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ASNT Level II Study Guide Visual Testing Method (VT)

The ASNT Level II Study Guide for Visual Testing is designed to assist individuals preparing for the ASNT NDT Level II examination, covering essential knowledge areas outlined in CP-105. It includes updated chapters, review questions, and references to further study, emphasizing the importance of visual testing in detecting surface anomalies in various materials. The guide serves as a resource for understanding visual testing techniques, equipment, and applications across multiple industries.

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45 views66 pages

ASNT Level II Study Guide Visual Testing Method (VT)

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VT SG LII Cover_Layout 1 9/1/15 8:57 AM Page 1

Second Edition

ASNT

LEVEL II
S T U DYG U I D E

Visual Testing
Method

The American Society for

Nondestructive Testing, Inc.
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Copyright © 2015 by The American Society for Nondestructive Testing.

The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. (ASNT) is not responsible for the authenticity or accuracy of information herein.
Published opinions and statements do not necessarily reflect the opinion of ASNT. Products or services that are advertised or mentioned
do not carry the endorsement or recommendation of ASNT.

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form, by means electronic or mechanical including photocopying,
recording or otherwise, without the expressed prior written permission of The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc.

IRRSP, NDT Handbook, The NDT Technician and www.asnt.org are trademarks of The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc.
ACCP, ASNT, Level III Study Guide, Materials Evaluation, Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Research in Nondestructive Evaluation and
RNDE are registered trademarks of The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc.

The first edition of this Study Guide was prepared by Dougas Krauss.

Second edition
first printing 10/15
ebook 10/15

Errata, if available for this printing, may be obtained from ASNT’s web site, https://asnt.org/errata.

ISBN: 978-1-57117-360-7 (print)

ISBN: 978-1-57117-361-4 (ebook)

Printed in the United States of America

Published by:
The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc.
1711 Arlingate Lane
Columbus, OH 43228-0518
www.asnt.org

Edited by: Cynthia M. Leeman, Educational Materials Supervisor

Assisted by: Bob Conklin, Educational Materials Editor

Tim Jones, Senior Manager of Publications

ASNT Mission Statement:

ASNT exists to create a safer world by promoting the profession and technologies of nondestructive testing.

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FOREWORD

Purpose
This Study Guide is intended to aid individuals preparing to take the ASNT NDT Level II examination for visual testing.
The material in this Study Guide addresses the body of knowledge in CP-105: ASNT Standard Topical Outlines for
Qualification of Nondestructive Testing Personnel (2011 and 2016). It is not intended to comprehensively cover all possible
technical issues that may appear on the Level II exam, but rather it is intended to reflect the breadth of the possible technolo-
gy topics which comprise potential questions.
The ASNT NDT Level II certification program is a service offered by The American Society for Nondestructive Testing,
Inc., that gives NDT personnel an opportunity to have their familiarity with the principles and practices of NDT assessed by
an independent body. The program uses an independent body to review credentials and uses comprehensive written exami-
nations to identify those who meet the criteria for becoming an ASNT NDT Level II.

How to Use the Study Guide

Read through the text of the Study Guide and if the discussion covers unfamiliar material, the references should also be stud-
ied. The review questions at the end of each chapter should be answered. Successfully answering the questions will help
determine if more concentrated study in particular areas is needed. Those familiar with some of the topics may wish to go
directly to the review questions. If the questions can be answered confidently and correctly, additional study may be optional.
This Study Guide is designed to assist in the preparation for the ASNT NDT Level II examination. It is not intended to be
the only source of preparation. The Study Guide provides a general overview of subject matter covered by the examination so
that students can identify those areas of the body of knowledge in which they need further study.

Additional Information
This Study Guide builds on the first edition written in 1998 by Douglas Krauss. All chapters in this book have been updated
and revised, many new chapters were added, and several figures are also new.
Many new chapter review questions have been added, and all questions are now multiple choice with four unique answers
to more closely match ASNT exam format.
Because ASNT is an International System of Units (SI) publisher, throughout the text both SI and imperial units are used.
For simplicity, many equations in this book use 25 mm equals 1 in. Where SI units are not used in the original text of the
standards and codes, conversions to SI units were not made.

iii

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acknowledgments

The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. is grateful for the volunteer contributions, technical expertise, knowl-
edge, and dedication of the following individuals who helped to make this work possible.

Michael Allgaier
James Amy
Robert Cameron
Bruce Crouse
Dick Hooper
Steven C. Johnson
Gary D. Larson
Walter Matulewicz
Timothy W. McAnally
David Vigne
Paul Vona

The following publications are training references for further study of visual testing as recommended in CP-105: ASNT
Standard Topical Outlines for Qualification of Nondestructive Testing Personnel.

Allgaier, M.W. and S. Ness, tech. eds., P. Mclntire and P.O. Moore, eds. Nondestructive Testing Handbook, second edition:
Volume 8, Visual and Optical Testing. Columbus, OH: The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. 1993.

Allgaier, M.W. and R.E. Cameron, tech. eds., P.O. Moore, ed. Nondestructive Testing Handbook, third edition: Volume 9,
Visual Testing. Columbus, OH: The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. 2010.

ASM Handbook: Volume 17, Nondestructive Evaluation and Quality Control. Metals Park, OH: ASM International. 1989.

ASNT Level III Study Guide: Visual and Optical Testing Method. Columbus, OH: American Society for Nondestructive
Testing, Inc. Latest edition.

Cary, H.B. and S. Helzer. Modern Welding Technology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc. 2004.

The Tools and Rules of Precision Measuring. Athol, MA: L.S. Starret Co. 1982.

Welding Handbook: Volume 1, Welding Science & Technology. Miami, FL: American Welding Society. Latest edition.

Welding Inspection Handbook. Miami, FL: American Welding Society. Latest edition.

Additional References

IES Lighting Handbook – Reference & Application, 10th edition. New York, NY: The Illuminating Engineering Society of
North America. 2010.

ASTM E 1316, Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Section 3, Metals Test Methods and Analytical Procedures, Volume 03.03,
Nondestructive Testing. West Conshohocken, PA: The American Society for Testing and Materials. Latest edition.

Davis, J.R., ed. ASM Materials Engineering Dictionary. Metals Park, OH: ASM International. 1992.

Copyright by ASNT (all rights reserved). Licensed to Mr Roberto Arenas Tuxpan, 380312, 2/3/2020 3:18:51 PM EST. Single User License only. Copying,
reselling and networking prohibited.
Copyright by ASNT (all rights reserved). Licensed to Mr Roberto Arenas Tuxpan, 380312, 2/3/2020 3:18:51 PM EST. Single User License only. Copying,
reselling and networking prohibited.
Contents

FOREWORD ............................................................................................................................................................iii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS...........................................................................................................................................iv

RECOMMENDED REFERENCES...............................................................................................................................v

Introduction .....................................................................................................................................................1
CHAPTER 1: Overview of Visual Testing...............................................................................................................1

Applications..................................................................................................................................................................1
Selection of Visual Testing...............................................................................................................................1
Advantages..................................................................................................................................................................1
Limitations .....................................................................................................................................................................2
Fundamentals...................................................................................................................................................2
Vision..............................................................................................................................................................................2
Vision Limitations ..............................................................................................................................................2
Perceptions ...................................................................................................................................................................2
Employer Visual Acuity Examination Methods .........................................................................................................4
Review Questions.............................................................................................................................................5

Fundamentals of Light.....................................................................................................................................7
CHAPTER 2: Principles and Applications of Lighting .........................................................................................7

Measurement of Light .................................................................................................................................................7

Recommended Lighting Levels .................................................................................................................................9
Lighting Techniques .....................................................................................................................................................9
Light Sources.....................................................................................................................................................9
Incandescent Lighting ................................................................................................................................................9
Fluorescent Lighting.....................................................................................................................................................9
Light Emitting Diodes .................................................................................................................................................10
Discharge Lighting .....................................................................................................................................................10
Review Questions...........................................................................................................................................11

Material Attributes .........................................................................................................................................13

CHAPTER 3: Factors that Affect Visual Testing..................................................................................................13

Surface Conditions ....................................................................................................................................................13

Physical Conditions....................................................................................................................................................13
Environmental Factors...................................................................................................................................14
Atmosphere ...............................................................................................................................................................14
Cleanliness ..................................................................................................................................................................14
Humidity and Temperature.......................................................................................................................................14
Safety...........................................................................................................................................................................14
Physiological Factors .....................................................................................................................................15
Physical Comfort ........................................................................................................................................................15
Health ..........................................................................................................................................................................15
Mental Attitude ..........................................................................................................................................................15
Fatigue ........................................................................................................................................................................15
Test Item Position ........................................................................................................................................................15
Review Questions...........................................................................................................................................16

vii

Lens Optics .....................................................................................................................................................19

CHAPTER 4: Principles and Theory.....................................................................................................................19

Fiber Optics.....................................................................................................................................................20
Charge-Coupled Device .............................................................................................................................20
Review Questions...........................................................................................................................................21

Direct ...............................................................................................................................................................23
CHAPTER 5: Visual Testing Equipment ...............................................................................................................23

Lighting ........................................................................................................................................................................23
Magnifiers....................................................................................................................................................................23
Mirrors ..........................................................................................................................................................................23
Rules.............................................................................................................................................................................23
Calipers .......................................................................................................................................................................24
Mechanical Gages ...................................................................................................................................................25
Weld Gages................................................................................................................................................................25
Indirect Visual Testing ....................................................................................................................................26
Illumination..................................................................................................................................................................26
Image Transmission ....................................................................................................................................................26
Remote Video Cameras ...........................................................................................................................................28
Auxilary Video Equipment ........................................................................................................................................29
Principles of Measurement ...........................................................................................................................30
Comparison Measurement.......................................................................................................................................30
Summary .....................................................................................................................................................................31
Review Questions...........................................................................................................................................32

Recommended Lighting Levels ...................................................................................................................33

CHAPTER 6: Visual Testing of Discontinuities ....................................................................................................33

Area Lighting ..............................................................................................................................................................33

Task Lighting................................................................................................................................................................33
Typical VT Discontinuities ..............................................................................................................................34
Metallic Materials.......................................................................................................................................................34
Nonmetallic Materials ...............................................................................................................................................36
Composites .................................................................................................................................................................36
Soldered Joints ...........................................................................................................................................................37
Review Questions...........................................................................................................................................38

Welds ..............................................................................................................................................................39
CHAPTER 7: Evaluation and Disposition ............................................................................................................39

Infrastructure — AWS D1.1.........................................................................................................................................39

Components, Nuclear Power Plant – ASME XI .......................................................................................................39
Petrochemical — ASME B31.1, B31.3, Section III, and API STD 650, 1104 ............................................................40
Manufacturing............................................................................................................................................................40
Aerospace ..................................................................................................................................................................41
Military .........................................................................................................................................................................41
Inspection Requirements ..............................................................................................................................41
Direct Visual ................................................................................................................................................................41
Remote Visual ............................................................................................................................................................42
Recording and Documentation ..................................................................................................................44
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code ..................................................................................................................44
NAVSEA .......................................................................................................................................................................45
Documents .................................................................................................................................................................45
Review Questions...........................................................................................................................................47

GLOSSARY............................................................................................................................................................49

FIGURE SOURCES .................................................................................................................................................53

viii

Introduction distortion or damage, general fit or alignment, and

the identification of loose or missing parts of the
Visual testing is the observation of a test object, component(s). One practice of the direct technique is
either directly with the eyes or indirectly using opti- to place the eye within 24 in. (61 cm) and not less
cal instruments, to evaluate the presence of surface than 30° from the test surface. Mirrors may be used
anomalies and/or the object’s conformance to speci- to improve the angle of vision, and aids such as mag-
fication. Visual testing is usually the first nonde- nifying lenses may be used to assist examinations.
structive test method applied to an item. Visual The remote technique is where there is an interrupt-
testing includes general, direct, and remote visual ed optical path from the observer’s eye to the test
testing techniques. The visual examination process area. Remote visual testing includes the use of
is to clear obstructions from the surface, provide mirrors, borescopes, video borescopes, or video
adequate illumination, and observe. A prerequisite borescope systems on vehicles, manipulators,
for competent visual testing of an object is knowl- or robots. With a remote (indirect) technique,
edge of the component configuration and manufac- resolution should be equivalent to that of the direct
turing processes by which it was made, of its service technique.
history, and of its potential failure modes, as well Visual test equipment is designed to detect
as related industry experience. structural characteristics of a part. These character-
istics range from simple surface discontinuities on
Applications flat surfaces to various fabrication or inservice
Visual testing is widely used on a variety of objects discontinuities in complex geometries.
to detect surface discontinuities associated with var- As a result, specific applications have been devel-
ious structural failure mechanisms. Even when oped using visual testing: detecting discontinuities in
other nondestructive tests are performed, visual fabricated structures such as airframes, piping and
tests often provide a useful supplement. When the pressure vessels, ships, bridges, motor vehicles, and
eddy current testing of process tubing is performed, machinery. Results of visual testing may be used in
for example, visual testing is often performed to predicting impending failure in highly stressed com-
verify and more closely examine the surface condi- ponents exposed to various modes of fatigue.
tion. Discontinuities that may be detected by a sim-
ple visual test include surface discontinuities, Advantages
cracks, misalignment, warping, corrosion, wear, and The visual method is a sensitive means of locating
physical damage, as well as loose or missing parts. surface anomalies in various materials. There is lit-
tle or no limitation on the size or shape of the part
Selection of Visual Testing being inspected. Visual testing indications need to
be documented and a simple means of doing this
Visual testing is a vital method in the broad field of includes photographs and even hand-drawn sketch-
nondestructive testing. Visual testing is used to locate es of indications, which then provide a graphic rep-
surface anomalies in most materials and subsurface resentation of the actual discontinuity. Precleaning
discontinuities in translucent materials. Visual testing may be necessary if the cleanliness of the surface
is performed either by a direct technique or by a impairs the view of the test surface. The need for
remote technique. General visual testing is visual precleaning largely depends on the size and type of
testing over areas of the component(s) to observe discontinuities specified by acceptance criteria. The
overall condition, integrity, and state of degradation. primary advantages typically associated with visual
Typically this includes checking for degradation, testing are economy, speed, sensitivity, versatility,

applicability to irregular shapes, field mobility, rela- eyes color. The iris contracts and expands, altering
tively minimal training, and equipment requirements. the size of an opening, called the pupil, which con-
trols the amount of light entering the eye. Past the
Limitations iris is the lens, a collection of uniquely aligned
Visual testing requires a line of sight to the test sur- transparent cells, which changes shape with the sur-
face and adequate lighting to detect and interpret rounding muscles to focus the light on the back of
anomalies of interest. Direct visual testing may be the eyeball. Within the eyeball is a clear gel-like
limited by component geometry: size, contour, sur- substance, the vitreous humor, which maintains the
face roughness, complexity, or discontinuity orien- shape of the eyeball.
tation necessitating the use of remote visual equip- The retina, an area at the back of the eyeball, has
ment. Remote visual equipment may be able to a layer of specialized cells called rods and cones that
provide the required access to interior surfaces and convert the incoming light into nerve impulses
provide adequate viewing angles, sensitivity, resolu- through a photochemical process. Rod cells are
tion, and illumination. Remote visual testing equip- highly light sensitive, allowing vision in dim or low
ment may be costly. For proper interpretation of light levels, but only respond to a limited band of
indications, the inspector needs skill with the tech- visible light wavelengths. It has been shown that a
nique used, experience using the visual equipment, rod cell will respond to as little as one photon of
and knowledge of the test object. light1.
There are three types of cone cells that are less
Fundamentals light sensitive but provide both good spatial resolu-
tion and color sensitivity. The distribution of rod and
Vision cone cells across the retina is very uneven. The fovea
Whether general, direct, or remote, the primary centralis or macula is a small dimpled region of the
equipment used in VT is the human eye. The eye is retina where visual acuity is greatest. It is a depres-
a complex organ composed of many structures, all sion that contains the highest concentration of cone
of which serve a specific purpose and must function cells and relatively few rod cells. The fovea is the por-
properly for reliable examinations (Figure 1). tion of the retina that is directed at whatever the
Reflected light enters the eye through a tear film viewer is looking at and produces sharp, color-filled
and the cornea where the majority of refraction images. Outside of the fovea, the population of cone
occurs. This refracted light then passes through a cells decreases rapidly as the density of rod cells
thin muscular membrane called the iris that gives increases. Visual response from the area outside of
the fovea is relatively poor with regard to acuity and
color sensitivity, but very sensitive to motion.
Although the entire process is not fully under-
Retina
stood, the photochemical process of vision is
known to begin with a protein in the retinal cells
called rhodopsin. The rhodopsin absorbs light and
Iris
is excited to a higher electrical state creating a nerve
Aqueous impulse1. These many nerve impulses travel to the
Macula humor brain through the optic nerve where they are
Vitreous humor decoded, giving the perception of sight. The point
Lens
of the retina where the optic nerve exits the eyeball
is the optic disk, an area of no sight at all, also
called the blind spot.
Cornea
Vision Limitations
Perceptions
Ciliary muscle
Optic nerve Retina
What the Eyes See versus What the Mind Sees
Although there is a tremendous amount of
Figure 1: Cross section of eye (horizontal section of right eye information available in any given image falling on
from above).

