, increases the precision of that analysis. i) How do we construct ideal type? Answer in about two lines.
We can therefore say that, ideal types are a methodological device which ...................................................................................................................
not only help us in the analysis of empirical questions, but also in avoiding
...................................................................................................................
obscurity and ambiguity in the concepts used, and in increasing the accuracy
of our analysis. Completing Activity 1 at this stage will help you appreciate ii) What is the purpose of constructing ideal type? Answer in about three
the process of construction of an ideal type. lines.

Activity 1 ...................................................................................................................
You may be aware of the functioning of the institution of Village ...................................................................................................................
Panchayat in the rural areas and that of the Municipal Corporation in
the urban areas. If you are living in a rural Area, construct an ideal ...................................................................................................................
type of a Village Panchayat. If you are living in an urban area, construct
an ideal type of a Municipal Corporation. Exchange your note, if
possible, with the notes of your co-learners at the Study Centre. 14.4 IDEAL TYPES IN WEBER’S WORK
Ideal type, a key term in Weber’s methodological essays has been used by Weber used ideal types in three distinctive ways. Indeed, his three kinds
him as a device in understanding historical configurations or specific of ideal types are distinguished by three levels of abstraction. The first
13 14
kind of ideal types are rooted in the historical particularities namely, Western Ideal Types Max Weber 14.4.1 Abstract Elements of Social Reality
city, the Protestant ethics etc. In reality, this kind of ideal types refer to the
These elements of social reality are found in a variety of historical and
phenomena that appear only in the specific historical periods and in
cultural contexts. Bureaucracy and types of authority and types of action
particular cultural areas. The second kind relates to the abstract elements
are important examples of these abstract elements. Let us examine these
of social reality, for example, the concepts of bureaucracy or feudalism.
three examples.
These elements of social reality are found in a variety of historical and
cultural contexts. The third kind of ideal type relates to the reconstruction
of a particular kind of behaviour (Coser 1977: 224). In the following Box 14.I
subsections we shall be dealing with each of these kinds of ideal types. Bureaucracy
14.4.0 Ideal Types of Historical Particulars General meaning of the term bureaucracy is the rule by departmental
According to Weber capitalism has been fully realised in modern western or administrative officials following inflexible procedures. Max Weber
societies. Weber constructs an ideal type of capitalism by selecting a certain emphasised the indispensability of bureaucracy for the rational attainment
number of traits from the historical whole to constitute an intelligible entity. of the goals of any organisation in industrial society (Mitchel 1967:
This was to show that there was a spiritual affinity between Calvinism and 21)
the economic ethics of modern capitalist activity. For this he identified
those components of Calvinist doctrine which he considered as of particular i) Bureaucracy
and significant importance in the formation of capitalist spirit.
Weber pointed out that bureaucracy was the best administrative form
The essence of capitalism according to Weber is embodied in that enterprise for the rational or efficient pursuit of organisational goals. Weber’s
whose aim is to make maximum profit or to accumulate more and more. ideal type of bureaucracy comprised various elements such as (a) high
These are based on the rational organisation of work and production. It is degree of specialisation and a clearly-defined division of labour, with
the conjunction of desire for profit and rational discipline which constitutes tasks distributed as official duties, (b) hierarchical structure of authority
the historically unique feature of western capitalism. The desire for profit with clearly circumscribed areas of command and responsibility, (c)
is satisfied not by speculation or conquest or adventure, but by discipline establishment of a formal body of rules to govern the operation of the
and rationality. This is possible with the help of legal administration of the organisation and administration based on written documents, (d)
modern state or rational bureaucracy. Hence capitalism is defined as an impersonal relationships between organisational members and the
enterprise working towards unlimited accumulation of profit and functioning clients, (e) recruitment of personnel based on ability and technical
according to bureaucratic rationality. knowledge, (f) long term employment, promotion on the basis of
seniority and merit, (g) fixed salary and the separation of private and
Weber tried to show that there was a close affinity between this type of official income.
economic activity and elements of Calvinist doctrine. According to the
Calvinist ethic, God is all powerful and above common man. Man has to Though examples of developed bureaucracies existed in different parts
work for God’s glory on earth and this can be done through hardwork and of the world prior to the emergence of modern capitalism, it is only
labour which are rational, regular and constant. The calling of the individual within this that organisations are found which approximate to this ideal
is to fulfil his duty to God through the moral conduct of his day to day life typical form. Weber used these abstract elements of bureaucracy to
whether he is rich or poor. For him work is worship and there is no room explain a concrete phenomenon.
for idleness and laziness. This specific character of Calvinistic belief
ii) Types of Authority
accounted for the relation between Calvinist doctrine and the spirit of
capitalism which was characterised by a unique devotion to the earning of To understand the various aspects of authority Max Weber constructed
wealth through legitimate economic activity. This is rooted in a belief in its ideal types in terms of three types of authority. These are traditional,
the value of efficient performance in the chosen vocation as a duty and a rational and charismatic.
virtue.
Traditional authority is based upon the belief in the sanctity of age-
The affinity between the two and the emergence of Capitalist economic old customs and rules. Rational authority is maintained by laws,
regime as defined by Weber existed only in the west, which made it a decrees, regulations. Charismatic authority is characterised by
historically unique phenomenon. In Calvinist ethic, religious and economic exceptional virtue possessed by or attributed to the leader by those
activities are combined in a way not found either in Catholicism or in any who follow the leader, have confidence in the leader and are devoted
other world religion like Hinduism, Islam, Confucianism, Judaism and to the leader.
Buddhism of which Weber made a comparative analysis.
These three ideal type of concepts may be used to understand concrete
political regimes, most of which contain certain elements of each (for
15 16 more detail see Unit 16).
iii) Types of Action Ideal Types Max Weber
Activity 2
According to Max Weber “Sociology is a science which attempts the
List two examples from your day-to-day life for each of the four types
interpretative understanding of social action in order thereby to arrive
of action identified by Max Weber. Compare your note, if possible,
at a causal explanation of its cause and effects”. Here we can point
with the notes of your co-learners at the Study Centre.
out the following important elements of social action
i) social action includes all human behaviour. 14.4.2 Reconstruction of a Particular Kind of Behaviour
ii) social action attaches a subjective meaning to it. This ideal type includes those elements that constitute rationalising
reconstructions of a particular kind of behaviour. For example, according
iii) the acting individual or individuals take into account the behaviour
to Weber, all propositions in economic theory are merely ideal typical
of others.
reconstructions of the ways people would behave if they were pure
iv) social action is oriented in its course. economic subjects. These include laws of supply and demand, marginal
utilities etc. Supply of commodity in the market governs prices in relation
Hence the construction of a pure type of social action helps the sociologists to demand. Similarly, utility of a commodity for consumption is higher or
as an ideal type “which has the merit of clear understandability and lack lower depending upon the units available for consumption. Economic theory
of ambiguity’” (Weber 1964: 128-129). rigorously conceives economic behaviour as consistent with its essence.
This essence is often defined in a precise manner (Weber 1964: 210). It is
Box 14.2 now time to complete Check Your Progress 3.
Social Action Check Your Progress 3
It denotes social behaviour. This concept is used both by social
i) In what sense Weber used the concept of ideal type to show the
psychologists and sociologists. Many social scientists regarded social
relationship between Calvinist ethic and the spirit of capitalism? Use
action as the proper unit of, observation in the social sciences. Action
four lines to answer.
is social when the actor behaves in such a manner that his action is
intended to influence the action of one or more other persons. In ...................................................................................................................
sociology it was Max Weber who first explicitly used and emphasised
social action as the basis for socrological theory (Mitchel 1968: 2). ...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
Weber has talked about four types of social actions. These are i)
Zweckrational or rational action with reference to goals, ii) Wertrational or ...................................................................................................................
rational action with reference to values, iii) traditional action and iv) affective ii) What are the major characteristics of ideal type of bureaucracy as
action. These are classified according to their modes of orientation. Rational outlined by Max Weber? Use five lines to answer.
action with reference to goals is classified in terms of the conditions or
means for the successful attainment of the actor’s own rationally chosen ...................................................................................................................
ends. Rational action with reference to value is classified in terms of rational
...................................................................................................................
orientation to an absolute value, that is, action which is directed to
overriding ideals of duty, honour or devotion to a cause. Traditional action ...................................................................................................................
type is classified as one which is under the influence of long practice,
customs and habits. Affective action is classified in terms of affectual ...................................................................................................................
orientation, especially emotional, determined by the specific states of feeling ...................................................................................................................
of the actor. Since reality presents a mixture of the four pure types of
action, for our analysis and understanding we separate them analytically iii) What are the four ideal types of social actions stated by Max Weber.
into pure or ideal types. For instance, the use of rational ideal types can Answer in about eight lines.
help in measuring irrational deviation and we can understand particular ...................................................................................................................
empirical action by interpreting as to which of the four types of action it
most closely approximates. ...................................................................................................................
In order to understand better the types of action, identified by Max Weber, ...................................................................................................................
it is a good idea now to complete Activity 2.
...................................................................................................................