the retina, only a percentage of it is used for detail to distractions and annoyances. An inspection per-
recognition. This is due to the overall makeup of formed from an awkward position, or from one
the human vision system. The eye is a receptor that position for an extended period of time, may result
gathers and focuses the incoming information con- in missed indications since the inspector will tend
tained in the entering photons, while the brain is to hurry the examination to return to a more com-
the organ that takes the provided information and fortable position.
processes it into a mental image to be interpreted. The orientation of the item and its distance
Vision is of a selective nature and strongly guid- from the inspector has an effect on the inspection
ed by what the observer wants and expects to see. outcome. The recommended viewing distance and
The intent of the inspector can affect perception if angle for direct visual examination is to have the
the inspector is keyed to look only for certain eye within 24 in. (61 cm) and at an angle not less
aspects of a particular scene. Even though there than 30° to the inspection surface (Figure 2). If the
may be a large amount of information available at examination surface is immovable and situated so
the time of viewing, many new characteristics may the eye cannot be placed within this region, suitable
not be recognized until another viewing is per- visual aids, such as mirrors, must be employed.
formed. For example, someone may walk into a
crowded room and immediately recognize a famil-
iar face across the room while completely missing
another familiar face that was not expected to be
present. The same holds true for visual inspection.
If an inspector is prepared to find only porosity on
Eye
the surface of a weldment, fusion problems at the
weld toes may be inadvertently ignored.
All the information available in a particular field
24
of view is utilized even if it is used subconsciously.
The image laid across the retina decreases in resolu- in.
(61
tion as the distance across the retina from the fovea
c
No closer than
m)
increases due to the increased grouping of rods with 6 in. (15 cm)
30° 30°
a decrease in the number of cones. The portion of
the image that falls on the fovea is the sharpest and
is the information processed by the brain regarding Test surface Test site
the qualities of the object of attention. The periph-
eral vision serves largely as a reference for orienta- Figure 2: Range of viewing angle.
tion and motion, but does not enhance perception.
For this reason, an object being examined should be
observed with a series of intermittent scans, where
the inspector looks at a small area, scans a few Disorders
degrees, and looks again, repeating this sequence Eyesight can be adversely affected by a malfunction
over the entire area of interest. Even though the of any one of the eye’s structures. Glaucoma, an
field of view may encompass the entire object being increase in the fluid pressure within the eye, may
examined, only a small portion (about 15°) of that produce slight aberrations or complete blindness.
field is usable for detailed information. Myopia, hyperopia, and astigmatism occur when
light is focused on a plane other than the retinal
Orientation plane. Myopia, or nearsightedness, happens when
Variables that may influence the outcome of an the eyeball is slightly longer than normal in the
examination are the comfort and position of the front-to-back direction, causing the focused image
inspector, and the position, elevation, and distance to fall in front of the retina. Hyperopia, or farsight-
of the item to be examined from the inspector. edness, happens when the eyeball is slightly shorter
Although physical comfort is subjective and deter- than normal from front to back causing the focused
mined by the tolerance of the person involved, a image to fall behind the retina. Astigmatism occurs
comfortable arrangement for the inspector will if the shape of the lens is irregular. As an individual
result in greater attention to detail and less attention ages, the lens becomes more rigid and loses the

ability to adapt, causing a condition known as pres- jaeger chart, should be recognized by employers to
byopia. The lens also tends to yellow slightly with ensure visual testing personnel are properly tested
age, or develops cataracts, which is a clouding of the and certified for the particular requirements.
lens from a buildup of dead cells. This has the Color discrimination must also be tested at spe-
effect of reducing light transmittance, especially cific intervals, and this is typically done with ishi-
shorter wavelengths if the lens yellows. hara pseudoisochromatic test plates. These plates
have patterns of colored dots within a field of simi-
Employer Visual Acuity Examination larly sized but slightly differently colored dots.
Methods These tests help validate whether the three types of
To ensure the eyesight of a visual inspector is ade- color-sensitive cone cells in a person’s eyes are func-
quate for the task of identifying potential disconti- tioning properly.
nuities, periodic vision examinations are performed An individual with an acuity deficiency that can
to verify visual acuity, depth perception, and color be remedied by corrective lenses will be required to
discrimination. Industry policy guides from organi- use corrective lenses during any visual examination.
zations such as ASNT and AWS require near vision
acuity to be tested annually. Differences in snellen 1. Szaflarski, Diane M., Ph.D., How We See: The First Steps of
Human Vision.
or jaeger acuity charts, and which lines to use on a

Review Questions

1. In a normal, healthy eye, the incoming light is 4. During direct visual inspection, viewing distance
focused on the: shall not be any more than:
a. retina. a. 20 in. or 508 mm.
b. iris. b. 24 in. or 610 mm.
c. optic disk. c. 25 in. or 635 mm.
d. cornea. d. 30 in. or 762 mm.
2. The component of the eye that responds to light 5. Which of the following are visual examination
intensity and gives the eye its color is the: methods?
a. cornea. a. Shear and longitudinal.
b. lens. b. Visible and fluorescent.
c. retina. c. Direct and indirect.
d. iris. d. Manual and automatic.
3. If the focal point of the light entering the eye falls in
front of the retina, the result is:
a. hyperopia (far-sightedness).
b. myopia (near-sightedness).
c. astigmatism.
d. presbyopia.

Answers
1a 2d 3b 4b 5c

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CHAPTER 2
Principles and Applications of Lighting

To understand the importance of lighting in an depict electromagnetic radiation. The electromag-

inspection atmosphere, it is essential to know the netic spectrum encompasses the range of energies
fundamentals of light, how it is measured, and the from extremely short wavelength cosmic rays to
recommended lighting levels for inspections. long wavelength electrical radio waves as shown in
Figure 1.
Fundamentals of Light Visible light is produced from the electron cloud
of an atom when an external force disturbs its elec-
There are several theories that describe the phe- trons. Energy from the external force removes an
nomena of light (radiant energy.) The electromag- electron from its original energy level and, upon its
netic wave theory and the quantum theory are the return to that energy level, the excess energy is
two most widely accepted theories. The electromag- emitted as light. This light travels in a nearly
netic wave theory proposes radiation originates straight line until it encounters a medium or force
from accelerating charged particles (for example, that reflects, refracts, or diffracts it.
vibrating electrons) and travels through space and Visible light, known as white light, is actually a
time in wave-like movements. The quantum theory, broad spectrum of wavelengths. When white light is
developed more recently, states energy is emitted passed through a prism, it is separated into the con-
and absorbed in discrete quanta or packets of ener- stituent wavelengths that produce the vision sensa-
gy (photons). While both models are based on a tion of color.
massless, chargeless transfer of energy at a speed of An important point to remember is that all elec-
186 000 miles/s (299 338 km/s), each proposes a dif- tromagnetic radiation is similar in nature and it is
ferent explanation of light’s interaction with matter. the specialized properties of the eye that allow the
For the visual inspector there is no perceptible dif- visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum to
ference as visible light exhibits properties of both stimulate sight.
the wave model and the quantum model.
Visible light, or the radiant energy that stimu- Measurement of Light
lates receptors of the human eye, is generally Photometry, the measurement of light, is a means
defined as energy in the wavelength range of of quantifying the radiant energy of visible light.
380 nm to 770 nm. To provide some perspective, Measurements are obtained with a photometer,
a human hair is 50 000 nm to 100 000 nm thick. which converts the radiant energy of the light into
The electromagnetic spectrum based on the wave a measurable electrical signal. Terms used in the
theory model is a convenient way to graphically measurement of light include:

Radiation wavelength (nm)

106 105 104 103 102 10 1 10 –1 10 –2 10 –3 10 –4 10 –5 10 –6

Visible

X–rays
light

Radio Infrared Ultraviolet Cosmic rays

Gamma rays

10 –9 10 –8 10 –7 10 –6 10 –5 10 –4 10 –3 10 –2 10 –1 1 10 102 103

Photon energy (MeV)

Figure 1: Electromagnetic wavelength spectrum.

● Luminous flux or luminous power (SI units) is

the measure of the perceived power of light. It
differs from radiant flux, the measure of the total
power of light emitted, in that luminous flux is
Source
adjusted to reflect the varying sensitivity of the
human eye to different wavelengths of light.
d1
● A lumen (SI unit) is equal to candela times

d2 steradion (cdsr).
● A footcandle (non-SI unit), the reading most
often required by standards and codes in the
d1 United States, is a measurement of the amount
of light that actually falls on a given surface. The
footcandle is equal to 1 lumen per square foot,
but 10.76 lumens per square meter.
When measuring visible light, the inverse square
law and Lambert’s cosine law are used. The inverse
(a) square law (Equations 1 and 2. See Figure 2a) states
the illumination of a surface varies inversely as dis-
tance between the light source and surface squared.

I
E=
d2
(Eq. 1)

E1 where
I = luminous intensity (candela),
E = illumination (lux),

d = distance between the point and source
(meter).

I1  d 2 
2
E2 = E1 cos  E2

I 2  d1 
(b) (Eq. 2) =

Source where
I = luminous intensity (candela),
d = distance between the point and source
(meter).
 d
a  For example, a light source with a luminance
of 1000 lm measured at 0.3 m will be reduced to
250 lm at a distance of 0.6 m.
Lambert’s cosine law (Equation 3) states that the
luminance of a surface varies as the cosine of the

I
(c) E angle of incidence.

E = 2 cos θ
d
(Eq. 3)

Figure 2: Principles of photometry: (a) inverse square law, where

illustrating how the same quantity of light is distributed over
E = source illuminance (lux),
greater area as distance from source to surface is increased;

θ = angle of incidence (degrees).

(b) cosine law, showing that light striking a surface at angles I = source luminous intensity (candela),
other than normal is distributed over greater area; (c) cosine
cubed law, explaining transformation of inverse square
formula. Combining the inverse square law with
Lambert’s cosine law allows illuminance at angles
other than normal to be calculated.

Recommended Lighting Levels

Adequate lighting at the inspection surface is essen-
tial for the proper identification of indications.
Often, the general illumination of the work area is
sufficient for visual examination; however, without
measurement it is not possible to verify require-
ments of the governing code or specifications for
minimum lighting levels are met. In addition,
excessive lighting at the inspection surface can
cause reflections, glare, or shadows, distracting the
inspector.

Lighting Techniques
When the illumination level at the inspection sur-
face is determined to be inadequate, the technician (a) (b)
should provide the necessary lighting. Flashlights,
portable shop lights, and high-intensity lamps Figure 3: (a) An incandescent light bulb, and
should be considered. Another option is to move (b) a compact fluorescent light bulb.
the test piece to an inspection area with more light
if possible.
Incandescent Lighting
Surfaces and the detectability of indications can
vary greatly due to the characteristics of the light Incandescent light is produced by passing a current
source. The characteristics of the light source used through a tungsten filament that is heated to incan-
during an inspection should be the same used to descence. The common tungsten incandescent lamp
examine reference standards. is basically a thin-coiled tungsten wire surrounded
The color of the light is also important as color by a vacuum-sealed envelope (Figure 3a). As a cur-
plays a significant role in increasing contrast in the rent is passed through the wire, it heats to a point
inspection area. For example, the inspection of where electrons escape and return to their atoms,
chromium plating over nickel may be enhanced by releasing energy in the form of light.
using a bluish light, such as that provided by day-
light fluorescent lamps. Halogen Lighting
Surfaces and the detectability of indications can The halogen lamp is a refinement of the tungsten
vary greatly due to the characteristics of the light lamp.
source. The characteristics of the light source used The halogen lamp uses an inert gas with an
during an inspection should be the same used to active halogen compound within the envelope
examine reference standards. instead of a vacuum.
Whatever illumination source is chosen, consid- The halogen lamp design maximizes the service
eration should be given to light location. The dis- life of the filament because the inert gas minimizes
tance of the light source from the test piece and its the evaporation of tungsten from the filament and
angular position determine the intensity of the light its subsequent deposition on the lamp wall. Any
as well as the amount or absence of glare. As with the tungsten that does evaporate is combined with the
lighting characteristics, the physical configuration of halogen and redeposited on the filament when the
the equipment should be similar to the conditions lamp is de-energized. This also minimizes the
used during examination of the reference standard. blackening of the lamp as is commonly observed
with incandescent lamps.
Light Sources Fluorescent Lighting
Light sources used to provide adequate illumination Fluorescent light is produced by a gas within a
range from penlight flashlights to brilliant high- glass envelope that fluoresces when it is excited by
intensity sources used with video borescopes. There an electron discharge. Electrons are discharged by
are several types of artificial light, but this chapter filaments at one or both ends of the tube, and their
will cover incandescent light, fluorescent light, interaction with the gas atoms causes gas atoms
light-emitting diodes, and discharge (arc) light. to emit radiation in the infrared, visible, and

ultraviolet frequency range. The powder coating on The color of the released light is dependent
the inside surface of the tube is excited by the ultra- on the types of materials used and the amount of
violet radiation, and in turn, emits visible light energy required for the electrons to make the jump.
(Figure 3b). If a low amount of energy is required, the light
emitted will be in the infrared or red wavelength.
Light-Emitting Diodes If a comparatively high threshold must be reached,
A new source of light is from light-emitting diodes the light emitted will be in the blue/white wave-
(LED). LED flashlights are cooler, more energy effi- length.
cient, and tougher than traditional flashlights
(Figure 4). Discharge Lighting
Two types of semiconductor materials are used High-intensity discharge (HID) lamps make more
in an LED: one that has an abundance of free elec- visible light per unit of electric power consumed
trons and the other that has a deficit. When enough than fluorescent and incandescent lamps since a
energy is supplied in the form of electricity, a greater proportion of their radiation is visible light
threshold is reached that pushes some of the free in contrast to heat.
electrons in the abundant material, to jump to the Discharge (arc) lamps use an electric arc to pro-
attracting material. When that electron takes its duce light. This lamp type is used in some video
place in the new material, a photon or particle of borescope imaging systems as a source of high-
light is released. intensity illumination. The electrodes are housed in
a vacuum or gas-filled envelope, and a reflector
focuses the light on a specific exit point. Sapphire
and quartz are commonly used at the exit point
because of their light transmission and thermal
properties. The electrode gap, arc voltage, reflector
shape, and material used at the light exit point
determine the intensity and efficiency of this type of
lamp. When a sufficient voltage is applied, a rapid
transfer of electrons crosses the electrode gap and
produces visible light. Most often these lights are
used for area/room illumination.
Figure 4: An LED flashlight.

Review Questions

1. Visible light is one of the radiation types graphically 5. A photometer used by inspectors:
represented on the:
a. converts mechanical energy of light into a
a. periodic table. measurable signal.
b. electromagnetic spectrum. b. measures light from incandescent wavelengths
c. IES lighting table. only.
d. visible spectrum table. c. converts radiant energy of light into a measurable
electrical signal.
d. measures light from ultraviolet light wavelengths
2. To successfully locate anomalies the inspector must: only.
a. assure minimum temperature.
6. A lumen is defined as:
b. use sufficient lighting.
c. use appropriate measuring instruments. a. equal to 1 fc falling on 1 cm2 of area.
d. use calibrated measuring instruments. b. equal to 1 fc falling on 1 ft2 of area.
c. the amount of light falling on a photometer from
a given distance.
3. Visible light perceived by the eye is in the wavelength d. the amount of ambient light in the inspection
range of: area.
a. 380-770 nanometers.
7. Luminous intensity:
b. 770-840 nanometers.
c. 380-770 angstroms. a. is inversely proportional to the square of the
d. 770-840 angstroms. distance from the source.
b. varies with the distance from the source.
c. varies with the distance from the square of the
4. Visible light travels in a straight line until it is: source.
a. absorbed, refracted, or diffracted. d. is constant with the distance from the source.
b. reflected, refracted, or diffracted.
8. Which of those listed below provides more visible
c. reflected, refracted, or absorbed.
light per unit of electric power consumed?
d reflected, refracted, or reproduced.
a. High-intensity fluorescent lights.
b. High-intensity incandescent lights.
c. High-intensity ultraviolet lights.
d. High-intensity discharge lights.