17 18
 The unit starts by clarifying the meaning of the terms ‘religion’ and Religion and Economy
UNIT 15 RELIGION AND ECONOMY ‘economy’. It then goes on to examine the inter-relationship between
religious beliefs and economic activity.
Structure
To bring out the inter-relationship clearly, there is discussion of the major
15.0 Objectives argument in Max Weber’s famous book, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit
15.1 Introduction of Capitalism.

15.2 Religion and Economy — Meaning and Inter-relationship Next the unit goes into what Weber meant by the “spirit of capitalism” and
15.2.0 Religion contrasts it with “traditionalism”. We then discuss certain aspects of the
“Protestant ethic” which according to Weber, contributed to the development
15.2.1 Economy
of capitalism in the West.
15.2.2 Inter-relationship between Religious Ethics and Economy
15.3 The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism This unit further clarifies the relationship between religious beliefs and
economic activity by describing three of Weber’s ‘comparative religious
15.3.0 The Spirit of Capitalism
studies’, namely those of Confucianism in China, Judaism in ancient West
15.3.1 The Protestant Ethic: Features Influencing the Development Asia and Hinduism in India. Lastly there is evaluation of his views on
of Capitalism
economy and religion.
15.3.2 Main features of Calvinism
15.3.3 Beliefs of those following Calvinism
15.4 Weber’s Comparative Studies on Religion 15.2 RELIGION AND ECONOMY — MEANING
15.4.0 Confucianism in China AND INTER-RELATIONSHIP
15.4.1 Judaism in West Asia
15.4.2 Hinduism in India In this section there is brief discussion of what is meant by the terms religion
and economy. After defining these two terms, the following sub-section
15.5 Critical Evaluation of Weber’s Studies on Religion and Economy (15.2.2) provides preliminary ideas about the relationship between religion
15.6 Let Us Sum Up and economy as formulated by Weber.
15.7 Keywords 15.2.0 Religion
15.8 Further Reading The term ‘religion’ refers to a set of ideas and beliefs about the
15.9 Specimen Answers to Check Your Progress “supernatural” and its impact on the lives of human beings. Human beings
have always been confronted with certain problems and crises, which seem
to defy logical explanation.
15.0 OBJECTIVES
Why is it that a loved one dies? Why does a good man suffer and an evil
After going through this unit you should be able to one prospers? Why do natural calamities happen? Religious beliefs provide
z discuss the meaning of religion and economy and their interconnections supernatural answers to these difficult questions. For instance, suffering
may be explained by saying that it is “God’s way” of testing a man’s faith
z understand the influence of the Protestant ethic on the development of or that it is a punishment for sins committed in past lives. Religious beliefs
modern capitalism as discussed by Weber give meaning to life. They help answer questions about oneself and the
world one lives in. They provide certain guidelines of behaviour, certain
z review Weber’s comparative studies on three world religions, i.e.
codes of conduct which individuals are expected to follow.
Confucianism in China, Judaism in West Asia and Hinduism in India
z evaluate Max Weber’s studies on religion and economy.
15.2.1 Economy
What do we mean by ‘economy’? In order that society may survive, certain
basic physical needs have to be met. Food, clothing and shelter are essential
15.1 INTRODUCTION for life. The economy or economic system refers to those arrangements
made by society for the production, consumption and distribution of goods
In the previous units, you have studied Weber’s concept of ideal type. In and services.
this unit you will see the application of this idea in Weber’s analysis of
religion and economy. What is to be produced? How much of it is to be produced? How are
goods made available to those who want them? How is work to be divided?
These are some of the concerns of the economic system. 23
Max Weber 15.2.2 Inter-relationship between Religious Ethics and ii) Mention two functions of religion. Religion and Economy
Economy a) .........................................................................................................
This is a brief outline of the meaning of religion and economy. Superficially,
b) .........................................................................................................
they seem poles apart. Religion concerns itself with the beyond, whereas
economy deals with the practical business of working, producing and ii) Describe, in two lines, how religious beliefs affect economic
consuming. Are these two seemingly diverse systems related? behaviour.
Max Weber thought so. According to him, it was the ideas, beliefs, values ...................................................................................................................
and world-view of human societies that guided the way their members
acted, even in the economic sphere. As has already been mentioned, religion ...................................................................................................................
prescribes certain guidelines of behaviour. It is in accordance with these
guidelines that followers direct or orient their activities. These guidelines
are incorporated in the body of religious ethics of each religious system. 15.3 THE PROTESTANT ETHIC AND THE
Let us illustrate Weber’s view with an example from our society. SPIRIT OF CAPITALISM
A health expert might suggest that if Indians would eat beef, the problem Weber located a positive relationship between the Protestant ethics and the
of hunger and malnutrition might be lessened. But the very idea of cow- spirit of capitalism. Western capitalism, according to Weber, assumed its
slaughter is revolting to most Hindus and would probably be rejected shape because it was supported by a certain belief system, namely, the
outright. So even though cow-slaughter may seem economically rational “Protestant ethic”. Weber argued that the Protestant ethic is closely
or logical, values and ideas (in this case, the idea that the cow is sacred) associated with the spirit of capitalism. In order to bring out this inter-
definitely influence the making of certain decisions. It is our beliefs and relationship, Weber constructed ideal types of both, the Protestant ethic
values, which help to shape our behaviour. It was this link between religious and the spirit of capitalism. Let us now understand what Weber meant by
beliefs and economic behaviour that Weber tried to bring out in his work. the term ‘the spirit of capitalism’.
In order not to confuse religion with ethics, see Box 15.1 to learn about
ethics and ethical behaviour. 15.3.0 The Spirit of Capitalism
Box 15.1 Why do people work? Most of us would answer, “to earn money, of course”,
in order to feed, clothe and shelter ourselves and our families. We also
Ethic
earn so that we may have certain comforts and luxuries, which make life
The term “ethic” is not restricted to religion alone. You can speak of more enjoyable.
business ethics, political ethics and so on. Ethics is related to social
structure because it affects in some way the social behaviour of The desire for wealth or profit is as old as human history. Wealth has long
individuals in society. Ethics is important because it sets certain standards been regarded as a symbol of power, status and prestige. But never before
of thought and behaviour, which are used to evaluate or judge actual in human history did the desire for wealth assume the organised and
behaviour. Ethical codes, in other words, represent what “ought” to be disciplined form that it did in modem or rational capitalism. It is this rational
done. They reflect the particular values and beliefs of the social groups capitalism that Weber wanted to study. He distinguishes between traditional
of which they are part. or adventurist capitalism of former times and rational capitalism of modern
times (see Box 15.2).
According to Max Weber, there were certain affinities between the
Protestant religious ethics and the economic system known as capitalism. Box 15.2
These affinities, said Weber, helped capitalism to grow in the western
world. Traditional Capitalism and Rational Capitalism

The next section (15.3), describes the major argument contained in Weber’s Traditional or adventurist capitalism existed at many times and many
thesis. places. It was particularly noticeable in the Italian cities. Traditional
capitalism was a risky business, involving the import of luxury items
Check Your Progress 1 from distant places. Foreign silks, spices, ivory etc. were sold to buyers
at exorbitant prices. The aim was to extract as much profit as possible
i) What is meant by “religion”? Answer in three lines.
because no one knew when and where the next business deal would
................................................................................................................... occur. It was a thus a series of one-shot deals. Rational capitalism on
the other hand depends on mass production and distribution of goods.
...................................................................................................................
This became possible with the Industrial Revolution and factory
24 ................................................................................................................... 25
Max Weber Check Your Progress 2 Religion and Economy
production. What is important is to note that rational capitalism does
not deal with a few luxury items but with almost all the daily material i) Tick the correct answer.
requirements from bread to cloth to cars. Rational capitalism is
The essence of capitalism according to Weber is that
constantly expanding and looking for new methods, new inventions,
new products and new customers. Involving methodical work and a) capitalists exploit workers.
regularised transactions, it is thus qualitatively and quantitatively
different from traditional capitalism. b) capitalists aim to increase profit so that they can lead a luxurious
life.
According to Weber, the capitalists desired wealth not for enjoyment or c) making money is an end in itself.
luxurious living. They wanted it so that they could use it to make more
wealth. The thirst for money-making for its own sake is the very essence d) all of the above.
of modern capitalism. Capitalism is an economic system which aims at the ii) Tick the correct answer.
unlimited accumulation of profit through the rational organisation of
production. Capitalism arose when the western nations went through

Capitalism arose in the Western nations like England and Germany, which a) the French revolution.
experienced what we call the “Industrial Revolution”. The growth of the b) the Green revolution.
factory system, new techniques of production, new tools and machines
made it possible for the capitalists or the owners to earn vast amounts of c) the Industrial revolution.
money. The production process had to be rationally organised; in other
words, efficiency and discipline were essential. d) none of the above.

The worker was a means to an end, the end being profit. The attitude iii) Tick the correct answer.
towards work was that it should be done well not because one had to do “Rational Organization” of production requires
it, but because it carried an intrinsic reward. The popular American saying,
“Anything that’s worth doing is worth doing well”, sums up this attitude. a) efficiancy, discipline and hard work.
Hard work and efficient work was an end in itself. b) Less work and more pay for workers.
Weber contrasted this work-ethic with another type which he termed c) large amounts of money.
traditionalism.
d) all of the above.
Here, workers prefer less work to more pay, relaxation to exertion. They
are either unable or unwilling to take up new work-methods and techniques. iv) Place the following items, under the correct heading.
As has been mentioned before, in capitalism, the worker is regarded by a) informal relationship with owner Traditionalism Capitalism
the capitalist as a means to an end. But under traditionalism, the worker- b) work as an end in itself
employer relationship is informal, direct and personal.
c) innovation and individualism
Traditionalism hampers the growth of capitalism. Capitalism stresses
individualism, innovation and the relentless pursuit of profit. Traditionalism, d) resistance to change
as described above, is characterised by a much less disciplined and efficient
e) worker as a means to an end
system of production. You have just seen that the spirit of capitalism is a
work-ethic which calls for accumulation of wealth for its own sake. To do f) unlimited pursuit of profit
so, work has to be organised in an efficient, disciplined manner. Hard work
is a virtue that carries intrinsic rewards. 15.3.2 The Protestant Ethic: Features Influencing the
Development of Capitalism
Unlike “traditionalism”, the spirit of capitalism demands individualism,
innovation, hard work and the pursuit of wealth for its own sake. It is thus Let us first clarify a few historical details. What is Protestantism? As the
an economic ethic unlike any in the past. name suggests, it is a religion of protest. It arose in the sixteenth century
in Europe in the period known as the Reformation.
Let us now try to understand what Weber meant by the Protestant ethic, in
other words, the major tenets or principles of the Protestant religion. But Its founding fathers like Martin Luther and John Calvin broke away from
before doing so, just complete Check Your Progress 2. the Catholic Church. They felt that the Church had become too immersed
26 in doctrines and rituals. It had lost touch with the common people. Greed, 27
Max Weber corruption and vice had gripped the Church. Priests had a life-style more divert a person from working for the glory of God. Even the very human Religion and Economy
suitable for princes. expression of laughter was frowned upon!
The Protestant sects that sprang up all over Europe tried to recapture the This emphasis on hard work was not confined to Calvinists alone. It was a
lost spirit of the Church. They stressed simplicity, austerity and devotion. common feature of all Protestant sects. The idea that ‘honesty is the best
Calvinism founded by the Frenchman John Calvin was one such sect. The policy’ was the principle of early capitalism. Weber (1948:313) gives us
followers of Calvin in England were known as the Puritans. They migrated the example of the ‘Methodists’ a sect who forbade their followers
to the continent of North America and were the founders of the American
nation. Weber observed that in the West, it was by and large the Protestants a) to haggle when buying and selling.
who had made greatest progress in education and employment. They were b) to trade with commodities without paying the necessary taxes and
the top bureaucrats, the most skilled technical workers and the leading tarrifs.
industrialists.
c) to charge rates of interest higher than the law of the country permits.
Was there something in their religion that inspired them to make such
progress? Weber thought so, and attempted to prove it. The brand of d) ‘to gather treasures on earth’ (meaning the transformation of investment
capitalism that Weber was most interested in was Calvinism. An examination capital into ‘funded wealth’).
of its main features would show us how there is the link between religion e) to borrow without being sure of one’s ability to pay back the debt.
and economy.
f) “luxuries of all sorts”.
15.3.3 Main Features of Calvinism
The fruits of hard labour could not be spent on worldly pleasures. Thus
As said before, for showing the link between religion and economy or in there was only one outlet for money. It was reinvested and hence used to
this particular case between the spirit of Capitalism and Calvinism, let us make more money.
first discuss the main features of Calvinism.
Not a moment was to be idled away as “work is worship” and “time is
Calvin’s Image of God money”.
God, said Calvin, was all powerful, transcendent. His Divine Will was See Figure 15.1: Spirit of Capitalism that illustrates the ideas mentioned
unknowable. It would be foolish of any human being to try to understand above.
God’s Will. It could not be understood simply because it was God’s Will!
Doctrine of Pre-destination
At the core of Calvinism is the belief that certain persons are chosen or
‘elected’ by God to enter Heaven while the rest are damned. The ‘chosen’
will reach Heaven no matter what they do on Earth. We cannot bribe God
to give us a place in Heaven through prayers or sacrifice. As this Will is
unknowable, we cannot change it. Imagine the insecurity of the followers
of this stern religion! He did not know whether he was elected or damned.
They could not turn to a priest for solace and help because no mortal man
could understand God. What could they do to cope with the anxiety of an
uncertain destiny? How could they prove to themself that they were the
chosen ones?
They could do so by prospering on Earth. Their material prosperity would
be the symbol or token of their election. He would work for the glory of
God.
Calvinism and “this-worldly asceticism”
Figure 15.1: Spirit of Capitalism
By ‘asceticism’ we mean strict self-discipline, control and conquest of
desires. In Protestantism, particularly Calvinism Weber detected this-worldly
asceticism. It stressed rigorous self-discipline in order to master the The notion of “calling”
environment. A simple, frugal life-style was recommended along with hard Would a University graduate accept a sweeper’s job? Probably not. Most
work. Worldly or sensual pleasures were viewed with horror; fine clothes, of us would consider the job of a sweeper or garbage-collector too “low”
28 dance and music, theatre and novels came from the Devil as they would 29
Max Weber or too “dirty” for us. The Calvinist ethic, on the other hand, holds that all ................................................................................................................... Religion and Economy
work is important and sacred. It is not mere work, it is a calling or a mission
and should be performed with devotion and sincerity. ...................................................................................................................

At this point let us complete Activity 1 that deals with some of the point ...................................................................................................................
discussed in sub-section 15.3.2. ...................................................................................................................

Activity 1 ii) Why did the followers of Calvin stress so much on hard work? Answer
in about four lines.
Write two page note on any religious sect in India in terms of its
guidelines for shaping one’s day-to-day behaviour. Compare your note, ...................................................................................................................
with those of other students at your study centre. ...................................................................................................................