Answers
1b 2b 3a 4b 5c 6b 7a 8d

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CHAPTER 3
Factors that Affect Visual Testing

Factors that affect visual testing include material produces light output with a blue hue, which may
attributes, the inspection environment, and physio- be detrimental. In some cases, yellow-tinted glasses
logical factors that affect the inspector. may help by shifting the frequency of the viewed
light. Individual LEDs are subject to variances in
Material Attributes wavelength, and wavelength can shift from power
source changes (battery drain). This can cause the
The surface and physical conditions of the object(s) frequency of the emitted light to vary from device
to be examined play a significant role in the out- to device and during battery drain. The inspector
come of an examination. Knowledge of how each should be aware of these issues during inspections.
variable influences the examination will aid the LED flashlights also tend to be brighter than tra-
inspector. ditional flashlights. This may produce excessive inten-
sity on the inspection surface, effectively masking
Surface Conditions subtle discontinuities, especially on polished surfaces.
Some surface conditions that affect VT include
cleanliness, color, and texture. Texture
The surface of a material is important in relation to
Cleanliness the amount and quality of light reflected from it to
One basic requirement for an effective visual exami- the examiner’s eye. A surface that is reflective can
nation is a clean test item. Unwanted foreign mate- produce unacceptable glare, which may interfere
rial such as dirt, oil, and grease can mask the sur- with the examination. Glare can be reduced by
face, hiding actual discontinuities or presenting increasing the angle between the glare source and
false indications. A clean inspection surface helps line of sight or by dimming the light source. Glare
to prevent the possibility of missed indications. may also be reduced by using a translucent filter
over the light source or the general inspection area.
Color An extremely rough surface may also require
The color of the incident light relative to the color special lighting to sufficiently illuminate the area
of the object being examined can play a significant without masking. Decreasing the angle between the
role in the detection of discontinuities. The color of light source and the line of sight is helpful when
the light can be used to increase contrast by intensi- examining rough surfaces because it may decrease
fying or subduing certain colors. To intensify a the shadow effect of surface irregularities.
color, the light source should be strong in that color.
Conversely, to subdue a color, the light source Physical Conditions
should have a relatively low output of the color. For Physical conditions, such as specimen condition,
example, when examining chromium plating over shape, type, size, and temperature can act as limit-
nickel plating, a blue light, such as that provided by ing factors during VT.
daylight fluorescent lamps, can enhance any imper-
fections in the chromium. Specimen Condition
LED flashlights are widely used and are replac- The stages of the manufacturing process, service
ing traditional incandescent models. However, LED environment, and applied surface coatings all influ-
models may not be universally substituted for ence the condition of the item being examined. Mill
incandescent flashlights for visual inspection. White scale and weld slag remaining after manufacture
LED lighting is usually a mixture of monochromatic can mask discontinuities, and painted or plated sur-
LEDs or a coated blue hue chip. A coated chip faces can mask other surface discontinuities.

Shape Environmental Factors

The shape of an object also affects the outcome of
an examination. Complex-shaped objects, such as Environmental factors that affect a visual inspection
keyways and splines, may hinder an examination include atmosphere, cleanliness of the testing envi-
and care should be taken in these areas. ronment, humidity and temperature, and safety of
the inspector.
Type
Material type, such as metallic, non-metallic, Atmosphere
wrought, cast, or forged, as well as finishing and Atmosphere in this context refers to the portion of
intended use will determine the extent of visual the environment that has a physical or psychologi-
inspection. Products in raw or intermediate forms cal influence on the examiner. An atmosphere that
may require less inspection than those in the final is perceived as safe, as well as free of high noise lev-
product form. The visual inspection performed can els, dust, smoke, and other distractions, is more
range from simple direct examination for disconti- conducive to the performance of the examiner.
nuities that are inherent to the process to detailed
inspection using aids such as magnifiers or other Cleanliness
tools to detect small discontinuities. The visual As previously mentioned, the cleanliness of the item
inspection may be performed in conjunction with to be examined is important. Of equal importance
other inspection methods. is the cleanliness of the examination environment.
One source of contamination is the movement of
Size parts from one area to another. Dirt and other con-
When examining objects of substantial size, certain taminants can be transferred to the part surface
precautions should be taken to ensure that a com- during transfer if the surrounding area is not rea-
plete examination has been performed. Marking sonably clean. An examination environment can
areas on drawings, sketches, and noting inspected become contaminated in many different ways. One
areas on checklists or on the part after examination such way would be smoke and vapors in the air that
are examples of ensuring large areas or parts are settle on reflective surfaces and reduce the contrast
completely examined. needed to locate potential discontinuities. Field or
inservice inspections often require the removal of
Temperature coatings or insulation.
Elevated temperatures limit the service life of many Certain manufacturing processes may require
metal components. Using metal components in cleaning before visual inspection. Shielded metal
high temperatures can result in creep, thermal arc welding (SMAW), for example, will require slag
fatigue, and overload failure. Creep is the deforma- removal before inspection.
tion of a metal under stress, generally at higher
temperatures than normal. Thermal fatigue cracks Humidity and Temperature
are the result of repeated thermal cycles that cause While people differ in their ability to tolerate heat
expansion and contraction within the metal. If ther- and humidity, it is known that increased body core
mal cycles are caused by friction, as in the case of temperature decreases the mental ability of an
brake components, thermal fatigue cracks called inspector. The National Institute for Occupational
heat checking can occur. Engine exhaust manifolds Safety and Health (NIOSH) recommends a wet bulb
that are restrained during repeated heating and globe temperature (WBGT) of 90 °F (32 °C) as a
cooling cycles may develop fatigue cracks due to maximum for the typical amount of time between
residual tensile stress. Repeated thermal cycles of work breaks (approximately 2 h). If a WBGT is not
certain materials in an oxidizing atmosphere can available and the combined temperature and
create scaly oxide layers over the material. These humidity seem excessive, sound judgment should
flaky layers may mask surface discontinuities, and be exercised regarding the length of time an indi-
care should be taken when inspecting areas of this vidual is exposed to these conditions.
nature.
Many metals exhibit color changes when Safety
exposed to elevated temperatures. Color photo- Of all environmental factors relating to examinations,
graphs of known temperature extremes of specific safety is one of the most important. Precautions can
metals can be beneficial in judging this condition. be taken to minimize potential

hazards and risks involved. Information obtained images may alter the way in which an image enter-
before work is to begin can be used to prepare for and ing the eye is perceived and interpreted, therefore,
lessen potential safety issues. Knowledge about the affecting inspection results.
item or component (such as physical size and shape), When performing repetitive inspections, find-
the inspection location, time of the inspection, and ing one particular discontinuity may cause the
accessibility can help inspection personnel gather the inspector to mentally expect and look for only that
appropriate equipment to perform the task. discontinuity. Vision is a selective sense that is strong-
Inspection personnel should have knowledge of, ly guided by what the observer wants and expects to
or access to, the appropriate regulations concerning see. Intent can affect perception if the inspector is
safety, and all necessary personal protective equip- looking only for certain aspects of a particular
ment should be issued to them. Inspectors should scene. Even though there is a large amount of infor-
receive comprehensive safety training initially and mation available at the time of viewing, some char-
regularly thereafter. acteristics may not be recognized until another
viewing is performed. As an example, a person may
Physiological Factors walk into a crowded room and immediately recog-
nize a familiar face across the room while complete-
Physiological variables that may influence the out- ly missing another familiar person who was not
come of an examination are the inspectors’ physical expected to be present. The same holds true for
comfort, health, mental attitude, fatigue, and the visual inspection. If an inspector is prepared to find
position of the test item to be examined. These vari- only porosity on the surface of a weldment, fusion
ables together or separately cause the inspector to problems at the weld toes may be inadvertently
lose focus or to rush the inspection. missed.
Physical Comfort Fatigue
Although physical comfort is determined by the toler- The effect fatigue has on the general well-being of
ance of the person involved, a comfortable arrange- the inspector cannot be overstated. Fatigue not only
ment for the inspector will result in greater attention affects overall physical feeling of the inspector, but
to detail and fewer distractions and annoyances. An also reduces efficiency and accuracy of the interpre-
inspection performed from an awkward position, or tation of visual data. Repetitive inspections while
from the same position for an extended period of sitting at an inspection table or climbing on objects
time, may result in incorrect calls or missed indica- in the field produce different types of fatigue; how-
tions. The inspector may tend to hurry the examina- ever, both can be distracting and reduce the accura-
tion in order to return to a more comfortable position. cy of the inspection. Another form of fatigue,
fatigue of the eye muscles caused by poor illumina-
Health tion and awkward body positions, leads to oscilla-
Many physical conditions can affect eyesight. Some tion of the eye and eyelids. This is a common cause
perceptual problems are inherited and some are of ineffective visual examinations.
affected by a person’s emotional state or other phys-
ical conditions. Others may be the result of ocular Test Item Position
structure deterioration due to cataracts, glaucoma, The position of the item and its distance from the
hemorrhaging, or tumors. As a person gets older, inspector have an effect on the inspection outcome.
the lens also stiffens. This condition is called presby- Again, the recommended viewing distance and angle
opia, the inability to focus on near objects. Other for visual examination is to have the eye within 24 in.
factors that compromise inspection integrity (61 cm) of the object and positioned at an angle not
include blurring, light sensitivity, watery eyes, pain, less than 30° to the inspection surface as shown in
burning, or other discomfort. If any of these symp- Figure 2 in Chapter 1. If the examination surface is
toms occur, a thorough eye examination is neces- immovable and situated so that the eye cannot be
sary. Other physical ailments such as a cold or the placed within this region, suitable visual aids, such as
flu can provide distractions and loss of focus. mirrors or video cameras, must be used.
Elevated objects present another obstacle to
Mental Attitude proper examination. A component elevated to a
Like physical ailments the inspector’s mental atti- point beyond the reach of the inspector cannot be
tude may affect an inspection. Preconceived mental thoroughly examined without adequate access.

Review Questions

1. When examining objects of substantial size: 6. Battery drain, coated chips, and high light intensities
are all considerations when using:
a. a scanning plan should be formed and followed.
b. glare should be increased. a. incandescent lightning.
c. the use of mirrors and magnifiers is prohibited. b. LED sources.
d. partial examination is acceptable. c. overhead room lightning.
d. CCD arrays.
2. When is the surface condition of a part an important
factor during visual testing? 7. When inspecting a reflective surface, glare from the
surface:
a. Only if the part is painted.
b. Surface condition is never a factor. a. can be best controlled by the amount, angle, and
c. All discontinuities should be visible without the quality of light provided.
factor of the surface condition. b. can be reduced by decreasing the angle between
d. Poor surface condition could mask the glare source and the line of sight.
discontinuities. c. can be managed by increasing light intensity.
d. may be intensified unnecessarily through the use
3. How can glare be reduced during inspection of a of translucent filters.
part?
8. Decreasing the angle between the light source and
a. Dimming the light source.
the line of sight is helpful when examining
b. Increasing the energy of the light source.
___________ surfaces
c. Decreasing the angle of sight.
d. Increasing the amount of reflection. a. highly reflective
b. rough
4. Environmental factors that affect visual inspection
c. polished
include:
d. painted
a. shape and size of the part.
9. Which of the following would require the most
b. atmosphere and cleaniness.
methodical scan pattern?
c. type of part and conditions.
d. color and texture. a. Raw casting.
b. Partially formed forging.
5. To improve the detection of visual dicontinuities on
c. Intermediate passes of a thick weld joint.
colored objects:
d. Complex gear after final grind.
a. significantly increase lighting brightness.
10. Operator performance, when visual testing, is most
b. select the optimal color of lighting to enhance
affected by:
desired characteristics.
c. always attempt to use LED lighting. a. material type.
d. lightly abrade the surface for better contrast. b. component color.
c. environmental conditions.
d. part size.

11. Mill scale, weld slag, and surface coatings can 13. Eye muscle fatigue is driven by:
potentially: a. a medical condition called presbyopia.
a. mask discontinuities. b. cold and flu symptoms.
b. enhance surface features. c. awkward body positions and poor lighting.
c. promote thorough surface inspection. d. limited knowledge of inspection criteria.
d. reduce visual lighting requirements. 14. Which of the following distances and angles for
12. Being aware of hazards or risks related to a viewing an object or feature are within the limits?
forthcoming inspection should be part of _________ a. 12 in. (30.5 cm) from the object and a viewing
planning: angle of 90°.
b. 25 in. (63.5 cm) from the object and a viewing
a. engineering
angle of 90°.
b. safety
c. 24 in. (61 cm) from the object and a viewing
c. break time
angle of 45°.
d. environmental
d. 24 in. (61 cm) from the object and a viewing
angle of 29°.

Answers
1a 2d 3a 4b 5b 6b 7a 8b 9d 10c 11a 12b 13c
14a

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CHAPTER 4
Principles and Theory

Lens Optics
A lens is a device that converges or disperses light by
refraction. Converging lenses focus light on a single
point while divergent lenses disperse light. When
describing lenses, the conventional standard is to
describe the shape of the lens surface from left to right
using the following terminology. Plano describes a flat (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)
surface. Convex lenses are converging lenses; they are
Figure 1: Shapes of convex and concave lenses: (a) biconvex;
thicker in the center than at the edge. Concave lenses (b) plano-convex; (c) convexo-concave; (d) biconcave;
are divergent; they are thinner in the center than at the (e) plano-concave; (f) concavo-convex.
edge. Figure 1 shows examples of these lenses.
Thin lenses are those where the thickness of the Principal Focal
lens is small compared to the focal length. The plane plane
properties of thin lenses are described using the
lens law. This law relates the image distance, object
distance, and focal length of a lens as follows:

1 1 1
Object

f d u
Optical axis
(Eq 1) = +
Image

where
d = image distance,
f = focal length,
u = object distance.
Focal length
The meter is the unit of length.
Figure 2: Converging lens geometry.
The focal length or focal distance of a lens is the
distance from the principal plane to the focal plane. Focal Principal
The principal focus or focal plane is where parallel plane plane
incident light rays converge after being refracted by
the lens. Single converging lens magnifiers, as Image
shown in Figure 2, allow the eye to be positioned
closer to the test object when the retinal focus plane
is at the focal plane of the lens.
Divergent lenses, as shown in Figure 3, diffract Optical axis
light outward, causing minification. Magnification
increases as the object gets closer to the focal plane.
Object
The magnification produced by a diverging lens
may be calculated by manipulating the lens law.
Magnification is the size of the image divided by the

Si D
size of the object: Focal length

M= = i
So Do
(Eq 2) Figure 3: Diverging lens geometry.

where
Di = image distance from principal plane,
Do = object distance from principal plane,
M = magnification,
Si = image size, and
So = object size.
(a)
Cladding Core
Fiber Optics
The industrial fiber optic borescope is a flexible,
layered sheath protecting two fiber optic bundles,
each comprising thousands of glass fibers. One
bundle serves as the image guide, and the other (b)
bundle illuminates the test object. Light travels in
straight lines, but optical glass fibers bend light by
Figure 5: Light paths in fiber bundles:
internal reflection to carry light around corners
(a) uncoated fibers allow light to travel laterally
(Figure 4). Such fibers are 0.0004 to 0.0013 in. (9 to through bundle and (b) coated fibers restrict
30 µm) in diameter, roughly one-tenth of the thick- light’s path to original fiber.
ness of a human hair.

Charge-Coupled Device
Relatively small openings can be accessed by using
a charge-coupled device (CCD) sensor with light
transmitted through a fiber bundle to the test sur-
face. The returning image is passed electronically
Cladding from the charge-coupled device through a wire to
the image processor. From the processor, the recon-
structed pixel image is viewed on a monitor, typi-
cally a liquid crystal display.
Figure 4: Internal reflection of light in optic fiber Small openings from 0.25 to 3.0 in. (6 to 80 mm)
can be used to move light path in curve.
may be penetrated with the probe. Skillful manipu-
lation can gain access to awkward locations not in
the initial line of sight.
A single fiber transmits very little light, but The total distance from the tip to the test sur-
thousands of fibers may be bundled for transmis- face is limited by the fiber bundle transmitting the
sion of light and images. To prevent the light from light. If the bundle is flexible enough to make sharp
diffusing, each fiber consists of a central core of turns, then it may be too flexible to probe very long
high-quality optical glass coated with a thin layer of distances. Similarly, stiff bundles can probe farther
another glass with a different refractive index but do not bend easily.
(Figure 5). This cladding acts as a mirror — all light Small-diameter tubes, pipe, or openings into
entering the end of the fiber is reflected internally piping or tubing systems, pumps, valves, turbines,
as it travels and cannot escape by passing through gear boxes, or other components may be accessed if
the sides to an adjacent fiber in the bundle. there are no multiple sharp turns for distances
longer than several feet (meters).

Review Questions

1. The conversion or dispersion of light through a lens 5. Optical glass fibers bend light by:
is done by: a. internal reflection.
a. focusing. b. internal refraction.
b. refraction. c. focusing.
c. reflection. d. lateral diffusion.
d. fusion. 6. The coatings applied to the exterior of a single fiber
2. A lens with one flat surface that is thicker in the optic strand to prevent light diffusion has a different
center than at the ends would be: __________ than that of the central core fiber.
a. biconex. a. reflection factor
b. plano-convex. b. refractive index
c. biconcave. c. speed of light ratio
d. plano-concave. d. cladding thickness
3. The focal length of a particular lens is: 7. A lens is a device that converges and disperses light
a. the length of the focal plane divided by the focal by what means?
plane. a. Rarefraction.
b. the length of the principal plane divided by the b. Refraction.
principal plane. c. Focal length.
c. the variance between the image size and the d. Diffusion.
object size.
d. the distance from the principal plane to the focal 8. Convex lenses are:
plane.
a. converging lenses.
4. Magnification is: b. refracted lenses.
c. plano.
a. the size of the object divided by the size of the
d. divergent.
image.
b. the size of the image divided by the size of the 9. How is the image transferred from a CCD sensor to
object. the image processor?
c. the size of the object multiplied by the size of the
image. a. Fiber bundle.
d. the size of the image multiplied by the size of the b. Clad surface.
object. c. Rigid tube.
d. A wire.

Answers
1b 2b 3d 4b 5a 6b 7b 8a 9d

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CHAPTER 5
Visual Testing Equipment

Visual inspection examinations are either direct or

indirect.

Direct
Direct visual examination is performed when an
(a)
inspector can place the eye within 24 in. (61 cm)
of the test object surface at an angle of 30° or
greater from the plane of the examination surface.
Typical aids used in direct visual examination
include lighting, magnifiers, mirrors, rules, calipers,
mechanical gages, and weld gages.
Lighting (b)
Light, electromagnetic radiation in the visible spec-
trum, can come from many sources. The primary
electric-powered light sources are incandescent
lamps, fluorescent lamps, light emitting diodes, and
discharge lighting. Lighting is covered in detail in
Chapters 2 and 6.
(c)
Magnifiers
Occasionally, the visual range of the human eye is not Figure 1: Examples of inspection mirrors:
sufficient for observing the desired characteristics. In (a) 1.25 in. (32 mm) diameter mirror; (b) 2.25 in.
these cases, visual aids such as magnifiers are used to (60 mm) diameter mirror with swiveling neck;
enhance natural vision. Magnifiers are available in (c) 2.13 × 3.15 in. (54 × 89 mm) mirror with
magnification powers that range from 1.5× to 2000× swiveling neck.
with fields of view from 3.5 in. (8.9 cm) to 0.006 in.
(0.15 mm). Resolving power can range from 0.002 in. Most have a double ball joint between the mirror
(0.05 mm) to 0.00008 in. (2 μm). Microscopes, loupes, and handle that allows the mirror to swivel to any
and optical comparators are also types of magnifiers. convenient angle.
Mirrors Rules
Mirrors are common inspection aids. Mirrors make The simplest mechanical instrument for linear
inspection possible inside pipes and apertures and measurement is the machinist steel rule. While
inside or behind objects obstructing the inspector’s accurate to 1/64 in. or 0.0156 in. (0.4 mm), even
view. Inspection mirrors come in a variety of shapes when applied properly, misinterpretation is com-
(Figure 1). The head of the mirror can be round or mon. In the United States, rules typically show inch-
rectangular and range in size from 0.8 to 4.0 in. es on one side (either in fractions or decimals) and
(2 to 10.2 cm). Smaller mirrors resemble those used International System (centimeters, millimeters) on
by dentists and can have a 6 in. (15.2 cm) long han- the other.
dle with a round head. When measuring, the inspector should align the
Inspection mirrors frequently have telescoping rule perpendicular to the test piece so the gradua-
handles that can almost double the handle length. tions are as close as possible to the measurement

1 2 3 4 5

Figure 2: Steel rule.

area as shown in Figure 2. This alignment also min- Figure 4: Vernier calipers.
imizes parallax error. If the measurement made
with the selected scale falls between graduations,
the next finer scale should be used.
is used for very accurate measurements (Figure 4).
Calipers All types of direct reading calipers consist of a fixed
Calipers come in a wide variety of sizes and config- jaw on a beam along which a moveable jaw slides.
urations for measuring length, width, height, diam- Typically, direct reading calipers are able to measure
eter, and depth. They can be either indirect reading outside and inside dimensions with their respective
or direct reading. jaws and depth from the beam end of the caliper to
Indirect, or transfer type, reading calipers the moveable jaw’s probe end.
(Figure 3) are used to transfer the dimension of an Electronic direct calipers are the easiest to read
item from the item being measured to a steel rule. because the actual measurement is displayed on a
For example, the measurement of an outside diame- digital readout in either imperial or SI units.
ter is made by adjusting the caliper so that both legs Dial calipers require some interpretation between
lightly touch the widest portion of the item. This the beam scale, which is divided in graduations of
distance is then transferred to a steel rule to obtain inches or millimeters, and the rotating indicator on the
the measurement. If performed properly, this type dial that represents a fraction of inches or millimeters.
of measurement is accurate to 1/64 or 0.0156 in. Vernier calipers are more difficult to use
(0.4 mm). because the scale used requires more care during
A direct reading caliper can be simple — a rule interpretation. The vernier consists of the fixed
with jaws for coarse measurements — or it could be main scale, which is etched into the beam, and the
of the vernier, dial, or electronic digital type, which sliding vernier scale that is attached to the moveable
jaw. When the main scale is in divisions of 1/40 in.,
and the vernier scale division is 1/25 of the main
scale division, the caliper is capable of reading to
1/1000 in. as 1/25 of 1/40 equals 1/1000 or 0.001 in.
Vernier calipers may also measure in millimeters.
To take a measurement with the vernier caliper,
open the jaws larger than the maximum dimension
of the item to be measured. Slowly close the jaws
around the item until light contact is made. For the
greatest accuracy, the item must make even contact
all along the thickness of the jaw faces. Note the
number of inches and subdivisions of an inch that
the zero mark of the vernier scale has passed. This
(a) (b) gives a reading to 1/100 in. The additional thou-
sandths are obtained by observing the graduation of
the vernier scale that coincides with a graduation on
Figure 3: Indirect calipers: (a) outside spring calipers; (b) inside the main scale, and adding this to the tenths obtained.
spring calipers.

Mechanical Gages
Mechanical gages, or microthickness gages, are
extremely accurate at measuring linear dimensions.
Clamp ring
Mechanical gages are available in a wide variety of
configurations for inside and outside measurements Spindle
of flat, curved, threaded, and cylindrical dimen-
15
sions. The mechanical gage is a form of caliper that
operates by determining how far the end of a screw 0 1 2
travels after one complete revolution. They can be
manual (Figure 5a) or digital (Figure 5b). 10
Barrel

Clamp ring Screw

Spindle Ratchet Frame
Anvil
0

Barrel Thimble
Figure 6: Mechanical gage reading.

(a) Frame

Referring to Figure 6, the 2 or 0.2 in. division is

revealed, and the closest graduation to the thimble
is the second, or 0.05 in., and the 12 or 0.012 in.
graduation on the thimble is aligned with the refer-
ence line of the barrel. Adding these together, 0.2
plus 0.05 plus 0.012 gives the dimension 0.262 in.
Weld Gages
(b)
There are a variety of weld gages commonly used in
visual testing (Figure 7).
Figure 5: Mechanical gage, or microthickness The weld fillet gage is a simple, easy-to-use
gage: (a) manual and (b) digital. device that measures leg lengths and determines if
there is sufficient throat in weld fillets (Figure 7a).
This gage is basically a comparator — the accept-
Measurement with the mechanical gage occurs able size is etched into the gage and arcs are cut into
between the anvil and spindle. As the thimble is rotat- the gage to allow space for the weld bead. The gage
ed counterclockwise, the spindle and anvil separate is placed square against the welded components and
and the barrel graduations are revealed in succession. the actual weld is compared to the standards of the
With the part between the anvil and spindle, gage. This type of gage offers a quick and precise
slowly turn the thimble clockwise until the anvil means of measuring concave and convex fillet welds
and spindle make contact with the part. The part from 0.13 in. (3 mm) to 1 in. (25 mm).
should be able to be rotated about the spindle axis Another more versatile device used for weld
with the feeling of a slight drag. Barrel graduations inspection is commonly referred to as the cam-
are revealed by the outward movement of the thim- bridge gage (Figure 7c). The Welding Institute of
ble. To read the dimension, note the largest major Cambridge, England, developed this versatile tool,
division uncovered, the graduation closest to the hence the name. With this device, joint preparation
thimble, and the thimble division aligned with the angles, joint misalignment, weld fillet size, and
barrel reference line. depth measurements can be easily obtained.

The palmgren or displacement weld gage, Indirect Visual Testing

shown in Figure 7d, can be used to measure the size
of fillet welds, the actual throat size of convex and In situations where the inspector does not have
concave fillet welds, reinforcement of butt welds, access to place the eye within 24 in. (61 cm) of the
and root openings of 0.3 in. (8 mm) and 0.13 in. test surface, mechanical and optical instruments,
(3 mm). such as borescopes, can supplement the eye in a
family of techniques called indirect or remote visual
testing.
Instruments for indirect visual testing have
components for three functions: illumination,
image transmission to the inspector’s eye, and one
(a)
or more control circuits to control the camera’s
motion.
Illumination
Indirect visual tests can be classified according to
the source of light that illuminates the test surface.
Light may be ambient, that is, any light that is avail-
able at the inspected item’s location, and may be
Pipe wall natural lighting from the sun or moon, for example,
or artificial lighting such as light in a room.
(b) Light may be introduced by a lamp or flash unit
at the objective end of the probing instrument. A
lamp may be powered through a cable integral to
the borescope.
Light may also be generated at the eyepiece
end of the instrument and conveyed to the test
surface through the fiber optic cable. This type of
illumination is integral to the design of virtually all
(c) borescopes.
Image Transmission
A rigid borescope transmits the image inside the
tube using lenses and possibly mirrors.
A fiber optic borescope uses transparent glass or
plastic fibers in a flexible cable. The image may be
captured by a camera and viewed on a video screen,
such as a computer display.
A camera borescope or video borescope senses
(d) light with a small camera and then converts the
light to an electronic signal that is sent through a
Fillet weld cable to a video receiver.

Rigid Borescopes
0.5 in. (13 mm) Rigid borescopes (lens optics) allow visual inspection
(e) to be performed on areas inside assemblies, on
remote objects that are out of the normal inspection
environment, or on remote objects or assemblies
Figure 7: Typical weld gages: (a) gage for
with restricted physical access (Figure 8). Using a
concave fillet weld; (b) high-low gage for
inside diameter mismatch of small-diameter system of lenses and prisms, borescopes can magnify
pipe; (c) cambridge gage for checking the image of the area of interest while permitting
alignment; (d) weld throat gage; (e) high-low examination. Light at the inspection site is provided
welding gage for misalignment after welding. by a bulb at the distal end of the scope or through a

Light travels in straight lines, but optical glass

fibers bend light by internal reflection to carry light
around corners (Figure 9).
Because each fiber transmits only a small por-
tion of the image, the image bundle must be
Figure 8: Lens system in representative rigid arranged so that each fiber ends at the ocular lens
borescope. in the same position it originates in at the objective
lens. This is called coherent alignment, which allows
for a cohesive image at the eyepiece. If the fibers were
fiber optic bundle or liquid light guide from a randomly placed at each end, the resultant image
remote, high-intensity light source. Borescopes are would be an unrecognizable jumble of dots or pixels.
available in many diameter and length combinations. Although the light is effectively trapped within
Borescopes can use a convex lens relay system, a each fiber, not all of it emerges from the opposite
hybrid rod, or a rigid glass rod, plus objective and end. Some of the light is absorbed by the fiber itself,
ocular lenses. and the amount of absorption depends on the
The convex lens relay system transmits images length of the fiber and its optical quality. For exam-
by relaying them from the object lens through the ple, plastic fiber can transmit light and is less
relay lenses along the length of the borescope to the expensive to produce than optical glass, but plastic
object lens. is less efficient in its transmission and is therefore
The hybrid rod lens consists of a series of rod unsuitable for fiber optic borescopes.
lenses to relay the image. Rod lens trains have an
advantage over simple lens trains in that there are Video Borescope
fewer refraction points resulting in less light scatter- Relatively small openings can be accessed by using
ing, and they may be made in a smaller diameter, a small camera, which is typically a solid-state
which in turn reduces the borescope diameter. silicon chip or light sensor known as a charge-
coupled device (CCD), and light transmitted
Fiber Optic Borescopes through a fiber bundle to the test surface, as stat-
As stated in Chapter 4, an industrial fiber optic ed in Chapter 4. The returning image is passed
borescope is a flexible, layered sheath protecting electronically from the charge-coupled device
two fiber optic bundles, each comprising thousands through a wire to the image processor. From the
of glass fibers. One bundle serves as the image guide, processor, the reconstructed pixel image is viewed
and the other bundle illuminates the test object. on a monitor, typically a liquid crystal display.

Focusing ring
Eyepiece lens
Image
guide Objective lens

Light Protective sheath

guide
Diopter ring
Light guide exit
Light source

Projection lamp

Figure 9: Representative fiber optic borescope.

Video Borescope Measurement Techniques

Characteristics measured by indirect visual testing
describe a feature. There are seven ways that a
feature’s shape, orientation, or extent can be meas-
ured on the test surface:
● a distance (linear) measurement on a flat surface;
● a skew measurement, which is a linear
measurement on the surface at an angle
(Figure 10);
● a depth measurement of the depth or height of
the object (Figure 11);
● an area measurement that calculates the surface
area;
● a circle gage to check that a feature does not
Figure 12: The circle gage technique makes a
exceed a certain diameter or distance in any circle of known size on an image to compare
direction (Figure 12); to a feature, based on known reference
● multiple short segments, which measure the dimension.
length of a nonlinear feature;
● point-to-line measurement, which provides data
in two dimensions, along an X axis and Y axis. Remote Video Cameras
The length of a line perpendicular to a line Push Cameras
between two points is measured. A push camera is mounted on a rigid or semi-rigid
rod that is inserted into an aperture or cavity. A
separate electronics cable controls the camera and
carries images to the inspector or workstation. A
push camera can be adapted to various applications
with specific cable lengths, camera diameters, and
lens options to perform a variety of inspections
with one video system. Applications are found in
the infrastructure, processing, power generation,
and water treatment industries. Camera heads can be
exchanged for different pipe openings and diameters.
The push camera design is unsuited for large-
diameter channels or open spaces where specific
Figure 10: Skew measurement is a linear directional views are desired. Without pan, tilt, and
measurement of an object on the surface at a zoom capabilities, the view obtained yields mini-
skewed angle to the optical axis of the probe. mum choice by the operator.

Crawlers
Crawlers are useful for pipe inspections and
entrances to hazardous spaces. Pipe crawler camera
systems are commonly made of a tractor, lights, a
camera, a cable reel, central control unit, and vari-
ous accessories and controls, including auxiliary
lights and centering devices (Figure 13).
Robotic crawlers are available with options to
mount a CCD camera with 35 W spot or flood
lamps.
Crawlers can explore enclosed spaces and
channels such as air ducts and electrical conduits,
Figure 11: Depth measurement measures the
lubrication oil lines, steam lines, steam headers,
height or depth of an object by determining and small pressure vessels and tanks. If water-
distances from probe to upper and lower proof, crawlers are suited for environments that
surfaces and calculating the difference. may have liquid up to 4 in. (10 cm) deep — sewer

lines, concrete pipe storm lines, and intake or dis-

charge lines. A variety of wheel assemblies are avail- Camera
able for retrieving loose parts and maneuvering Cable connector
through wreckage.

Pan, Tilt, and Zoom Cameras

Cameras that are able to pan, tilt, and zoom
(Figure 14) facilitate inspections by directing the
camera on specific areas of interest.
The pan, tilt, and zoom camera is suited for sur- (a) Strain relief
veillance, large-diameter piping, online applications,
radiation environments, underwater applications,
sumps, manifolds, and steam headers. The pan, tilt,
and zoom camera is not suited for small-diameter
piping or heat exchangers.
Auxilary Video Equipment
Auxiliary video equipment is needed in conjunction
with a camera to take the image data from the
CCDs in the camera (imager) to the processor via
cables and to the monitor via cables for viewing by
the inspector.

Monitors (b)
An LCD monitor is a thin, light computer monitor
that displays images through the use of a liquid
crystal display. LCD screens are found in most lap- Figure 13: Video probe crawler: (a) side diagram;
top computers as well as in flat-panel monitors, and (b) application photograph.
have replaced traditional cathode ray tube (CRT)
monitors for many users. CRTs once were preferred
by many users for their superior color presentation;
improvements in LCDs have made the difference
less noticeable. Whether the LCD monitor is a
stand-alone device or integral with the camera, an
LCD is the most common monitor for remote
visual inspections.