We have so far looked at how Weber described the strong relationship ...................................................................................................................
between the spiritual vision of the world and a certain style of economic ...................................................................................................................
activity. This relationship is conspicuous among the Calvinists. Weber
summarised the Calvinist ethic in five points (Aron 1967: 221-222). iii) Why no work was regarded as “low” by the Calvinists? Answer in
about four lines.
a) There exists an absolute transcendent God who created the world and
rules it, but who is incomprehensible and inaccessible to the finite ...................................................................................................................
minds of men.
...................................................................................................................
b) This all powerful and mysterious God had predestined each of us to
...................................................................................................................
salvation or damnation, so that we cannot by our works alter a divine
decree which was made before we were born. ...................................................................................................................
c) God created the world for His own glory.
d) Whether he is to be saved or damned, man is obliged to work for the 15.4 WEBER’S COMPARATIVE STUDIES ON
glory of God and to create the Kingdom of God on earth. RELIGION
e) Earthly things, human nature, and flesh belong to the order of sin and
death and salvation can come to man only through divine grace. You have just studied the link that Weber tries to establish between religious
ethics on the one hand and economic behaviour on the other. Let us now
This helped to create a disciplined and dedicated workforce without which see how Weber further tries to substantiate or validate this idea with the
capitalism could not have emerged. help of comparative studies of various world religions. In this section, we
shall describe Weber’s studies of Confucianism in ancient China, Hinduism
Hard work, saving and re-investment and the desire to prosper have a strong
in ancient India and Judaism in ancient Palestine (West Asia).
affinity with the “spirit of capitalism” which you read about earlier in sub
section 15.3.0. 15.4.0 Confucianism in China
Let us see the link that Weber was trying to establish. Ideas impinge upon Ancient China had a well-developed economy. Trade, commerce, finance
or affect human conduct and human conduct can be understood in the and manufacture were quite advanced. Despite the presence of these
context of the ideas lying behind it. Working day and night and not enjoying material conditions, Western-style of capitalism did not develop there. Why?
the fruits of that labour might seem very irrational to most of us. But if we According to Weber, the Confucian ethic would not permit this. Confucian
keep in mind the doctrine of “pre-destination” and the need to prosper to ideas can be summed up as follows.
prove one’s “election” by God, this irrational behaviour makes sense. As
i) Belief in the order of the Universe, the cosmos.
we have earlier stated, religious beliefs set guidelines for action, they
motivate us to behave in a certain manner. ii) Man should aim at being in harmony with nature and the cosmos.
Check Your Progress 3 iii) Behaviour is to be guided by tradition. All wisdom lies in the past.
i) Why did Max Weber try to establish a link between the Protestant iv) Family and kin ties and obligations were never to be neglected.
ethic and capitalism? Answer in about five lines.
The stress on harmony, traditionalism and family obligations are quite
................................................................................................................... contradictory to the relentless pursuit of profit for its own sake. Indeed,
30 31
Max Weber the “spirit of capitalism” would probably have been considered to be bad and de-emphasise the material world can hardly foster attitudes that promote Religion and Economy
manners. capitalism.

15.4.1 Judaism in West Asia So, as we can see, mere material conditions like finance, trade and
technology are not enough to promote capitalism. India and China had
This is the religion of the Jews who originally inhabited the land of
both of these, yet the value-systems of these societies were such that the
Palestine in West Asia. Judaism is the oldest of the monotheistic religions.
pursuit of wealth for own sake and rational organisation of work to achieve
It a religion that speaks of one, all-powerful and almighty God. The Jews
this purpose did not make sense. It did not fit in with the ethos or the
believe themselves to be the chosen ones of God or “Yahweh”. Their
ideals of these societies.
prophets united them in the belief that they were the chosen ones of God
and must help to establish God’s Kingdom on Earth. Judaism, unlike Before reading about critical evaluation of Weber’s studies on religion and
Confucianism and Hinduism speaks of an ethic of mastery over the economy, complete Activity 2.
environment, not harmony.
Judaism, says Weber, could have generated the “spirit of capitalism”. Activity 2
However, certain historical forces prevented this. The Exodus or mass You must have seen the popular tele-serial Mahabharata. How is the
migration of the Jews from their homeland due to persecution left them Hindu ethic depicted in this serial? To what extent does it differ from
scattered all over the world. the ‘Hindu ethic’ as described by Weber? Write down your observation
Their economic participation was restricted to money-leading, which they in about two pages. Compare your note, if possible, with your co-
did very successfully. learners at the Study Centre.

15.4.2 Hinduism in India

While dealing with the Religion of India Weber expressed a strict negative 15.5 CRITICAL EVALUATION OF WEBER’S
attitude towards the possibility of rational capitalism existing within the STUDIES ON RELIGION AND ECONOMY
ethos of Hinduism. To him, it is extremely unlikely that the organisation
of modern capitalism could have originated in a caste-based society like Weber’s work on religion and economy has often been subjected to
India. Nor could capitalism imported from the West hope to flourish in criticism. Some scholars feel that he has concentrated very selectively on
India. certain aspects of religious ethics and interpreted them very narrowly so
India like China was economically fairly advanced. You probably know that they may fit in with his theory.
that ancient India made valuable contributions to science. Manufactured For instance, in his studies on the Hindu ethic, Weber has seen only one
goods found world-wide markets and trade links were established in various aspect of the Hindu ethic and has over-emphasised the fatalistic and passive
parts of the world. aspect of it. Some scholars and students would argue that the notions of
But Hinduism, says Weber, did not provide a suitable ethic for the “karma” and “dharma” actually spur individuals to act, to perform their
development of capitalism. The ideas of “Karma”, “dharma” and duties, to live up to their obligations. It is pointed out that the concept of
“punarjanma” (the cycle of births and rebirths) made Indians defeatists, calling which forms the very foundation of the spirit of capitalism is also
fatalists. You have probably heard the statement “I am being punished for prevalent in Hinduism. The principle in the Bhagwad Gita of doing one’s
my deeds in my last life”. Since one’s present condition is believed to be duty without thinking of benefit is similar to the doctrine of calling which
the consequence of past deeds, Weber feels that Hindus have no motivation is the focal point of material progress in West.
to improve their economic condition. Hindus, says Weber, would not Milton Singer has presented a functional equivalent of the Protestant ethic
consider it worthwile to put in the sort of hard work that capitalism in India in his study of the leading industrialists of the city of Madras. To
demanded. him caste background and tradition may equally be fitted for the industrial
The Hindu ideal of “moksha” or salvation states that our souls can be development in India. Caste based division of labour has been used
liberated only when we empty ourselves of worldly desires or “vasana”. successfully in the specialisation of industrial workers. Singer observed
The material world is an illusion or “maya”. True bliss is ours when we that through the process of “compartmentalisation”, many industrialists kept
free ourselves from this web of desires or “maya-jaal”. Hinduism preaches their business obligations and ritual obligations separate or in distinct
“other-worldly asceticism”. The material world is de-emphasised. Material compartments. Hence there was no conflict between an individual’s role
prosperity is not given importance, as it is temporary and illusory. as a businessman, on the one hand, and a religious person on the other.