Processors
In the making of video images for remote visual
inspection, a camera with a CCD to capture the
image is used. The signal is sent to a video processor.
The video processor then processes the electronic
signal.
A video processor is a chip or stand-alone com-
ponent that provides video format conversion.
Video processing chips are built into video equip-
ment to process input signals by performing all or
some combination of the following functions:
upconversion, deinterlacing, frame rate conversion,
noise reduction, and artifact removal.
The video processor delivers video files or
streams as an output. These files may be stored
temporarily for transfer on digital data storage Figure 14: Camera head with pan, tilt, and
media. There are many solid-state storage devices, zoom capabilities.

including flash memory, compact flash cards,

memory sticks, memory cards, hard drive memory,
and optical media.

Cables
There are several cable types used to transfer data Pixel
from the imager to the processor and from the
processor to the monitor.

USB
Universal serial bus (USB) is an industry standard
developed in the mid-1990s that defines the cables,
connectors, and communications protocols used in
a bus for connection, communication, and power
supply between computers and electronic devices.

IEEE 1394 Interface

The IEEE 1394 interface, developed in the late 1980s
and early 1990s by AppleTM as FireWireTM, is a serial
bus interface standard for high-speed communica- Figure 15: Array of pixels in digital display.
tions and isochronous real-time data transfer. The
1394 interface is comparable with USB, and often
those two technologies are considered together.

Principles of Measurement be placed where needed, if the computer will not

match two stereo images, or if the approximate sizes
There are several designs that permit optical sys- of many items are to be checked quickly.
tems to measure objects and indications in the field
of view. Three fundamental approaches — triangu- Shadow Measurement
lation, pixel counting, and comparison with a refer- A light source creates a shadow of a known angle.
ence object — are used in combination by three A measurement of the shadow is made. The shift of
measurement techniques: comparison, shadow, and the shadow cast permits the calculation of the dis-
stereo. tance to the surface on which the shadow lies.
Measurement can be made even if the object is
Comparison Measurement so close to a surface that the image is somewhat out
Comparison measurements are made by using of focus. In this case, features must be sharp enough
saved images and reference objects. Begin by meas- so that the cursors can be placed accurately.
uring the dimension of a known reference object or Implementations of the shadow technique include
feature (placed on the test surface) to compare to distance, skew, depth, point-to-line length, multi-
other objects in the same view and plane. These ref- ple-segment length, area, and circle gage.
erence images must be at the same focal distance to The measurement surface must be nearly per-
the test surface, and the measurement surface must pendicular to the probe view for an accurate meas-
be nearly perpendicular to the probe for accuracy. urement, except for skew measurements.
Pixels in the image are then counted to measure
feature areas and dimensions (Figure 15). Stereo Measurement
The comparison technique is suited for measur- A stereoscopic image uses two images of the same
ing the length, point-to-line distance, multiple seg- scene, taken from different viewpoints slightly dis-
ment length, area, and circle gage diameter of fea- placed from each other. The viewpoints correspond
tures. Although less accurate than shadow or stereo to the right and left eyes (Figure 16). Some indirect
measurements, comparison measurements are use- visual test systems capture the twin images by off-
ful if a shadow or stereo tip is unavailable, if the setting one lens by a small, known distance. An
area or feature to be measured is too far away for inspector must view a stereoscopic image with both
the shadow or stereo technique, if a shadow cannot eyes to get the stereo effect.

Parallax is the difference or displacement in the

apparent motion of a relatively close object with Camera Aperture
respect to a more distant background as the loca- sensors Light guide Splitting lens
Lens
tion of the observer changes. Stereoscopic parallax is Object
caused by taking photographs of the same object,
but from different points of observation. Adjacent,
but overlapping, photograph pairs can be used to
measure depth and feature dimensions. Two images
The difference in the angles formed by the lines Head assembly Stereo tip
of sight to two objects at different distances from
the eyes is a factor in the visual perception of depth.
Figure 16: Setup of the stereo technique. An inspector must
Parallax is inversely proportional to an object’s dis- view a stereoscopic image with both eyes to get the
tance. An object near the inspector’s nose has a stereoscopic effect.
much larger parallax than an object at arm’s length.
There are five implementations of stereo measure-
ment: length, point-to-line, area, multiple-segment Summary
length, and circle gage. Digital technology has revolutionized the practice
The accuracy of stereo measurements depends of visual testing. Personal computers are used for
on operator skill, image quality, and magnification. processing, archiving, and transmitting images.
The usable range for performing stereo measure- Remote and portable devices integrate microproces-
ments typically extends out to a target distance of sors for recording and transmission of test images
about 1.25 in. (31.7 mm). For more accurate meas- on site. Advances in battery life, hard disk memory,
urements, it is recommended that measurements be and processor speed have made possible the acqui-
performed with a distance of 0.62 in. (15.7 mm) sition of test documentation, including video
from tip to target. records, that was impractical to obtain in the 20th
century.

Review Questions

1. Which of the following are visual examination 5. The best equipment to use to measure the inside
techniques? diameter of a pipe or tube would be a:
a. Direct and indirect. a. microthickness gage.
b. Shear and longitudinal. b. cambridge gage.
c. Manual and automatic. c. comparator.
d. Visible and fluorescent. d. direct reading caliper/dial caliper.
2. Many video borescope systems use a CCD to collect 6. The main difference between a borescope and
the light image at the inspection site. CCD stands for: fiberscope is that:
a. closed circuit device. a. a borescope is rigid and transmits light through a
b. charge-coupled device. system of lenses; a fiberscope is flexible and
c. color camera detection. transmits light through a bundle of fibers.
d. cold cathode delivery. b. a borescope is flexible and transmits light through
a system of lenses; a fiberscope is rigid and
3. A borescope transmits the light image collected at the transmits light through a bundle of fibers.
inspection site: c. a borescope will supply light to the inspection
a. through a series of lenses and/or mirrors. site; the fiberscope will not.
b. through a light guide bundle. d. borescopes are available in only one basic length;
c. through electric signals. fiberscopes are available in various lengths.
d. through an image guide bundle.
7. A cambridge gage may be used to:
4. The graduations etched on the thimble of a
a. verify bevel angle, measure undercut, measure
microthickness gage are in:
weld reinforcement.
a. 1/100 in. b. measure porosity.
b. 1/40 in. c. measure slag.
c. 1/1000 in. d. measure crater cracks.
d. 1/10 in.

Answers
1a 2b 3a 4c 5d 6a 7a

Many applications of visual testing (VT) require Local lighting includes desk lamps and other
lighting adequate in contrast so that relevant objects portable lighting equipment. Local lighting pro-
or discontinuities are detectable. duces very high illuminance and is useful when
When performing visual inspections under field shadow formation produces enhanced contrast
conditions, it can be difficult to get enough light, or (Figure 1).
on a bright sunny day, there may be too much light. Other lighting techniques include front lighting,
Shadows in the inspection area can be controlled by back lighting, structured lighting, strobe lighting,
a horizontal light source with a large surface area or and ultraviolet lighting. Each performs a specific
by reflection from illuminated walls. Harsh shadows purpose for the examination. Front lighting is used
generally cause eye strain, but some shadow effect when the features of interest contrast sharply with
can accentuate contrast and aid in the detection of the background. Back lighting is used when a sil-
depth and form. It is important to weigh the effects houetted feature is needed. Structured lighting uses
of luminance on the probability of detecting a sig- light sources combined with optical elements to
nificant indication. form a line of light to measure the height or detect a
silhouette of an object. Strobe lighting is also called
Recommended Lighting Levels flash lighting. The strobe light flashes at the moment
the photograph is taken and is used to photograph
Generally visual testing requires area lighting or
task lighting.
Area Lighting
Area or room lighting can be direct, semi-direct, or
diffuse. In room lighting, ceiling lamps direct 90%
to 100% of the output downward. This type of light-
ing produces high illuminance vertically, but can
also produce shadows, glare, and veiling reflections.
Highly reflective walls are generally recommended
to control these effects.
Ambient lighting is diffuse, directing light (a)
upward, downward, and sideways. This type of
lighting generally provides good brightness rela-
tionships throughout the room and produces hori-
zontal illuminance to soften shadows. Glare is mini-
mal with this type of lighting.
Task Lighting
Task lighting is classified based on its orientation to
the task to be performed. General task lighting pro-
vides approximately uniform illuminance over a
broad area and is typically produced by area or
room lighting. (b)
Localized general lighting provides optimum illu-
mination in the inspection area. Commonly, ceiling
lights are positioned close to the inspection area. Figure 1: Flashlights: (a) household; (b) high power.

moving objects. Ultraviolet lighting is used to cause

fluorescent materials to glow such as when used
during magnetic particle and fluorescent penetrant
inspections.

Typical Visual Testing Discontinuities

Metallic Materials
Visual testing (VT) is used to locate discontinuities
in many stages during the manufacturing process.
VT is commonly performed on castings, forgings,
and welds and is performed after machining
processes as well. A discontinuity may be created at
one stage and be detected in a later stage when pro-
cessing has changed its shape or accessibility.
(Figure 2).
Figure 3: Indication of cold shut in a casting,
enhanced with magnetic particles.

Cut
shape of the pattern. Hot tears and shrink cracks are
usually evident in areas of tension such as corners,
Ingot Pipe
areas where portions of the casting are restrained,
or areas where large thickness transitions occur.
Cold shuts are an incomplete fusion of the cast
metal that results from an interrupted pour of metal,
Plate Fissure or in areas where freezing has occurred before the
pour is complete. Cold shuts are generally found near
an area of interrupted flow near the core.

Sheet Lamination Forgings

Forgings are made by placing a blank of metal
between two dies and forming the blank into the
Figure 2: Development of a discontinuity in metal. finished part using great pressure or repeated blows.
Several discontinuity types may be evident during
visual examination, notably laps, bursts, and flash
Castings line tears (Figure 4).
Castings are made by pouring molten metal into a
preformed mold. Typical casting discontinuities that
appear on the surface include inclusions, porosity,
hot tears, shrink cracks, and cold shuts (Figure 3).
Inclusions may result from the sand used to
make the mold, slag from the poured metal, refrac-
tory materials, or other materials that do not melt
and alloy with the molten metal. Inclusions appear
anywhere on the surface and give the surface a
rough, porous appearance.
Porosity is the result of gases emanating from
the molten metal that have been trapped during
freezing.
Hot tears and shrink cracks are caused by an
uneven rate of freezing of the metal or drastic Figure 4: Flash lines and laps in forgings
changes in material thickness due to an irregular enhanced with magnetic particles.

Laps are produced when material folds over due prior to depositing additional weld metal, it may get
to the forging process. The material is subsequently trapped in the weld. Slag appears as an elongated
pressed down onto adjacent material but does not indication between weld beads (Figure 6) and is not
fuse due to surface oxidation. Laps can appear always visible from the surface.
almost anywhere on a forging, but usually appear Fusion is the melting and mixing of weld metal
along the flash line. (See Figure 4.) A burst is a rup- and base metal, or previous weld layers. If complete
ture of the material that occurs due to forging at an fusion does not occur, a linear indication may be
improper temperature or a drastic change in section evident between weld beads or between the weld
thickness as the material is forced throughout the bead and the base metal (Figure 7).
die. Flash line tears are cracks along the flash line Penetration is the term used to define the degree
caused by improper trimming of flash. to which the weld metal has entered the weld joint.
Penetration is important for determining if the
Welds opposite side of the weldment is accessible to the
Welding, the process of joining members together
by applying enough heat to melt and fuse the mate-
rial, results in a number of discontinuities apparent
during visual examination. Porosity, cracks, slag,
incomplete fusion, inadequate penetration, under-
cut, arc strikes, and overlap are the discontinuities
that may appear on a completed weldment.
Porosity, as in the casting process, is the result of
gases emanating from the molten weld pool that are
trapped during the freezing of the metal.
Cracks can occur due to the portion of the base
material being restrained during the cooling
process. As the weld metal cools it contracts, and
any restraint may cause crater cracking (Figure 5).
Slag is the remains of the flux shielding used to
protect the molten weld pool from atmospheric
contaminants. If slag is not completely removed

Figure 6: Slag inclusion.

Crater
cracks

Arc strike

Figure 5: Location and typical appearance of Figure 7: Incomplete fusion at the root of a weld.
crater cracks.

inspector. A weld root that is at least as high as the Machining Processes

base metal that blends smoothly with the base Machining processes can include turning on a lathe,
metal will evidence the correct amount of penetra- milling, grinding, drilling, and cutting and may
tion. Inadequate penetration (Figure 8) occurs result in discontinuities. Grinding cracks result
when the weld root is less than specified for a joint. from excessive heat generated in the item during
Undercut is caused by a failure of the weld metal the grinding process and they appear as fine, tight
to flow into the reduced area vacated by the melting cracks. Tears occur due to improper stock or tool
base metal. This creates a notch type discontinuity bit speed, and they result in a tearing of material
at the transition between weld and base material or rather than the desired cut.
weld toe (Figure 9).
Overlap occurs when the weld metal flows over Nonmetallic Materials
the underlying material but does not fuse with it. Commonly used methods of NDT, including visual
The resulting notch type discontinuity produced and optical testing, are used to locate surface dis-
results in a concentration of stresses at the base of continuities of ceramic, plastic, fiberglass, rubber,
the notch. soldered electronics, and other nonmetallic materi-
als used in various industries. Special techniques
used to enhance inspection include the use of mag-
nification, cameras, lasers, and others. Common
concerns might include cracks, pitting, buckling,
delamination, and voids during the manufacturing
processes or damage from impact, stress, and corro-
sion while in service.

Ceramics
Ceramics have high strengths and hardness, but are
also brittle. They have strong chemical bonds that
make them resistant to chemical attack and excel-
lent high-temperature properties. Ceramic products
can be categorized as glass, abrasives, refractories,
white wares, gypsum products, porcelain enamels,
and advanced ceramics.

Plastics
Figure 8: Inadequate penetration.
The physical characteristics of plastics are primarily
determined by the polymers used to create them.
Thermoplastics can be heated and cooled and yet
retain many of their original properties. Some com-
mon thermoplastics include nylon, polyester, poly-
ethylene, polystyrene, polypropylene, and polyvinyl
chloride.
Composites
Composites are considered to be combinations of
materials differing in composition or form on a
macroscale. The constituents retain their identities
in the composite; that is, they do not dissolve or
otherwise merge completely into each other
although they act in concert.1 Examples of compos-
ite materials are concrete, fiberglass, and wood sub-
stitutes. Advanced or engineered composites are
found on aircraft, wind turbines, military armor,
and consumer items such as golf club shafts, fishing
Figure 9: Undercut on the outside diameter of a weld. rods, and high-performance bicycles. These

advanced composite materials provide greater and ultimately be detrimental to the serviceability
strength-to-weight ratios over metals, but are gener- of the component. Some discontinuities can be
ally more expensive to manufacture. An advantage readily detected by visual inspection, although oth-
is that they are not subject to corrosion like metals ers may not. For example, impact damage may not
and theoretically have a longer life. be detected on the surface but may cause subsurface
For engineered structures such as aircraft, com- damage affecting the integrity of the component.
posites are generally categorized as either honey- Discontinuities that can be detected by visual
comb sandwich or monolithic. Honeycomb com- inspection include blisters, cracks, discoloration,
posites can be made from all metal, metal and disbonding, erosion, environmental degradation,
nonmetal, or all nonmetal. These structures are fiber fracture, impact damage, and resin richness or
comprised of a honeycomb-shaped core with skin starvation.
material covering the core. Monolithic structures
can also comprise metallic and nonmetallic Soldered Joints
materials. Nonmetallic materials are composed Soldering involves heating a joint to a suitable tem-
of a fiber reinforced with a plastic resin matrix. perature and using a filler metal (solder) that melts
The fibers can be of various materials and can be below 840° F (450° C). The filler metal is distrib-
randomly oriented or have specific orientations uted between the faying (or closely fitted) surfaces
providing structurally loaded products. of the joint by capillary action. Many metals can be
soldered including aluminum, copper-base alloys,
Inspection of Composite Materials nickel-base alloys, steel, and stainless steel.
Composite structures require inspection similar to The mechanism for soldering involves three
metallic structures during manufacturing and in- closely related phenomena: (1) wetting, (2) alloying,
service. Generally, visual inspection is performed and (3) capillary action. Wetting is the most com-
with sufficient lighting and direct inspection sup- mon problem encountered with soldering, resulting
plemented with a 10 magnifier. Inaccessible areas in incomplete coverage of the surface with solder.
can be inspected with indirect tools such as Visual testing is the most widely used method for
borescopes, fiberscopes, and video scopes. nondestructive inspection of soldered joints.
Reference standards along with workmanship man-
Manufacturing Discontinuities uals are often used to aid the inspector in checking
Discontinuities formed during manufacturing can the general design conformance, wetting, finished
occur from poor workmanship, contamination, cleanliness of the product, and the quality and
inadequate vacuum or autoclave settings, insuffi- quantity of the solder.
cient resin cure, or poor handling, for example. Not Soldering can be divided into either structural
all discontinuities can be visually detected; delami- or electrical soldering based on the physical
nations and air bubbles may not be detectable. requirements for the bonding. Structural soldering
Visual inspection can be supplemented by other requires the joint to meet specific strength, leak
nondestructive testing methods. tightness, and, in some applications, thermal con-
Manufacturing discontinuities can include duction (with heat exchangers, for example).
delaminations, disbonds, air bubbles, voids, resin Electrical soldering is used to ensure that good and
rich or starved areas, wrinkles, thermal decomposi- reliable electrical point-to-point connections are
tion, tooling errors, dents, scratches, gouges, and achieved. The acceptance criteria for electrical sol-
edge-cut errors. As with any manufacturing discon- der joints depends on good wetting, filleting, and
tinuities, the acceptance or rejection of the disconti- coverage, and on low electrical resistance of the
nuities should be based on the manufacturing stan- joint.
dard or customer criteria.
1. Military Handbook – MIL-HDBK-10-1F: Composite Materials
Inservice Discontinuities Handbook, Volume 1 – Polymer Composites Guidelines for
Characterization of Structural Materials, U.S. Department of
Inservice discontinuities may occur due to age, Defense. 2002.
abuse, impact, moisture ingression, or structural
overloading. These discontinuities can significantly
reduce the load-carrying capability of the structure

Review Questions

1. A groove melted in the base metal at the toe or root 6. Laminations would most likely occur in:
of the weld during the welding process is called:
a. castings.
a. underfill. b. forgings.
b. undercut. c. plate.
c. a cold lap. d. sheet.
d. lack of fusion.
7. If there is a substantial thickness transition in a
2. Seams and laps are longitudinal base metal casting, the result may be:
discontinuities found in:
a. a cold shut.
a. cast products. b. a hot tear.
b. rolled products. c. a lamination.
c. welded products. d. porosity.
d. forged products.
8. Porosity, pipe, and other inclusions remaining in the
3. Forged products display two major types of original ingot after cropping may be modified after
discontinuities: rolling into plate form. If this type of discontinuity is
not fused together during rolling, it becomes:
a. laps and bursts.
b. laps and laminations. a. a cold shut.
c. hot tears and craters. b. a hot tear.
d. shrinkage and cold shuts. c. lamination.
d. porosity.
4. The result of gasses becoming trapped in molten
metal during solidification is called: 9. Forged products are manufactured using:
a. slag. a. dies.
b. burst. b. molds.
c. porosity. c. rams.
d. shrink. d. punches.
5. Incomplete penetration occurs at the: 10. The soldering process:
a. root of the weld. a. melts the base metal only.
b. face of the weld. b. creates a new alloy between the filler material and
c. toe of the weld. joined materials.
d. end of the weld. c. draws the filler metal into the joint through
capillary action.
d. does not provide any structural integrity to a
bonded joint.

Answers
1b 2b 3a 4c 5a 6c 7b 8c 9a 10c

The evaluation and disposition of welds, compo- ● The sum of diameters of porosity in fillet welds
nents, and systems for aerospace, infrastructure, does not exceed 3/8 in. in any linear inch of weld
power piping, and petrochemical piping are delin- and shall not exceed 3/4 in. in any 12 in. length
eated in procedures written from the requirements of weld.
of different codes, standards, and specifications. ● Groove welds shall have no elongated porosity
(length greater than three times the width)
Welds whose major dimension lies approximately
parallel to the weld axis.
Structural welds may reference American Welding ● Fillet welds in any single continuous weld shall
Society (AWS) D1.1. Nuclear power plants are be permitted to under run the nominal fillet size
inspected to American Society of Mechanical required by 1/16 in. without correction provided
Engineers (ASME) Section XI, while piping welds that the undersize weld does not exceed 10% of
frequently are evaluated and dispositioned to ASME the length of the weld.
B31.1, B31.3, Section III, or American Petroleum ● Undercut is less than 1/32 in. (Figure 2).
Institute (API) STD 650 and 1104. Welding, or the
joining of materials, is used in manufacturing and
repair processes by all industries, and visual testing
is required. Common weld configurations required
for code welding include full penetration joints and
completely filled groove joints (Figure 1).

(a)

Figure 2: Undercut.
(b)

● The weld is free from overlap.

Figure 1: In full penetration joints, weld metal ● Where surface finishing is required, the
completely fills the groove and is fused to the
roughness value shall be as specified in the
base metal throughout its thickness: (a) double
the V; (b) single V. contract, specification, or drawings.
● The surfaces of the completed component shall
be free of slag, spatter, rust, loose scale, oil, and
Infrastructure — AWS D1.1 dirt unless otherwise permitted.
Structural welding acceptance criteria typically
include: Components, Nuclear Power Plant –
● The weld and base metal have no cracks.
ASME XI
● Thorough fusion exists between weld metal and Components and systems at nuclear power plants
base metal. are inspected numerous times, first in accordance
● All craters are filled to the full cross section of with the individual components’ fabrication code
the welds. (ASME Section III, VIII, B31.1, B31.3, or AWS

D1.1, for example.), then prior to service, called Petrochemical — ASME B31.1, B31.3,
preservice, and then regularly during the life of the Section III, and API STD 650, 1104
plant, called inservice. ASME and API weld acceptance criteria are similar.
To ensure that specific visuals are being per- The following weld conditions are typically unac-
formed, ASME Section XI specifies multiple types ceptable:
of visual testing including VT-1 for direct visual, ● Alignment and reinforcement exceeding the
VT-2 for leak detection during pressure tests and code allowance.
hydrostatic tests, and VT-3 for general mechanical ● Alignment criteria and limits are given in
and structural condition assessments, which may various figures.
include dimensional checks of various components ● Weld reinforcement criteria and limits are given
including component supports. in various figures.
ASME Section XI is prescriptive in the examina-
tion requirements as described in the Examination Some limits for dimensional criteria are:
Tables, which are given for each of the ASME Code ● Weld transition exceeding a 3-to-1 taper for butt
Classes (1, 2, 3). Within these owner-defined classes welds.
are the pressure-retaining component to be exam- ● The shape and size of fillet and socket welds.
ined, by what examination method (visual, surface, ● Any cracks or linear discontinuities (Figure 3).
volumetric), a generic figure showing the examina- ● Undercut greater than 1/32 in. deep, or that
tion requirement, and the acceptance standard. encroaches on minimum wall thickness.
Additionally, the extent and frequency of the exami- ● Lack of fusion.
nations are stipulated for a 10-year period, typically. ● Incomplete penetration.
These components are generally grouped as reactor ● Arc strikes.
pressure vessel, pressurizer, steam generator, heat
exchanger, piping, pumps, and valves, and then the
Transverse crack in weld
component supports such as hangers, snubbers, and and heat affected zone
rigid restraints. In recent years, components have
Crater crack
expanded to include metal containments
and concrete structures related to those that are
pressure-retaining boundaries for the plant.
An example of acceptance criteria for Class 1
bolting greater than 2 in. (51 mm) in diameter is:
Throat crack
Toe crack
The following relevant conditions are unacceptable
Root crack
and require further corrective action:
(a) crack-like flaws that exceed the following:
a. for nonaxial flaws, 1/4 in. (6 mm) in length Figure 3: Typical weld cracks. Note: As
depicted, the root crack and toe crack may
b. for axial flaws, 1 in. (25 mm) in length
not be visually detected from the top surface.
(b)more than one deformed or sheared thread in
the zone of thread engagement of bolts, studs, or
nuts;
(c) localized general corrosion that reduces the bolt
or stud cross-sectional area by more than 5%; Manufacturing
(d)bending, twisting, or deformation of bolts or Manufacturers use various evaluation criteria based
studs to the extent that assembly or disassembly on the needs determined by the user and the appli-
is impaired; cation within a particular industry. Proprietary or
(e) missing or loose bolts, studs, nuts, or washers; industry specific standards may be established,
(f) fractured bolts, studs, or nuts; required, and agreed upon by the manufacturer and
(g) degradation of protective coatings on bolting the client. These may include the already mentioned
surfaces; or ASME, AWS, and API standards, as well as others
(h)evidence of coolant leakage near bolting. such as Aerospace Material Specification (AMS),
American National Standards Institute (ANSI), and
American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM).

Rigid borescope
Flange upper radius
Typical rib web
D

Fiber optic Fiber optic light source

light source

Rudder skin

D
Typical
Flange upper radius cracks
Flexible borescope
Rigid
borescope Cracked Flexible borescope
Up flange
Section D-D

Figure 4: Determining crack length in rudder ribs by visual test.

Aerospace After review of the applicable documents is

Aerospace manufacturers either have their own pro- complete, the inspector should next determine:
prietary evaluation and disposition criteria or use ● Which type of visual examination is needed:
industry standards. Each contract will spell out the direct or remote?
details for its specific parts or components. ● What is the surface condition? Is cleaning
Excessive wear, cracking, pitting, corrosion, and pri- necessary, and by which process that is available
mary/secondary process discontinuities will be and practical?
specified for individual contracts (Figure 4). ● It is also necessary to know at which stage of the
manufacturing process the inspection should be
Military carried out. For example, during a welding
Acceptance standards for NAVSEA Technical operation, is the inspector performing fit-up,
Publication T9074-AS-GIB-010/271 shall be in root pass, or final weld inspection?
accordance with the requirements set forth by the ● Will any special illumination be necessary: drop-
client. The client shall specify acceptance class in light, flashlight?
contract documents. This document does not ● Are measuring instruments such as fillet weld
cover acceptance standards. It does address how gage, high-low gage, pit gage, or machinist scale
to perform nondestructive testing, including visual required?
testing. ● Are any vision aids necessary: magnifying lens,
optical comparator?
Inspection Requirements ● How to document the inspection: pictures,
report form?
Direct Visual Physical requirements such as an annual vision
The inspector must first know which code or writ- test should be addressed in the company’s written
ten procedure he/she is performing inspection work practice for visual inspection.
to. These documents should provide physical The procedure should provide technique
requirements, technique requirements, and the spe- requirements that are stated in the applicable
cific acceptance criteria. Sometimes it is necessary code(s). This should address direct viewing require-
to review related drawings and work package to ments such as a viewing distance usually no more
determine the inspection requirements. than 24 in. (61 cm) and at no less than 30° to the

ASME Section V NDE Examination, is the code

Eye section dedicated to address “how to” perform NDE
for all the other ASME Sections, including VT
whose requirements are in Article 9 of Section V.

24
Section V does not include acceptance criteria,
in.
which are found in the referencing code section.
(61 Paragraph T-941 of Article 9 requires visual
m) c No closer than
examination be done to a written procedure.
6 in. (15 cm)
30° 30° Subparagraph T-941.2 requires the procedure to
include the following at a minimum:
● How visual examination is to be performed.
Test surface Test site ● Surface condition requirements and criteria for
surface cleaning, including cleaning instructions.
Figure 5: Range of viewing angle. ● Method or tool for surface preparation, if any.
● Whether the examination is direct or remote.
● Special illumination, instruments, or equipment
to be used.
● Sequence of performing the examination, when
viewing surface (Figure 5). There are also lighting applicable.
requirements that vary with each code, ranging ● Data to be tabulated, if any.
from 50 fc to 100 fc (538.2 lux to 1076.4 lux). ● Report forms or general statement to be
completed.
Remote Visual T-941.4 states: The procedure shall contain or
Codes, Specifications, Standards reference a report of what was used to demonstrate
Since many aspects of design, manufacture, and that the examination procedure was adequate. In
construction of components are governed by codes, general, a fine line 1/32 in. wide or less or some
specifications, and standards, it is important to other artificial flaw located on the surface or similar
understand the difference between these three surface to that under examination may be consid-
terms. ered a test method for this demonstration. The line
● Codes – A standard enacted or enforced as a or artificial flaw should be in the least discernable
law. location on the area to be examined, to prove the
● Specifications – A set of instructions or procedure.
standards invoked by a specific customer to T-942 Physical Requirements states: Personnel
govern the results or performance of a specific shall have an annual vision exam to assure natural
set of tasks. or corrected near distance vision acuity such that
● Standards – Document to control and govern they are capable of reading standard J-1 letters on
practices in an industry or application, applied standard Jaeger test type charts for near vision.
on a national or international basis and usually Equivalent near vision tests are acceptable.
produced by consensus. Orthorator, Titmus, or other vision tester
Visual testing is required to some extent in the brands/models may be acceptable.
API, ASME, and AWS codes and is also addressed T-952 Direct Visual Examination states: Direct
in the certification requirements of ASNT. visual examination may be made when access is suf-
ASME uses the terms examination/examiner ficient to place the eye within 24 in. of the surface
where other codes use the terms inspection/ to be examined and at an angle of not less than 30°
inspector. to the surface. Mirrors may be used to improve the
angle of vision, and aids such as magnifying lenses
ASME SECTION III – Rules for Construction of may be used to assist examinations. (See Figure 5.)
Nuclear Power Plant Components T-952 Direct Visual Examination states: The
● Requires visual examination be performed in specific part, component, vessel, or section thereof,
accordance with Article 9 of ASME Section V. under immediate examination shall be illuminated
● Personnel certified in accordance with to a minimum of 15 fc for general examination and
Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A. 50 fc for the detection or study of small anomalies.

T-953 Remote Visual Examination states: In

some cases, remote visual examinations may have to
be substituted for direct examination. Remote visual
examination may use visual aids such as mirrors,
telescopes, borescopes, fiber optics, cameras, or
other suitable instruments. Such systems shall have 13
resolution capability at least equivalent to that
obtainable by direct visual observation.
14
1
ASME SECTION XI – Rules for Inservice
2 15
Inspection of Nuclear Power Plant Components
ASME Section XI references Section V, but expands 3
visual requirements considerably. These modifica- 16
tions include: 4
● Types of visual examination.
● Different vision acuity and lighting 5
requirements. 17
● Personnel certification requirements. 18
6
Section XI further defines types of visual exami- 19
nations into three kinds of visual examination — 7
20
VT-1, VT-2, and VT-3: 21
● VT-1 – General service inspection conducted to 8
detect discontinuities on surfaces.
● VT-2 – Conducted to detect evidence of leakage.
9
● VT-3 – Conducted to determine the general 22
10
structural and mechanical condition of 23
components and their supports to detect 11
conditions that could affect operability or 12
functional adequacy. 24
Pressurized water reactors and boiling water Legend
reactors are the two most common nuclear reactor 1. Control rod drive shaft.
2. Lifting lug.
3. Upper support plate.
models in United States nuclear power generation
plants (Figures 6 and 7). 4. Internals support ledge.
5. Core barrel.
6. Outlet nozzle.
ASME B31.1 – Power Piping 7. Upper core plate.
8. Reactor vessel.
9. Lower instrumentation guide tube.
● Developed in parallel with ASME Section I
(Power Boilers). 10. Bottom support forging.
11. Radial support.
12. Tie plates.
● Is generally used for fossil power plant
applications and for non-nuclear piping systems 13. Control rod drive mechanism.
14. Thermal sleeve.
15. Closure head assembly.
at nuclear plants.
In addition to detecting weld discontinuities, 16. Hold-down sharing.
17. Inlet nozzle.
●

18. Fuel assemblies.

B31.1 requires visual inspection to include
dimensional checks of welds. 19. Baffle.
20. Former.
21. Lower core plate.
● Personnel certified in accordance with
Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A. 22. Irradiation specimen guide.
23. Neutron shield pad.
24. Core support columns.

Figure 6: Pressurized water reactor vessel

(PWR).