It is welfare of the spirit or soul or “atma” which is imperishable that is According to Milton Singer (1969) if capitalism is to be developed in India
more important. Religions that place more stress on otherworldly asceticism then it must not be an aping of the west that destroys the traditional way
32 33
 Power and Authortiy Max Weber sociological concepts of power and authority with special reference to
UNIT 16 POWER AND AUTHORITY Weber’s understanding of the terms. The second section (16.3) will mention
the types of social action that Weber identifies and the types of authority
Structure that flow from them, namely, traditional, charismatic and rational-legal
authority. The third section (16.4) will focus on the instrument through
16.0 Objectives which rational-legal authority is exercised, namely, bureaucracy.
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Concepts of Power and Authority
16.2.0 Power
16.2 POWER AND AUTHORITY
16.2.1 Authority Let us now examine the key concepts of power and authority, both, in the
16.2.2 Elements of Authority general sociological sense as well as in the specific Weberian context.
16.3 Types of Social Action and Types of Authority
16.2.0 Power
16.3.0 Types of Social Action
16.3.1 Types of Authority In ordinary usage, the term ‘power’ means strength or the capacity to
16.3.1.0 Traditional Authority
control. Sociologists describe it as the ability of an individual or group to
fulfil its desires and implement its decisions and ideas. It involves the ability
16.3.1.1 Charismatic Authority
to influence and/ or control the behaviour of others even against their will.
16.3.1.2 Rational-Legal Authority
16.3.2 Lack of Conformity between Typologies For Max Weber, power is an aspect of social relationships. It refers to the
possibility of imposing one’s will upon the behaviour of another person.
16.4 Bureaucracy
Power is present in social interaction and creates situations of inequality
16.4.0 Major Features of Bureaucracy
since the one who has power imposes it on others. The impact of power
16.4.1 Characteristics of Officials in Bureaucracy varies from situation to situation. On the one hand, it depends on the
16.5 Let Us Sum Up capacity of the powerful individual to exercise power. On the other hand
it depends upon the extent to which it is opposed or resisted by the others.
16.6 Keywords
Weber says that power can be exercised in all walks of life.
16.7 Further Readings
It is not restricted to a battlefield or to politics. It is to be observed in the
16.8 Specimen Answers To Check Your Progress market place, on a lecture platform, at a social gathering, in sports, scientific
discussions and even through charity. For example, giving alms or ‘daan’
16.0 OBJECTIVES to a beggar is a subtle way of exercising your superior economic power.
You can bring a smile of joy to the beggar’s face or a feeling of despair by
After reading this unit, you should be able to giving or refusing alms.
z understand the concepts of power and authority as explained by Max What are the sources of power? Weber discusses two contrasting sources
Weber of power. These are as follows
z show the connections between Weber’s types of social action and types a) Power which is derived from a constellation of interests that develop
of authority in a formally free market. For example, a group of producers of sugar
controls supply of their production in the market to maximise their
z describe in detail the three types of authority namely, traditional,
profit.
charismatic and rational-legal
b) An established system of authority that allocates the right to command
z describe bureaucracy as the instrument for the operation of rational-
and the duty to obey. For example, in the army, a jawan is obliged to
legal authority.
obey the command of his officer. The officer derives his power through
an established system of authority.
16.1 INTRODUCTION As you have seen in the last point, any discussion of power leads us to
think about its legitimacy. It is legitimacy, which according to Weber
In units 14 and 15 of this block you read about Weber’s views on the constitutes the core point of authority. Let us now examine the concept of
ideal type and the link between religion and economy. In this unit, you authority.
will find some of Weber’s important contributions in understanding power
and authority. In the first section (16.2), there is a brief discussion of the 37 38
16.2.1 Authority Power and Authortiy Max Weber iii) Point out, in three lines three important elements of authority.
The German word “Herrschaft”, used by Weber, has been variously ...................................................................................................................
translated. Some sociologists term it as ‘authority’, others as ‘domination’
or ‘command’. Herrschaft is a situation in which a ‘Herr’ or master ...................................................................................................................
dominates or commands others. Raymond Aron (1967: 187) defines ...................................................................................................................
Herrschaft as the master’s ability to obtain the obedience of those who
theoretically owe it to him. In this unit, Weber’s concept of Herrschaft will Let us now examine the types of authority identified by Weber. Before we
denote the term “authority”. do so, it is very important to study his typology of social action. The types
of authority Weber discusses are, as you will soon see, closely linked with
A question may be raised, namely, what is the difference between power the types of social action.
and authority? Power, as you have seen, refers to the ability or capacity to
control another. Authority refers to legitimised power. It means that the
master has the right to command and can expect to be obeyed. 16.3 TYPES OF SOCIAL ACTION AND TYPES
Let us now see the elements that constitute authority. OF AUTHORITY
16.2.3 Elements of Authority In sub-section 14.4.1(iii) of unit 14 we discussed the Weberian concept of
For a system of authority to exist the following elements must be present. social action. Max Weber describes sociology as a comprehensive science
of social action (Aron, 1967: 187). He presents a typology of social action,
i) An individual ruler/master or a group of rulers/masters. which we will now briefly discuss.
ii) An individual/group that is ruled. 16.3.0 Types of Social Action
iii) The will of the ruler to influence the conduct of the ruled which may Weber identifies four distinct types of social action. They are
be expressed through commands.
i) Zweckrational action or rational action in relation to a goal
iv) Evidence of the influence of the rulers in terms of compliance or
obedience shown by the ruled. An example of this is an engineer constructing a bridge, who uses
certain materials in a certain manner to achieve goal. This activity is
v) Direct or indirect evidence which shows that the ruled have internalised directed towards obtaining that goal, namely, completing the
and accepted the fact that the ruler’s commands must be obeyed. construction.
We see that authority implies a reciprocal relationship between the rulers ii) Wertrational action, or rational action in relation to a value
and the ruled. The rulers believe that they have the legitimate right to
exercise their authority. On the other hand, the ruled accept this power Here, one may give the example of a soldier laying down his life for
and comply with it, reinforcing its legitimacy. the country. His action is not directed towards attaining specific
material goal like wealth. It is for the sake of certain values like honour
It is time to complete Activity 1 and Check Your Progress 1. and patriotism.
iii) Affective action
Activity 1
Give example of at least five authority from your daily life. What are This kind of action results from the emotional state of mind of the
the elements involved in them? Prepare a note of one page on them. actor. If some one is teasing a girl in a bus, she may get so irritated
Exchange your note, if possible, with the co-learners at your Study that she may slap the offending person. She has been provoked so
Centre. much that she has reacted violently.