1 12

Figure 8: Carbon steel, 30 in. (0.75 m) outside

13 diameter, gas transmission pipeline.
2

14
API 1104 – Standards for Welding Pipeline and
Related Facilities (Figure 8)
15
3 ● Specifies acceptance standards for visual
16
inspection.
4 ● Personnel certified in accordance with
17
Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A.
5
18
AWS D1.1 – Structural Steel Welding Code
6 19
● Provides requirements for the design and
20 construction of buildings, bridges, and tubular
7
structures.
21 ● Contains workmanship requirements, as well as
8
22 acceptance standards, for visual testing.
● Personnel certified in accordance with
Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A.
23
9
Recording and Documentation
10 ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code
Visual examination in accordance with ASME Boiler
24
and Pressure Vessel Code is given as follows:
11 ● An examination report shall be prepared and
provided to the client.
Legend
1. Vent and head spray.
2. Steam outlet.
The report shall contain at a minimum:
3. Core spray inlet. ● The name of the company, report/job number,
4. Low pressure coolant injection inlet.
5. Core spray sparger.
and the date of the visual examination.
6. Jet pump assembly. ● The referencing code and the acceptance
7. Fuel assemblies.
8. Jet pump/recirculation water inlet.
criteria.
9. Vessel support skirt. ● The procedure and the revision used.
10. Control rod drives.
11. In-core flux monitor.
● The examination method and the technique
12. Steam dryer lifting lug. used.
13. Steam dryer assembly.
14. Steam separator assembly.
● Identification of the item examined, the location
15. Feedwater inlet. of the item examined, and a unique identifier
16. Feedwater sparger.
17. Core spray line.
(number, name, description).
18. Top guide. ● A description of the examination results,
19. Core shroud.
20. Control blade.
including any recordable conditions, and the
21. Core plate. disposition of these conditions.
22. Recirculation water outlet.
23. Shield wall.
● Name of the examination technician and level of
24. Control rod drive hydraulic lines. certification.
● The required number of report copies will be
furnished to the client.
Figure 7: Boiling water reactor (BWR). ● A minimum of one report copy will be kept on
file.

NAVSEA ● Signature of technician, certification level, and

Records of visual inspection (reports) in accordance date of test.
with NAVSEA Technical Publication T9074-AS- ● The required number of copies of the visual
GIB-010/271 shall contain the following minimum examination reports shall be furnished to the
information, unless the client requests other specific client. A minimum of one report copy will be
formats: kept on file.
● Name and address of customer.
● Purchase order number and work order number. Maintenance of inspection records:
● Test item(s) description (material, configuration, ● Records shall be maintained as specified in
form, dimensions) and identification. applicable ship specifications, fabrication
● Approved procedure identification, revision specifications, and other documents invoking
number, techniques, and acceptance standards this procedure.
used. ● Company record storage and retention
● Surface condition/preparation (finishing and requirements shall apply if no other standards
cleaning). are specified.
● Equipment used (manufacturer, model and
serial number, or unique identifier). Documents
A typical visual examination report document is
● Item quantities and disposition
found in Figure 10.
(accepted/rejected).
● When requested by the client, it may be
necessary to document rejectable indications in
a photograph, video, sketch, or map.

Figure 10: Sample visual examination report.

Review Questions

1. The weld transition should not exceed __________ 6. CP-189 requires which of the following for near
according to ASME B31.1 or ASME B31.3. vision acuity?
a. 2 to 1 a. J–1 numbers
b. 6 to 1 b. J–1 letters
c. 1 to 3 c. J–2 numbers
d. 3 to 1 d. J–2 letters
2. In accordance to AWS D1.1, undercut less than 7. Personnel can be certified in accordance to which of
__________ is acceptable. the following?
a. 1/8 in. a. API 2112
b. 1/16 in. b. SNT-TC-1A
c. 1/32 in. c. ASME Section XII
d. 1/4 in. d. CBDG
3. What determines the required surface roughness in 8. The inspector’s eyes should never be less than
accordance to AWS D1.1? __________ to the viewing surface.
a. A Certified Welding Inspector (CWI) a. 24°
b. Contract Specification b. 36°
c. Contract Code c. 30°
d. Design Engineering d. 28°
4. Which ASME Section V Article covers visual 9. Which code deals with the Inservice Examination of
inspection? Nuclear Power Plant Components?
a. 9 a. ASME Section VIII
b. 4 b. ASME Section XI
c. 5 c. ASME Section IX
d. 2 d. ASME Section V
5. What is the range of lighting requirements between
the various codes?
a. 25 fc to 60 fc
b. 30 fc to 70 fc
c. 24 fc to 90 fc
d. 50 fc to 100 fc

Answers
1d 2c 3b 4a 5d 6b 7b 8c 9b

Copyright by ASNT (all rights reserved). Licensed to Mr Roberto Arenas Tuxpan, 380312, 2/3/2020 3:18:51 PM EST. Single User License only. Copying,
reselling and networking prohibited.
Copyright by ASNT (all rights reserved). Licensed to Mr Roberto Arenas Tuxpan, 380312, 2/3/2020 3:18:51 PM EST. Single User License only. Copying,
reselling and networking prohibited.
GLOSSARY

Standard terminology for visual and optical testing and materials processing
A B

Accommodation – The process by which the eye changes Back gouging – The removal of weld metal and base metal
focus from far to near objects. from the other side of a partially welded joint to ensure
complete penetration upon subsequent welding from that
Achromatic – Lacking any amount of a chromatic primary. side.3
Acuity – See Vision acuity. Background – Short for electrical background noise.
Adaptation – The process by which the retina becomes Signals from a test object that create noise, or false
accustomed to more or less light than it was exposed to indications. The higher the level of background, the more
during an immediately preceding period. It results in a difficult it is to distinguish an indication.
change of the sensitivity of the eye to light.1 Backing – In welding, a material placed under or behind a
Adhesive bonding – A materials joining process in which joint to enhance the quality of the weld at the root. It may be
an adhesive, placed between the faying surfaces (adherends), a metal backing ring or strip; a pass of weld metal; or a
solidifies to produce an adhesive bond.3 nonmetal such as carbon, granular flux, or a protective gas.3

Aliasing – Visible as jagged effects on the vertical edges of Bainite – A metastable aggregate of ferrite and cementite
the image and occurs in a static image when the scan or resulting from the transformation of austenite at
sample rate is too low for the frequency being digitized. temperatures below the pearlite range but above the
martensite start temperature. Upper bainite is an aggregate
Ambient light – Light in the environment, as opposed to that contains parallel lath-shape units of ferrite, produces the
illumination, provided by a visual or optical testing system. so-called “feathery” appearance in optical microscopy, and is
formed above approximately 660° F (350° C). Lower bainite,
Angstrom unit (Å) – Unit of length, equal to 0.1 nm. which has an acicular appearance similar to tempered
Arc strikes – Localized burn damage to an object from the martensite, is formed below approximately 660° F (350° C).3
arc caused by breaking an energized electric circuit. Also Base material – The material to be welded, brazed,
called arc burns.2 soldered, or cut. See Base metal.3
Arc welding – See Electric arc welding. Base metal – (1) The metal present in the largest
As-welded – The condition of the welded metal, welded proportion in an alloy; brass, for example, is a copper-base
joints, and weldments after welding but prior to any alloy. (2) The metal to be brazed, cut, soldered, or welded.
subsequent thermal, mechanical, or chemical treatments.3 (3) After welding, the part of the metal which was not
melted. (4) A metal that readily oxidizes, or that dissolves to
Austenite – A solid solution with iron as the solvent in a form ions.3
face-centered cubic structure formed by slow cooling of
delta ferrite. Characteristic lattice structure is stable between Bevel angle – The angle formed between the prepared edge
1663° F (906° C) and 2535° F (1390° C). Also called gamma of a member and a plane perpendicular to the surface of the
iron. member.3

Automatic welding (AW) – Welding with equipment that Borescope – A periscope or telescope using mirrors,
performs the welding operation without adjustment of the prisms, lenses, optic fibers, or television wiring to transmit
controls by a welding operator. The equipment may or may images from inaccessible areas for visual testing.
not perform the loading and unloading of the work. See Brazing – Joining of metals and alloys by fusion of
Machine welding (ME).3A nonferrous alloys that have melting points above 806° F
(430° C), but below melting points of materials being joined.
Burn-through – A term used to denote excessive melt-
through or a hole. See Melt-through.3

Burst – (1) A signal whose oscillations have a rapid increase Crack – (1) A break, fissure, or rupture, usually V-shaped
in amplitude from an initial reference level (generally that of and relatively narrow and deep. A discontinuity that has a
the background noise), followed by a decrease (generally relatively large cross section in one direction and a small or
more gradual) to a value close to the initial value.3 (2) In negligible cross section when viewed in a direction
metal, external or internal rupture caused by improper perpendicular to the first. (2) Propagating discontinuities
forming. caused by stresses such as heat treating or grinding. Difficult
to detect unaided because of fineness of line and pattern
Butt weld or butt joint – Weld joining two metal pieces in (may have a radial or latticed appearance).
the same plane.
Crack, transverse – Cracks at right angles to the length of
C the test object.
Candela (cd) – Base unit of measure in the SI system for Crater – (1) In machining, a depression in the cutting tool
luminous intensity. The luminous intensity in a given face eroded by chip contact. (2) In arc or gas fusion welding,
direction of a source that emits monochromatic radiation of a cavity in the weld bead surface, typically occurring when
frequency 540  101 Hz and that has a radiant intensity in the heat source is removed and insufficient filler metal is
that direction of 1.4641 milliwatt per steradian. available to fill the cavity.
Chroma – The difference from gray (the achromatic D
equivalent) of a color.
Dark current – The unwanted charge that accumulates in
CIE – An abbreviation for the French title of the each pixel due to the natural thermal processes that occur
International Commission on Illumination (Commission above absolute zero.
Internationale de l’Eclairage).
Datum – A theoretically perfect point, axis, or plane that is
Cold shut – (1) Casting discontinuity caused by two streams derived from actual features.
of semimolten metal coming together inside a mold but
failing to fuse. Cold shuts are sometimes called misruns but Defect – A condition or discontinuity having a size, shape,
the latter term correctly describes incomplete filling of the orientation, nature, frequency, or location that impairs the
mold. (2) A discontinuity that appears on the surface of test useful service of the part or that is rejectable according to a
metal as a result of two streams of liquid meeting and failing specification or standard.
to unite. A cracklike discontinuity caused by forging, where
two surfaces of metal fold against each other to produce a Discontinuity – An intentional or unintentional interruption
discontinuity at the point of folding. This is usually at some in the physical structure or configuration of a part.2
angle to the surface. It may also be a separate piece of metal
forged into the main component. See Lap. (3) A portion of E
the surface of a forging that is separated in part from the Effective throat – In welding, the weld throat including the
main body of metal by oxide. amount of weld penetration but ignoring excess metal
Color – Sensation by means of which humans distinguish between the theoretical face and the actual face.
light of different intensities (brightness) and wavelengths Electric arc welding – Joining of metals by heating with
(hue). electric arc. Also called arc welding.
Complete fusion – Fusion that has occurred over the entire Electromagnetic spectrum – A continuum of electric and
base material surfaces intended for welding and between all magnetic radiation encompassing all wavelengths.1
layers and weld beads.3
Electroslag welding (ESW) – A fusion welding process in
Complete joint fusion – Joint penetration in which the which the welding heat is provided by passing an electric
weld metal completely fills the groove and is fused to the current through a layer of molten conductive slag (flux)
base metal throughout its total thickness.3 contained in a pocket formed by water-cooled dams that
Concavity – The maximum distance from the face of a bridge the gap between the members being welded. The
concave fillet weld perpendicular to a line joining the toes.3 resistance-heated slag not only melts filler-metal electrodes
as they are fed into the slag layer, but also provides shielding
Convexity – The maximum distance from the face of a for massive weld puddle characteristic of the process.3
convex fillet weld perpendicular to a line joining the toes.3
Endoscope – Device for viewing the interior of objects. The
term endoscope is usually used for medical instruments that
are equivalent to borescopes.
Evaluation – A review, following interpretation of the
indications noted, to determine whether they meet specified
acceptance criteria.

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F Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) – An arc welding
process that produces coalescence of metals by heating them
False indication – An indication that is not produced by a with an arc between a tungsten (nonconsumable) electrode
discontinuity. Compare Defect. and the work. Shielding is obtained from a gas or gas
Far vision – Vision of objects at a distance, generally beyond mixture.3
arm’s length. Glare – Excessive brightness (or brightness varying by more
Faying surface – The surfaces of materials in contact with than 10:1 within the field of view) that interferes with clear
each other and joined or about to be joined.3 vision, critical observation, and judgment.

Field of vision – The range or area where objects can be Graybody – Radiator whose spectral emissivity is uniform
perceived organoleptically (using the eyes only), assuming for all wavelengths.
that the eye’s position is fixed. Grayscale – A means of defining the image brightness as a
Filler metal – Metal added in making a brazed, soldered, or function of the brightness of the object being imaged. It is
welded joint.3 specified by the highlight brightness, contrast ratio, and
gamma.
Fillet weld – Weld at the corner of two metal pieces.
Groove (welding) – An opening or channel in the surface
Flicker – When the frame repetition rate is not high enough of a part or between two components that provides space to
to provide an image that is perceived as continuous by a contain a weld.3
human observer.
Groove angle – The total included angle of the groove
Fluorescence – Luminescence produced by a material that between parts to be joined. This is the sum of two bevel
is excited by light, electricity, or radiation. The luminescence angles, either or both of which may be zero degrees.3
ceases as soon as the source of excitation is removed.
Groove face – The portion of a surface or surfaces of a
Flux cored arc welding (FCAW) – An arc welding process member included in a groove.3
that joins metal by heating them with an arc between
continuous tubular filler-metal electrode and the work. H
Shielding is provided by a flux contained within the
consumable tubular electrode. Additional shielding may or Heat-affected zone (HAZ) – Base metal not melted during
may not be obtained from an externally supplied gas or gas brazing, cutting, or welding, but whose microstructure and
mixture.3 physical properties were altered by the heat.

Focal distance (lens) – See Focal length. Highlight brightness – The brightness of the brightest area
of the image.
Focal length (lens) – The distance from the principal plane
to the focal plane. Hot tear – A fracture formed in a metal during solidification
because of hindered contraction. Surface cracks on castings
Focal plane – Where parallel incident light rays converge produced by contraction of the metal during cooling. Hot
after being diffracted by the lens. tears often occur where areas of different thickness adjoin.
Footcandle (fc) – Former unit of measure for illumination, Hue – Attribute of color perception by which a color is
equivalent to 1 lumen/ft2 or 1 candle of luminance measured perceived to be red, yellow, blue, or an intermediate color
at 1 ft. between these. White, black, and grays possess no hue.
Fusion (welding) – The melting together of filler metal and Hydrogen embrittlement – A condition of low ductility in
base metal (substrate), or of base metal only, which results in metals resulting from the absorption of hydrogen.
coalescence.3
I
G
Illuminance (EV = dΦ/dA) – The density of luminous flux on
Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) – An arc welding process a surface. It is the equivalent to the measure of irradiance in
that produces coalescence of metals by heating them with an radiometry.
arc between a continuous filer metal (consumable) electrode
and the work. Shielding is obtained entirely from an Image – The visual impression of an object produced by a
externally supplied gas or gas mixture. Variations of the lens, mirror, or optical system. A real image is formed by
process include short-circuit arc GMAW, in which the convergence of light and can be produced on a screen. A
consumable electrode is deposited during repeated short virtual image is one from which the rays of light appear to
circuits, and pulsed arc GMAW, in which the current is diverge. The virtual image cannot be produced on a screen.
pulsed.3 Incandescence – The emission of visible radiation due to
thermal excitation.