Check Your Progress 1 iv) Traditional action

i) In one line define the concept of power. This is an action, which is guided by customs and longstanding beliefs,
which become second nature or habit. In traditional Indian society,
................................................................................................................... doing ‘pranam’ or ‘namaskar’ to elders is almost second nature
needing no prompting.
ii) Describe, in about three lines, two important sources of power.
One may find that the above typology of social action is reflected in
...................................................................................................................
Weber’s classification of types of authority. We will discuss this in the
................................................................................................................... following sub-section (16.3.2).
39 40
16.3.1 Types of Authority Power and Authortiy Max Weber long-standing traditions. This gives legitimacy to those who exercise
authority.
As you have already read in sub-section 16.2.1, authority implies
legitimacy. According to Weber, there are three systems of legitimation, Traditional authority does not function through written rules or laws. It is
each with its corresponding norms, which justify the power to command. transmitted by inheritance down the generations. Traditional authority is
It is these systems of legitimation which are designated as the following carried out with the help of relatives and personal favourites.
types of authority.
In modern times, the incidence of traditional authority has declined.
(i) Traditional authority Monarchy, the classic example of traditional authority still exists, but in a
highly diluted form. The Queen of England is a traditional figure of authority
(ii) Charismatic authority
but as you may be aware, she does not actually exercise her authority. The
(iii) Rational-legal authority laws of the land are enacted in her name, but their content is decided by
the legislators, the representatives of the people. The queen has a parliament,
which governs the kingdom, but she does not appoint ministers. She is a
nominal head of state.
Briefly, traditional authority derives its legitimacy from longstanding
traditions, which enable some to command and compel others to obey. It
is hereditary authority and does not require written rules. The ‘masters’
exercise their authority with the help of loyal relatives and friends. Weber
considers this kind of authority as irrational. It is therefore rarely found in
modern developed societies.
16.3.1.1 Charismatic Authority
Charisma means an extraordinary quality possessed by some individuals
(see Box 16.1). This gives such people unique powers to capture the fancy
and devotion of ordinary people. Charismatic authority is based on
extraordinary devotion to an individual and to the way of life preached by
this person. The legitimacy of such authority rests upon the belief in the
supernatural or magical powers of the person. The charismatic leader
‘proves’ his/her power through miracles, military and other victories or the
Fig. 16.1 Types of Authority dramatic prosperity of the disciples. As long as charismatic leaders continue
Let us describe each of these types in some detail. to ‘prove’ their miraculous powers in the eyes of their disciples, their
authority stays intact. You may have realised that the type of social action
16.3.1.0 Traditional Authority that charismatic authority is related to is affective action. The disciples are
This system of legitimation flows from traditional action. In other words, in a highly charged emotional state as a result of the teachings and appeal
it is based on customary law and the sanctity of ancient traditions. It is of the charismatic leaders. They worship their hero.
based on the belief that a certain authority is to be respected because it has
existed since time immemorial. Box 16.1
In traditional authority, rulers enjoy personal authority by virtue of their Charisma
inherited status. Their commands are in accordance with customs and they Dictionary meaning of the term charisma is a divinely inspired gift. It
also possess the right to extract compliance from the ruled. Often, they is gift of divine grace. This term is used by Weber to denote “a kind of
abuse their power. The persons who obey them are ‘subjects’ in the fullest power over others which is also perceived as authority by those subject
sense of the term. They obey their master out of personal loyalty or a to it. the holder of charisma may be a human being, in which case his
pious regard for his time-honoured status. Let us take an example from authority might be interpreted in terms of myth of the divine mission,
our own society. You are familiar with the caste system in India. Why did insight or moral attributes” (see Scruton 1982: 58).
the ‘lower’ castes bear the atrocities inflicted by the ‘upper’ castes for
centuries? One way of explaining this is because the authority of the ‘upper’ Charismatic authority is not dependent on customary beliefs or written rules.
castes had the backing of tradition and antiquity. The ‘lower’ castes some It is purely the result of the special qualities of the leader who governs or
say had become socialised into accepting their oppression. Thus, we can rules in his personal capacity. Charismatic authority is not organised;
see that traditional authority is based on the belief in the sacred quality of therefore there is no paid staff or administrative set-up. The leader and his
41 42
assistants do not have a regular occupation and often reject their family Power and Authortiy Max Weber b) Routinisation of legitimacy
responsibilities. These characteristics sometimes make charismatic leaders
revolutionaries, as they have rejected all the conventional social obligations c) Routinisation of one’s ability to lead
and norms. d) Routinisation of one’s capacity to control the behaviour of other’s
Based, as it is, on the personal qualities of an individual, the problem of against their will
succession arises with the death or disappearance of the leader. The person iii) Tick mark the correct answer.
who succeeds the leader may not have charismatic powers. In order to
transmit the original message of the leader, some sort of organisation Traditional authority derive legitimacy from
develops. The original charisma gets transformed either into traditional a) Law of the land
authority or rational-legal authority. Weber calls this routinisation of
charisma. b) Long standing customary law
If the charismatic figure is succeeded by a son/daughter or some close c) Outstanding performance of the leader
relative, traditional authority results. If, on the other hand, charismatic
d) All of the above.
qualities are identified and written down, then it changes into rational legal
authority, where anyone acquiring these qualities can become a leader. 16.3.1.2 Rational-legal Authority
Charismatic authority can thus be described as unstable and temporary.
We can find examples of charismatic leaders throughout history. Saints, The term refers to a system of authority, which are both, rational and legal.
prophets and some political leaders are examples of such authority. Kabir, It is vested in a regular administrative staff who operate in accordance
Nanak, Jesus, Mohammed, Lenin and Mahatma Gandhi, to name a few with certain written rules and laws. Those who exercise authority are
were charismatic leaders. They were revered by people for their personal appointed to do so on the basis of their achieved qualifications, which are
qualities and the message they preached, not because they represented prescribed and codified. Those in authority consider it a profession and
traditional or rational-legal authority. Let us now describe the third type of are paid a salary. Thus, it is a rational system.
authority identified by Max Weber. It is legal because it is in accordance with the laws of the land which
people recognise and feel obliged to obey. The people acknowledge and
Box 16.2 respect the legality of both, the ordinance and rules as well as the positions
Routinisation or titles of those who implement the rules.
Weber used routinisation to mean the “transformation of charismatic Rational-legal authority is a typical feature of modern society. It is the
leadership into institutionalised leadership where one office takes the reflection of the process of rationalisation. Remember that Weber considers
place of a personality as the focus of authority” (Scruton 1982: 415). rationalisation as the key feature of western civilisation. It is, according to
Weber, a specific product of human thought and deliberation. By now you
Check Your Progress 2 have clearly grasped the connection between rational-legal authority and
rational action for obtaining goals.
i) Tick mark the correct answer.
Let us look at examples of rational-legal authority. We obey the tax collector
Which one of the following in not a type of authority according to because we believe in the legality of the ordinances he enforces. We also
Weber? believe that he has the legal right to send us taxation notices. We stop our
vehicles when the traffic policeman orders us to do so because we respect
a) Traditional authority
the authority vested in him by the law. Modern societies are governed not
b) Rational-legal authority by individuals, but by laws and ordinances. We obey the policeman because
of his position and his uniform which represents the law, not because he is
c) Charismatic authority Mr. ‘X’ or Mr. ‘Y’. Rational-legal authority exists not just in the political
d) Personal authority and administrative spheres, but also in economic organisations like banks
and industries as well as in religious and cultural organisations.
ii) Tick mark the correct answer.
16.3.2 Lack of Conformity between Typologies
When the original charisma of a leader gets transformed into traditional
or rational-legal authority, what does Weber call it? From the above discussion on the types of social action and types of
authority one may find that traditional authority corresponds to traditional
a) Routinisation of one’s power to capture devotion of ordinary action, rational-legal authority corresponds to rational action in relation to
people goal and charismatic authority corresponds to affective action or emotional
43 44
action. However one easily finds that Weber distinguishes four types of Power and Authortiy Max Weber iii) The management of the bureaucratic office is carried out through
social action and only three types of authority. The lack of conformity written documents or files. They are preserved and properly kept by
between the typology of social action and the typology of authority is a clerks who are specially appointed for this purpose.
subject for open discussion.
iv) The work in the bureaucratic office is highly specialised and staff is
In order that you might clearly grasp the manner in which rational-legal trained accordingly.
authority functions it is necessary to examine the institution of
‘bureaucracy’. Bureaucracy is the medium through which rational-legal v) A fully developed bureaucratic office demands the full working
authority is carried out and it is the subject matter of the next section (16.4). capacity of the staff. In such a case, officials may be compelled to
Before going to the next section, complete Activity 2. work over-time.
Having looked the main features of a bureaucratic set-up, let us now learn
Activity 2 something about the officials that you have found repeatedly mentioned
Give an example of rational-legal or a traditional authority from your above.
own society with special reference to the basis of legitimacy of that 16.4.1 Characteristics of Officials in Bureaucracy
authority. Prepare note of one page. Exchange your note, if possible,
with the notes of your co-learners at your Study Centre. Weber mentions the following characteristics of officials in a bureaucratic
set-up
i) Office-work is a ‘vocation’ for officials.
16.4 BUREAUCRACY ii) They are specially trained for their jobs.
Bureaucracy, as just mentioned, is the machinery, which implements iii) Their qualifications determine their position or rank in the office.
rational-legal authority. Max Weber studied bureaucracy in detail and
constructed an ideal type which contained the most prominent characteristics iv) They are expected to do their work honestly.
of bureaucracy. Let us examine this ideal type which reveals to us the Their official positions also have a bearing on their personal lives. Let us
major features of bureaucracy. see how.
16.4.0 Major Features of Bureaucracy i) Bureaucratic officials enjoy a high status in society.
i) In order that the bureaucracy may function adequately, it relies on the ii) Often, their jobs carry transfer liabilities. By this we mean that they
following rules and regulations. may be transferred from one place or department to another leading to
a) The activities which comprise bureaucracy are distributed among some instability in their professional and personal lives.
the officials in the form of official duties. iii) Officials receive salaries not in accordance with productivity but status.
b) There is a stable or regular system by which officials are vested The higher their rank, the higher their salaries. They also receive
with authority. This authority is strictly delimited by the laws of benefits like pension, provident fund, medical and other facilities. Their
the land. jobs are considered very secure.

c) There are strict and methodical procedures which ensure that iv) Officials enjoy good career prospects. They can move from the lower
officials perform their duties adequately. rungs of the bureaucratic ladder to higher ones if they work in a
disciplined manner.
The above mentioned three characteristics constitute ‘bureaucratic
authority’, which is to be found in developed and modern societies. It is time to complete Check Your Progress 3.

ii) The second feature of bureaucracy is that there is a hierarchy of Check Your Progress 3
officials in authority. By this we mean that there is a firmly built i) Bureaucracy is an example of
structure of subordination and superordination. Lower officials are
supervised by higher ones and are answerable to them. The advantage a) traditional authority.
of this system is that governed people can express their dissatisfaction
b) rational-legal authority.
with lower officials by appealing to the higher ones. For instance, if
you are dissatisfied with the behaviour or performance of a clerk or a c) charismatic authority.
section officer in an office, you can appeal to the higher official to
seek redress. d) none of the above .
45 46
 Rationality Max Weber concept of rationality in his work. The issues taken up will be Protestantism,
UNIT 17 RATIONALITY capitalism, bureaucracy and types of rationality. The third and final section
will focus on Weber’s application of rationality in sociological investigation
Structure with special reference to his plea for a value-free sociology.
17.0 Objectives
17.1 Introduction 17.2 THE MEANING OF RATIONALITY AND
17.2 The Meaning of Rationality and Rationalisation RATIONALISATION
17.3 Weber’s Treatment of the concept of Rationality
Rationality refers to those ideas and behaviours which are logically coherent
17.3.0 Protestantism and consistent and amenable to empirical knowledge. Rationalisation refers
17.3.1 Capitalism to the process whereby rationality is applied to various aspects and activities
17.3.2 Bureaucracy of life. The conviction that rationality is the distinctive characteristic of
17.3.3 Types of Rationality: ‘Zweckrationalitat’ and human beings has made it a central theme in Western philosophy for over
‘Wertrationalitat’ two hundred years (Mitchel 1968:142).
17.4 Rationality in Sociological Investigation: Value-free Sociology According to Weber, the contemporary world is characterised by rationality.
17.5 Let Us Sum Up Max Weber believed that the key to understand modern society is to be
found in its rational features and rationalising forces. For him, the modern
17.6 Keywords
Western world is characterised by rationality. As a result of this, human
17.7 Further Reading activity is marked by methodical calculation. Quantification, predictability
17.8 Specimen Answers to Check Your Progress and regularity become important. Individuals rely more on logic, reason
and calculation than on supernatural beliefs. To Weber rationalisation means
that “principally there are no mysterious incalculable forces that come into
17.0 OBJECTIVES play, but rather one can, in principle, master all things by calculation. One
need no longer have recourse to magical means in order to master or implore
This unit deals with rationality, a recurrent concept in Weber’s work. After the spirits, as did the savage, for whom such mysterious power existed”
reading this unit you should be able to: (Weber 1946: 139, Cf. Hearn 1985: 76). Let us take an example. If a
z explain the meanings of the terms rationality and rationalisation farmer wants to reap a good harvest, he can spend time, energy and money
on conducting poojas and prayers. On the other hand, he can utilise the
z examine Weber’s work on rationality with reference to Protestantism, same effort and expense in digging irrigation canals or a tube-well so that
capitalism and bureaucracy his crops may thrive. In the first case, he is dependent on “mysterious
z discuss Weber’s views on rationality in sociological investigation and incalculable forces”; in the second case he is using rational calculation.
value-free sociology. To Weber rationalisation is the product of scientific specialisation and
technological differentiation of western culture. He describes rationalisation
as striving for perfection, as an ingenious refinement of the conduct of life
17.1 INTRODUCTION and the attainment of mastery over the external world (see Freund 1972:
18). Demystification of beliefs and secularisation of thought are important
The previous units of this Block have made you familiar with some of the facets of rationalisation which assist in attaining mastery over the world.
important sociological contributions of Max Weber, namely, ideal types Rationalisation also involves formalisation of laws and organisations.
the relation between religious ethics and economic behaviour as well as
his understanding of power and authority. It is now time for us to handle As has been mentioned earlier, rationality is a recurrent concept in Weber’s
the central theme in his work, namely, the idea of rationality and the process work and rationalization is a recurrent theme in the sense of making more
of rationalisation. As this is a concept that touches almost all of Weber’s rational. His own attempt is to render a rational account of society.
work, you might find parts of this unit repetitive. However, it is a good Rationality and rationalisation occur several times and in several senses. It
opportunity for you to revise some concepts learnt earlier as well as study could indeed even be argued that the whole body of Weber’s work is an
them from the point of view of rationality. exploration of the rationality of social forms and the logic of their changes.

This unit has been divided into three sections. In the first section, you will Weber views rationality as a process of rationalisation of social system.
get a brief description of the meanings of the terms ‘rationality’ and This takes place through the emergence of rational organisation and
‘rationalisation’. The second section will highlight how Weber used the institutions in human society. He also finds the reflection of the process of
49 50
rationalisation in human values, beliefs, thoughts and actions. Here he Rationality Max Weber lay bare the logic of various social forms and processes even when
locates the emergence of elements of rationality in social sciences as well. they appear at first glance to be irrational, non-rational or anti-rational.
In this sense rationality is a mode of inquiry that seek to discover the
The rationalisation characteristic of modem societies is manifested in terms reason of a social form or development.
of the ‘Zweckrational’ actions, i.e. actions in relation to goals. Hence the
sphere of rationalisation is extended to economic, political, religious In the following sub-sections, let us examine society as a process of
organisations etc. Weber makes extensive use of the concept of rationality rationalisation. Let us consider the rational features of Protestantism,
in his study of social actions, organisations and processes. He also uses it capitalism, bureaucracy and historical social processes.
as a mode of scientific investigation. Thus, rationality appears in Weber’s
work in two broadly distinct, but inter-related ways. Let us see what these
are in the next section (17.3).
Check Your Progress 1
i) Fill in the blanks with suitable words
a) To Weber, rationalisation is the product of scientific ....................
and .................... differentiation.
b) Rationalisation implies mastery over ...........................
ii) State whether the following are True (T) or False (F)
a) Rationality means greater reliance on spirits
and magic True/False