Indication – An NDT response that requires interpretation Light – Radiant energy between approximately 380 nm and
to determine its relevance. 770 nm. This portion of the electromagnetic spectrum
produces a response in the human retina.
Indication, false – An NDT indication that is interpreted to
be caused by a condition other than a discontinuity or Lumen (lm) – Unit of measure in the SI system for
imperfection.2 luminous flux, equivalent to candela times steradian (cdsr).
Indication, nonrelevant – An NDT indication that is Luminance [L = dΦ/(d dA cos )] – The ratio of a surface’s
caused by a condition or type of discontinuity that does not luminous intensity in a given direction to a unit of projected
require evaluation.2 area. Measured in candela/m.
Indication, relevant – An NDT indication that is caused by Luminous flux – Radiant energy’s time rate of flow.
a condition or type of discontinuity that requires Measured in lumens.
evaluation.2
Luminous intensity (IV = dΦ/d) – Luminous flux on a
Interpretation – The determination of whether indications surface normal to the direction from its light source, divided
are relevant, nonrelevant, or false. by the solid angle the surface subtends at the source.
Measured in candela.
Irradiance (Ee= dΦ/dA) – Power of electromagnetic radiant
energy incident on a surface of given unit area. Lux (lx) – Unit of measure for illuminance in the SI system.
Equivalent to lm/m.
Ishihara™ plates – Trade name for a kind of
pseudoisochromatic plate. M

L Machine vision – Automated system function of acquiring,

processing, and analyzing images to evaluate a test object or
Lag – A measure of the rate of change of the video signal at to provide information or interpretation for human
a fixed point on the raster. evaluation.
Lamellar tearing – Occurs in the base metal adjacent to Machine welding (ME) – Welding with equipment that
weldments due to high through-thickness strains introduced performs under the continual observation and control of a
by weld metal shrinkage in highly restrained joints. Tearing welding operator. The equipment may or may not load the
occurs by decohesion and linking along the working work. Compare with automatic welding (AW).3
direction of the base metal; cracks usually run roughly
parallel to the fusion line and are steplike in appearance. Macular lutae – Irregular, diffuse ring of yellow pigment
Lamellar tearing can be minimized by designing joints to surrounding the fovea that absorbs blue light and changes
minimize weld shrinkage stresses and joint restraint.3 the spectral energy distribution of the light reaching the
receptors under it.
Lamination – Discontinuity in plate, sheet, or strip caused
by pipe, inclusions, or blowholes in the original ingot. After Manual welding (MA) – Welding wherein the entire
rolling, laminations are usually flat and parallel to the welding operation is performed and controlled by hand.3
outside surface. Laminations may also result from pipe,
blisters, seams, inclusions, or segregation, are elongated, and Melt-through – Complete joint penetration for a joint
are made directional by working. Lamination discontinuities welded from one side. To prevent melt-through, the welding
may also occur in metal powder compacts, and may appear current and the width of the root opening should be
in the form of rectangles or plates as inclusion stringers reduced, and travel speed increased.3
between rolled surfaces. Short, intermittent laminations may Metallograph – A metallographic microscope designed for
be detrimental if the object is subjected to high bending metallography.
stresses in service.
Metallography – The science and practice of microscopic
Lap – Surface discontinuity, usually parallel to the surface, testing, inspection, and analysis of a metal’s structure,
appearing as a fold or tangential seam in a wrought product typically at magnifications in the range of 50 to 2500.
and caused by the folding over of a hot metal fin or sharp
corner in a thin plate, then rolling or forging it into the Microscope – An instrument that provides enlarged images
surface but not welding it. See also Cold shut. of very small objects.
Leg of fillet weld – (1) Actual – the distance from the root Monochromatic – Color composed of a single hue, having
of the joint to the toe of the fillet weld. (2) Nominal – the a very narrow band of wavelength.
length of a side of the largest right triangle that can be
inscribed in the cross section of the weld.3 Monochromator – Device that uses prisms or gratings to
separate or disperse the wavelengths of the spectrum into
Lens – Translucent object that refracts light passing through noncontinuous lines or bands.
it in order to focus the light on a target.

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N Porosity – A discontinuity in metal resulting from the
creation or coalescence of gas. Very small pores are called
Near vision – Vision of objects near to the eye when pinholes.
accommodative ability is required. Generally within arm’s
length. Principal focus – See Focal plane.

Nearsightedness – Vision acuity that is adequate for near Process – Repeatable sequence of actions to bring about a
vision. desired result.
N-type semiconductor – See Semiconductor. Pseudoisochromatic plates – Color plates used for color
vision examinations.
O
P-type semiconductor – See Semiconductor.
Overlap – (1) Protrusion of weld metal beyond the toe, face,
or root of a weld. (2) In resistance seam welding, the area in Q
a given weld remelted by the succeeding weld. See also Root
Quality of lighting – Level of distribution of luminance in a
of weld and Toe of weld.3
visual task or environment.
Oxyacetylene welding (OAW) – An oxyfuel gas welding
process in which the fuel gas is acetylene.3 R

Radiance [Le  d2/(ddA cos )] – Radiant flux per unit

P
solid angle and per unit projected area of the source.
Pearlite – Platelet mixture of cementite and ferrite in steels Measured in watts per square meter steradian.
or in alpha and beta phases in nonferrous alloys.
Radiant energy (Qe) – Energy transmitted through a
Photometer – The basic measuring instrument of medium by electromagnetic waves. Also known as radiation.
photometry.
Radiant flux ( = dQ/dt) – Radiant energy’s rate of flow,
Photometry – The science and practice of the measurement measured in watts.
of light or photon emitting electromagnetic radiation.
Radiant intensity (Ie = d/d) – Electromagnetic energy
Photons – Discrete particles of light or electromagnetic emitted per unit time per unit solid angle. Measured in watts
radiation hypothesized to explain the corpuscular theory of per steradian.
radiant energy.
Raster – The repetitive pattern whereby the scanning
Photopic vision – Vision adapted to daylight and electron beam follows a path of adjacent parallel lines.
mediated mainly by the cones. Vision is wholly photopic
Remote visual inspection – Viewing of an object not in the
when the luminance of the test surface is above 0.034 cdm-2
(0.0032 cdft-2).1 viewer’s field of vision.
Resolution – An aspect of image quality pertaining to a
Pipe – (1) The central cavity formed during solidification of
metal, especially ingots, by thermal contraction. (2) The system’s ability to reproduce objects, often measured by
discontinuity in wrought or cast products resulting from resolving a pair of adjacent objects or parallel lines.
such a cavity. (3) An extrusion discontinuity due to the Resolving power – The ability of vision or other detection
oxidized surface of the billet flowing toward the center of the systems to separate two points. Resolving power depends on
rod at the back end. (4) A cast, wrought, or welded metal the angle of vision and the distance of the sensor from the
tube. test surface. Resolving power is often measured using
Pixel – Short for picture element, a pixel is an individual
parallel lines.
light sensor. Rhodopsin – Retinal receptor that responds at low light
Plasma arc welding (PAW) – An arc welding process that
levels.
produces coalescence of metals by heating them with a Root face – The portion of a weld groove face adjacent to
constricted arc between an electrode and the workpiece the root of the joint.3
(transferred arc) or the electrode and the constricting nozzle
(nontransferred arc). Shielding is obtained from hot, ionized Root mean square (RMS) – The square root of the average
gas issuing from an orifice surrounding the electrode and of the squares of a number of values.
may be supplemented by an auxiliary source of shielding gas,
Root of joint – The portion of a weld joint where the
which may be an inert gas or a mixture of gasses. Pressure
may or may not be used, and filler metal may or may not be members are closest to each other before welding. In cross
supplied.3 section, this may be a point, a line, or an area.3

Root opening – In a weldment, the separation between the Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) – A manual arc
members at the root of joint prior to welding.3 welding process in which the heat for welding is generated
by an arc established between a flux-covered consumable
Root of weld – The points at which the weld bead intersects electrode and a workpiece. The electrode tip, molten weld
the base-metal surfaces either nearest to or coincident with pool, arc, and adjacent areas of the workpiece are protected
the root of joint.3 from atmospheric contamination by a gaseous shield
obtained from the combustion and decomposition of the
S electrode covering. Additional shielding is provided from
SI – The International System of units of measurement. the molten metal in the weld pool by a covering of molten
Includes most of the base units formerly called metric. flux or slag. Filler metal is supplied by the core of the
consumable electrode and from the metal powder mixed
Saturation – Relative or comparative color characteristic with the electrode covering of certain electrodes. SMAW is
resulting from a hue’s dilution with white light. often referred to as arc welding with stick electrodes, manual
metal arc welding, and stick welding.3
Scab – A flat volume of metal joined to a casting through a
small area. Usually set in a depression, a flat side being Size of weld – (1) The joint penetration in a groove weld.
separated from the metal of the casting proper by a thin (2) The lengths of the nominal legs of a fillet weld. (3) The
layer of sand. weld metal thickness measured at the root of a flange weld.3
Scan lines – See Trace. Smear – When the phase response of the imaging system is
not capable of reproducing a rapid change in shade or
Scotopic vision – Dark adapted vision, using only the contrast in a static object.
rods in the retina, where differences in brightness can be
detected but the differences in hue cannot. Vision is wholly Specification – A set of instructions or standards invoked
scotopic when the luminance of the test surface is below by a specific customer to govern the results or performance
3  10-3 cdm–2 (2.7  10–6 cdft–2). Also known as parafoveal of a specific set of tasks or products.
vision.
Spectral power distribution – The radiant power per unit
Seam – (1) On the surface of metal, an unwelded fold or lap wavelength as a function of wavelength. Also known as
that appears as a crack, usually resulting from a spectral energy distribution, spectral density, and spectral
discontinuity obtained in casting or working. (2) Mechanical distribution.
or welded joints. (3) Longitudinal surface discontinuity on
metal originating from a surface crack or blowhole near the Spectrophotometer – Instrument used for
surface of the ingot that is drawn out during rolling and spectrophotometry.
follows the rolling direction. Also due to overfill while Spectrophotometry – Measurement of electromagnetic
rolling. After forging, seams generally follow the direction of radiant energy as a function of wavelength, particularly in
flow lines. the ultraviolet, visible, and infrared wavelengths.
Semiautomatic arc welding (SW) – Arc welding with Spectroradiometer – Instrument used for
equipment that controls only the filler metal feed. The spectroradiometry.
advance of the welding is manually controlled.3
Spectroradiometry – Measurement of electromagnetic
Semiconductor – A solid with an electrical conductivity radiant power and spectral emittance, used particularly to
that is intermediate between those of insulators and metals. examine colors and to measure the spectral emittance of
Semiconductors are usually metalloid elements such as light sources.
germanium or silicon.
Spectrum – Representation of radiant energy in adjacent
● n-type semiconductors – a semiconducting material bands of hues in sequence according to the energy’s
where most of the circuit is carried by electrons when wavelengths or frequencies. A rainbow is a well known
deliberately placed donor impurities in the material form example of a visible spectrum.
positive ions and release electrons.
Specular – Pertaining to a mirror-like reflective finish, as of
● p-type semiconductor – a semiconducting material
a metal.
where acceptor impurities require extra electrons for
stable bonding. The ionization of the impurity creates a Standard – Document to control and govern practices in an
positive hole producing the current flow. industry or application, applied on a national or
international basis and usually produced by consensus.

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Stress-corrosion cracking – Failure by cracking under V
combined action of corrosion and stress, either applied or
residual. Cracking may be either intergranular or Video – Pertaining to the transmission and display of
transgranular, depending on the metal and corrosive images in an electronic format that can be displayed on a
medium. cathode ray screen, LCD, LED, or other type of electronic
display.
Stud welding (SW) – An arc welding process in which the
contact surfaces of a stud, or similar fastener, and a Visibility – The quality or state of being perceivable by the
workpiece are heated and melted by an arc drawn between eye. In many outdoor applications, visibility is defined in
them. The stud is then plunged rapidly onto the workpiece to terms of the distance at which an object can be just perceived
form a weld. Partial shielding may be obtained by the use of by the eye. In indoor applications, it usually is defined in
a ceramic ferrule surrounding the stud. Shielding gas or flux terms of the contrast or size of a standard test object,
may or may not be used. The two basic methods of stud observed under standardized view conditions, having the
welding are known as stud arc welding, which produces a same threshold as the given object.1
large amount of weld metal around the stud base and a Vision – Perception by eyesight.
relatively deep penetration into the base metal, and capacitor
discharge stud welding, which produces a very small amount Vision acuity – The ability to distinguish fine details
of weld metal around the stud base and shallow penetration visually. Quantitatively, it is the reciprocal of the minimum
into the base metal.3 angular separation in minutes of two lines of width
subtending one minute of arc when the lines are just
Submerged arc welding (SAW) – Arc welding in which the resolvable as separate.1
arc, between a bare metal electrode and the work, is shielded
by a blanket of granular, fusible material overlying the joint. Visual angle – The angle subtended by an object or detail at
Pressure is not applied to the joint, and filler metal is the point of observation. It usually is measured in minutes of
obtained from the consumable electrode (and sometimes arc.1
from a supplementary welding rod).3
Visual perception – The interpretation of impressions
T transmitted from the retina to the brain in terms of
information about a physical world displayed before the eye.
Throat, actual – Shortest distance from the root of a fillet Visual perception involves any one or more of the following
weld to its face, as opposed to theoretical throat or weld size. – recognition of the presence of something (object, aperture,
or medium); identifying it; locating it in space; noting its
Throat, theoretical – The distance from the beginning of relation to other objects; or identifying its movement, color,
the root of the weld perpendicular to the hypotenuse of the brightness, or form.1
largest right triangle that can be inscribed within the cross
section of the fillet weld. Compare Size of weld. Visual performance – The quantitative assessment of the
performance of a visual task, taking into consideration speed
Throat, weld – Distance from the root of a fillet weld to its and accuracy.1
face. Compare Size of weld and Throat, actual.
Visual purple – See Rhodopsin.
Toe of weld – The junction between the face of a weld and
the base metal.3 Visual task – The appearance and immediate background of
those details and objects that must be seen for the
Trace – Line formed by electron beam scanning from left or performance of a given activity.1
right on a video screen to generate a picture.
Visual testing – Method of NDT using electromagnetic
Tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding – See Gas radiation at visible frequencies.
tungsten arc welding (GTAW).
W
U
Weld – A localized coalescence of metals or nonmetals
Ultraviolet radiation – Electromagnetic radiation with produced either by heating the materials to suitable
wavelengths from 4 to 400 nm, between visible light and temperatures, with or without the application of pressure, or
X-rays. by the application of pressure alone and with or without the
Undercut – Undesirable depression or groove left unfilled by use of filler material.3
weld metal, created by melting during welding and located in
base material at the toe of a weld.
Underfill – In weldments, a depression on the face of the
weld or root surface extending below the surface of the
adjacent base metal.3

All figures are derived from sources published by The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc., except for the
following used with permission:

Chapter 2 Chapter 6
Figure 3 Figure 1(a)
Panacea Doll/Shutterstock.com Lopolo/Shutterstock.com
Figure 4 Figure 1(b)
Lipskiy/Shutterstock.com Tatiana Kopysova/Shutterstock.com
Chapter 5 Figures 6–9
Figure 4 EPRI NP-1590-SR, NDE Characteristics of Pipe Weld Defects.
a_v_d/Shutterstock.com Palo Alto, CA: Electric Power Research Institute (1980).
Reprinted with permission.
Figure 5(b)
florin oprea/Shutterstock.com Chapter 7
Figure 10
Michael Allgaier

Catalog Number: 6104 The American Society for

ISBN: 978-1-57117-360-7 Nondestructive Testing, Inc.
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ASNT Level II Study Guide Visual Testing Method (VT)

Uploaded by

ASNT Level II Study Guide Visual Testing Method (VT)

Uploaded by

VT SG LII Cover_Layout 1 9/1/15 8:57 AM Page 1

The American Society for

ISBN: 978-1-57117-360-7 (print)

Printed in the United States of America

Edited by: Cynthia M. Leeman, Educational Materials Supervisor

Tim Jones, Senior Manager of Publications

ASNT Mission Statement:

How to Use the Study Guide

Measurement of Light .................................................................................................................................................7

Material Attributes .........................................................................................................................................13

Surface Conditions ....................................................................................................................................................13

Lens Optics .....................................................................................................................................................19

Recommended Lighting Levels ...................................................................................................................33

Area Lighting ..............................................................................................................................................................33

Infrastructure — AWS D1.1.........................................................................................................................................39

FIGURE SOURCES .................................................................................................................................................53

Introduction distortion or damage, general fit or alignment, and

To understand the importance of lighting in an depict electromagnetic radiation. The electromag-

Radiation wavelength (nm)

106 105 104 103 102 10 1 10 –1 10 –2 10 –3 10 –4 10 –5 10 –6

Radio Infrared Ultraviolet Cosmic rays

Photon energy (MeV)

Figure 1: Electromagnetic wavelength spectrum.

● Luminous flux or luminous power (SI units) is

Figure 2: Principles of photometry: (a) inverse square law, where

θ = angle of incidence (degrees).

Recommended Lighting Levels

Shape Environmental Factors

Visual inspection examinations are either direct or

Figure 2: Steel rule.

Clamp ring Screw

Referring to Figure 6, the 2 or 0.2 in. division is

The palmgren or displacement weld gage, Indirect Visual Testing

Light travels in straight lines, but optical glass

Light Protective sheath

Figure 9: Representative fiber optic borescope.

Video Borescope Measurement Techniques

lines, concrete pipe storm lines, and intake or dis-

Pan, Tilt, and Zoom Cameras

including flash memory, compact flash cards,

IEEE 1394 Interface

Principles of Measurement be placed where needed, if the computer will not

Parallax is the difference or displacement in the

moving objects. Ultraviolet lighting is used to cause

Typical Visual Testing Discontinuities

Sheet Lamination Forgings

Figure 6: Slag inclusion.

inspector. A weld root that is at least as high as the Machining Processes

● The weld is free from overlap.

Fiber optic Fiber optic light source

Figure 4: Determining crack length in rudder ribs by visual test.

Aerospace After review of the applicable documents is

ASME Section V NDE Examination, is the code

T-953 Remote Visual Examination states: In

18. Fuel assemblies.

Figure 6: Pressurized water reactor vessel

Figure 8: Carbon steel, 30 in. (0.75 m) outside

NAVSEA ● Signature of technician, certification level, and

Figure 10: Sample visual examination report.

L Machine vision – Automated system function of acquiring,

Radiance [Le  d2/(ddA cos )] – Radiant flux per unit

Catalog Number: 6104 The American Society for

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