b) Human values and beliefs can never be rationalised. True/False

c) Rationalisation can extend to all aspects of society. True/False

Figure 17.1 Society and rationality

17.3 WEBER’S TREATMENT OF THE
17.3.0 Protestantism
CONCEPT OF RATIONALITY
Weber’s study of the Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism is usually
Weber treated or handled rationality in his work in the following two major regarded as one of his most important contributions. In this work, Weber
ways. argues for the impact of ideas, particularly religious ideas on creating and
transforming of material reality, society and its forms. Thus, Weber sees
i) Society as a Rationalisation Process the primacy of capital and ‘capitalism’ in the social organisation of the
The first meaning is related to the study of society as a process of contemporary age, as the most significant way to grasp the society in which
rationalisation. That is, an older, less rational form changes into a newer we live. For Weber, capitalism is the outcome of the appearance and
more rational form. This is what he calls rationalisation, i.e. the way development of a particular form of religious consciousness the Protestant
in which reason becomes effective in history, the actual historical ethic.
process.
The Protestant ethic, particularly the Calvinst ethic, is a rationalisation of
Weber sees the development of history, and particularly recent history, traditional Christian doctrine, which reconciled otherworldly aspirations
i.e. the ‘modern’, as one of increasing rationality and rationalisation. with the pursuit of this-worldly material gain. Drawing attention to the
Protestantism, capitalism and bureaucracy are successive forms of this precise ways in which the pursuit of personal religious salvation are made
process of rationalisation. They gain their meaningfulness as part of a to coincide with the achievement of material prosperity and power, Weber
historical development, i.e. the way in which a later development is argued that it was this ‘heroic’ rationalisation that gave birth to capitalism.
more rational than a former. The most important rationalisation is the development of a ‘this-worldly’
asceticism foregoing of consumption of ‘the pleasures of the flesh’, in favour
ii) Rationality as a Methodological Tool of saving and accumulation. Through it the believer assures himself of
The second way of seeing rationality is as a methodological principle, being included amongst those born to be saved, in a religious sense. Weber
a strategy of inquiry, a method of investigation. It is Weber’s aim to argued that the rationalism embedded in the Protestant ethic helped to
51
further develop the material condition of modern capitalism (see Hearn
52 1985: 76).
17.3.1 Capitalism Rationality Max Weber It is time now to complete Check Your Progress 2.
Max Weber identifies some important conditions for the development of Check Your Progress 2
rational capitalism in modern society. These are: Private ownership of all
physical means of production, freedom of the market, mechanisation, i) Explain how rationality is projected in Max Weber’s work. Answer in
written law and administration, free labour and commercialisation of about six lines.
economic life. Weber claims that though these conditions had been
...................................................................................................................
developing in various parts of the world, they first appeared in modern
rational capitalism where the religious ethic of Protestantism prevailed. To ...................................................................................................................
him Protestantism was instrumental in weakening traditional opposition to
the development of material bases of rational capitalism (see Hearn 1985: ...................................................................................................................
77).
...................................................................................................................
Weber is far more impressed with the rationality of capitalist society and
the systematic rationality of its social forms and processes. The modes of ...................................................................................................................
social organisation and association, and the very mentality of the people ...................................................................................................................
reflect rationality. Weber devotes a great deal of space and time to the
consideration of the various ways in which capitalist society is not only ii) Explain a process in which the Protestant ethic brought about
more rational than the society or societies which preceded it, but actually rationalisation of Christian belief which was favourable for the
introduces and establishes reason itself as a desirable process and principle emergence of capitalism in Europe Answer in about five lines.
of organisation. His major work, ‘Economy and Society’, explores the ways
in which capitalist society is compatible with clear principles of reason ...................................................................................................................
and rational organisation. It goes on to examine how an ongoing process ...................................................................................................................
of rationalisation and further rationalisation is part of the logic of the growth
of capitalism. ...................................................................................................................
17.3.2 Bureaucracy ...................................................................................................................
According to Weber modern bureaucracy is social manifestation of formal ...................................................................................................................
rationality. Formal rationality implies the importance of rules and procedures
rather than beliefs and sentiments. Bureaucracy’s development is based on
Activity 1
the separation of the rulers from the ruled, people from the position, and
sentiments and beliefs from procedures and regulations. Thus there are Is there a word for rationality in your mother-tongue? If yes, provide
several senses in which Weber sees bureaucracy as a form of rationalisation. the term and give its definition.
Among them those that need to be enumerated here are: (i) the
systematisation of purposes and procedures (ii) rights and obligations based 17.3.3 Types of Rationality: ‘Zweckrationalitat’ and
on established and clearly-defined norms for the purpose of efficiency, and ‘Wertrationalitat’
(iii) most importantly, the rationalisation of the procedures of recruitment,
promotion and retirement of bureaucrats through which their lives gain After reading the above sub-sections you may have concluded that
security and manageability. rationality is a characteristic of modern, capitalist society alone. Does this
mean that non-capitalist forms of social organisation are irrational? Well,
To Weber, bureaucracy is a structure of rational domination. As you already as students of sociology you know that society has a special meaning and
know, bureaucracy is a typical expression of rational-legal authority. Hence, coherence for its members. Each society has its own logic of development,
power is legitimate only when its exercise is consistent with the formal, its own mode of order and social relationship. In this sense, all societies,
impersonal rules and regulations, which define the organisation. Again a capitalist or non-capitalist have a rationality of their own. Exploring a large
bureaucratic organisation helps promote rational action of its members (see variety of social forms and norms, Weber identifies two distinct types of
Hearn 1985: 79). rationality. These are: i) ‘Zweckrationalitat’ or goal oriented/ ends based
Weber sees the development of bureaucracy as part and parcel of the logic rationality and ii) ‘Wertrationalitat’ or value-based rationality.
of the development of capitalism, because it is so rational and rationally The former is characteristic of modern, capitalist society and flows from
oriented. Weber also highlights an important paradox or contradiction. The goal-oriented social action. Zweckrationalitat refers to rationalisation of
growth of the bureaucratic mentality stifles creativity and daring, the very means and goals/ ends. Reason and logical thinking are recommended in
things that made capitalism possible. order to obtain one’s desires.
53 54
Wertrationalitat, on the contrary, is characteristic of traditional social Rationality Max Weber i) Sociologists in their study of society are principally concerned with
formations. It is involved with morality and touches upon emotions, the analysis and understanding of values, as these are the crucial
sentiments and beliefs. Societal approval of individual action is considered elements of any society. However, they must not let their own values
important. Weber believes that traditional societies did have rational come in the way of a clear understanding of the subject matter. This is
elements in their social organisation, but these were defined in terms of the basic foundation of a value-free sociology.
values or moral norms.
ii) Sociologists, as human beings are fundamentally involved in evaluating,
To give you an illustration, take agriculture in traditional (pre-capitalist) or passing certain value-judgements. In so far as they are personally
society. When to plough, when to sow or when to harvest the crop was involved, can hardly avoid having or living by values. The values, by
determined by rational requirements of season, temperature or moisture in which sociology develops, however, are the values by which
the soil. But at the same time these occasions were also sanctioned as knowledge and science develop as the commitment to dispassionate
morally desirable events. Festivities and rituals were prescribed for each inquiry. In this inquiry, the sociologists own experiences of valuing or
of these events. In contrast, in a modern factory (capitalist organisation) disvaluing are themself data, giving insight into the meaning and
all activities are governed mechanically by standards of maximising relevance of that which they explore.
productivity in terms of means and ends.
iii) The development of a value-free social science in this sense is necessary
for creating a body of reliable and assured knowledge. As to whether
Activity 2 such knowledge becomes subsequently cause for action is not within
See a film or read a short story. Identify five social actions in the film the domain of merely sociology as a discipline. Knowledge can guide
or story. State their types in terms of goal-oriented rationality and value action only when the discipline itself becomes reliable.
oriented rationality.
It bears mentioning, in this context that Weber in addition to being an
eminent sociologist was also a politician in the troubled Germany between
the two World Wars. He is remembered, both for his sociological studies
17.4 RATIONALITY IN SOC1OLOGICAL and political activity as having firmly championed the cause of reason, at
INVESTIGATION: VALUE-FREE a time when it was beset with challenges on all sides. This is a fact we
must keep in mind when we consider his plea for a value-free sociology.
SOCIOLOGY
Check Your Progress 3
It has been mentioned earlier that the concept of rationality permeates
i) Describe Zweckrational society in about three lines.
Weber’s work from two distinct but inter-related directions, firstly the actual
march of rationalisation as part of the historical process, and secondly as a ...................................................................................................................
principle of method, a mode of investigating society. Weber is part of the
...................................................................................................................
mainstream of the development of sociology, to which he is amongst the
most eminent contributors. He devotes, as other classical sociologists, time ...................................................................................................................
to the consideration and elaboration of methods, to the actual utilisation of
ii) Describe Wertrational society in three lines.
these methods, and is involved in the important historical ventures of his
times. ...................................................................................................................
One of the basic concerns of Max Weber is the relation between science ...................................................................................................................
and human action. Here he conceives sociology as a comprehensive science ...................................................................................................................
of social action. To Weber, the prime characteristics of the world we live
in are rationalisation. The rationalisation characteristic of modern societies iii) Describe the basic idea of a value-free sociology, in about three lines.
is expressed in terms of Zweckrational actions, actions in relation to goals. ...................................................................................................................
He also viewed science as an important aspect of the process of
rationalisation which is the characteristic of the modern European societies ...................................................................................................................
(Aron 1967: 189). As a part of rationalisation, Weber argued, for a ‘value- ...................................................................................................................
free’ social science, a debate that continues even in our own times though
in different terms, Weber was a firm advocate of separating the rationality
of social inquiry from the attempt to make the world more rational. The 17.5 LET US SUM UP
personal evaluations of the sociologist he said, must be separate from the
analysis of society that he/she conducted. The main points of Weber’s value- In this unit you have read about the idea of rationality and its accompanying
free sociology can be briefly stated as process, rationalisation, the two key themes in the work of Max Weber.
55 56