Unit 1

📘 5. Explain the concept of an assignment

problem in operations research.
✅ Answer:
An Assignment Problem is a special type of optimization problem in Operations Research
where the goal is to assign a number of resources (such as workers, machines, operators) to
an equal number of tasks (such as jobs, activities, projects) in a way that:

 The total cost is minimized (in cost-based problems)

or
 The total profit is maximized (in profit-based problems).

Key Points:

 Each resource can perform only one task.

 Each task must be assigned to exactly one resource.
 The objective is to find the best one-to-one assignment.

Example:
Assigning 5 employees to 5 jobs based on their efficiencies to minimize the total working
time.

📘 6. Describe the key assumptions made

while formulating an assignment problem.
✅ Answer:
Main Assumptions:

1. One-to-One Assignment:
Each agent (person/machine) is assigned to exactly one task, and each task is assigned
to exactly one agent.
2. Known and Fixed Costs/Profits:
The cost or profit for assigning any agent to any task is known beforehand and does
not change.
3. Tasks and Agents are Compatible:
All agents are capable of doing all tasks, unless specified otherwise (in that case,
prohibitively high costs are assigned).
4. Independent Tasks:
The performance of one assignment does not affect another (no dependencies).
 5. Deterministic Environment:
All data are certain, not probabilistic.

📘 7. Differentiate between a balanced and

an unbalanced assignment problem.
✅ Answer:

Basis Balanced Assignment Unbalanced Assignment Problem

Problem
Definition Number of agents = number Number of agents ≠ number of tasks
of tasks
Need for No dummy rows/columns Dummy rows or columns must be added
Dummy needed to balance
Example 5 workers assigned to 5 jobs 3 workers assigned to 5 jobs

Key:

 For unbalanced problems, we add dummy agents or dummy jobs with zero
cost/profit to balance the matrix first.

📘 8. Illustrate how a cost matrix is used in

solving an assignment problem.
✅ Answer:
The Cost Matrix is a table showing the cost (or profit) of assigning each agent to each task.

Steps of Using Cost Matrix:

1. Prepare the matrix: Rows represent agents, columns represent tasks.

2. Apply Hungarian Method:
o Row reduction: Subtract the minimum value in each row.
o Column reduction: Subtract the minimum value in each column.
3. Find zeros: Cover all zeros with a minimum number of lines.
4. Assign tasks: Assign one agent to one task where zero cost exists.
5. Optimal solution: Find the assignment that results in minimum cost or maximum
profit.

Example:

Task 1 Task 2 Task 3

 Agent A 5 8 7
Agent B 6 5 9
Agent C 7 6 5

Use Hungarian method on this to find minimum cost assignment.

📘 9. Interpret the result of an assignment

problem solution in terms of decision-
making.
✅ Answer:
The solution tells which agent should perform which task to achieve the best possible
outcome (minimum cost or maximum profit).

In decision-making:

 Management can allocate human resources, machines, or time efficiently.

 Organizations can save operational costs or maximize revenues.
 It leads to better scheduling, production, and service delivery.
 Helps to optimize resource utilization.

Example:
If Employee A is assigned to Task 3, B to Task 2, and C to Task 1 with the least cost, the
manager can directly follow this plan for cost savings.

📘 10. Summarize the role of dummy rows

or columns in solving unbalanced
assignment problems.
✅ Answer:

 Purpose of Dummy Rows/Columns: To balance an unbalanced assignment problem

(where number of agents ≠ number of tasks).
 How they work:
o Dummy agents are imaginary agents with zero cost or zero profit.
o Dummy tasks are imaginary tasks requiring no real work but allowing
balancing.

Impact:
  Makes the matrix square (n × n).
 Allows the Hungarian method or any assignment algorithm to be applied.
 Assignments made to dummy agents or dummy tasks indicate an idle worker or an
unassigned task.

Example:
If 3 workers and 4 jobs are there → add 1 dummy worker with all 0 cost values.

📘 11. Clarify the difference between an

assignment problem and a transportation
problem.
✅ Answer:

Basis Assignment Problem Transportation Problem

Objective Assign agents to tasks Transport goods from sources to destinations
Matrix Square matrix (after Rectangular matrix possible
Size balancing)
Units Only one-to-one assignment Multiple units transported
Cost Cost of assignment per agent- Cost per unit transported
task pair
Methods Hungarian Method Northwest Corner, Least Cost, Vogel’s
Approximation, etc.

Example:

 Assignment: Assigning 5 workers to 5 tasks.

 Transportation: Shipping goods from 3 factories to 4 warehouses.

📘 18. Explain the purpose of the

transportation problem in Decision Science.
✅ Answer:

The Transportation Problem is a type of optimization problem studied in Decision Science.

Its purpose is to find the most efficient way to transport goods from multiple sources (like
factories) to multiple destinations (like warehouses) such that:

 Total transportation cost is minimized

or
 Profit is maximized, if formulated that way.
Main objectives:

 Allocate available resources (supply) to fulfill demands at different locations.

 Ensure that no resource is wasted and every destination's demand is satisfied.
 Optimize costs, time, or distance depending on the requirement.

✅ Applications of Transportation Problem:

 Shipping goods from factories to warehouses.

 Scheduling airplanes to routes.
 Assigning staff to different office locations.
 Distributing goods from suppliers to retail outlets.

✅ Importance in Decision Science:

 Helps businesses take scientific, data-driven decisions.

 Reduces costs, increasing overall profitability.
 Ensures better resource management.
 Improves service levels by reducing delays in transportation.

📘 19. Interpret the meaning of supply,

demand, and transportation cost in a
transportation problem.
✅ Answer:

Here’s the meaning of each term:

Term Meaning
Supply The quantity of goods available at each source (e.g., factory or
warehouse) that needs to be transported. Each source has a supply
limit.
Demand The quantity of goods required at each destination (e.g., shop,
warehouse, city). Each destination has a demand that must be
fulfilled.
Transportation The cost incurred in transporting one unit of goods from a source to a
Cost destination. It can also represent time, distance, or monetary expenses.
✅ Example:
Suppose:

 Factory A can supply 100 units.

 Warehouse B needs 70 units.
 Transportation cost from A to B = ₹5 per unit.

Here:

 Supply at A = 100 units

 Demand at B = 70 units
 Transportation Cost = ₹5 per unit.

So, sending 70 units from A to B will cost ₹5 × 70 = ₹350.

📘 20. Classify the methods used to find

initial solutions to transportation problems.
✅ Answer:

In a transportation problem, before finding the optimal solution, we need an Initial Basic
Feasible Solution (IBFS).

There are three major methods to find the IBFS:

Method Description
1. North West Start allocating from the top-left (north-west) corner of the
Corner Method transportation table and proceed right or down. Simple but not
(NWCM) always cost-effective.
2. Least Cost Choose the cell with the least transportation cost first. Allocate as
Method (LCM) much as possible there, and then move to the next least cost cell.
3. Vogel’s Calculate penalties (difference between smallest and second
Approximation smallest costs) for each row and column. Select the row/column
Method (VAM) with the highest penalty and allocate to the least cost cell there.
VAM usually gives a better starting solution closer to optimal.

✅ Summary Table:

Method Key Feature

NWCM Easiest, fast but not cost-efficient
LCM Better cost-wise than NWCM
VAM Best initial solution, usually closest to optimal
✅ Note:

 After finding IBFS using any of these methods, Optimization Methods like MODI
Method or Stepping Stone Method are used to find the final optimum solution.
Unit 2

📘 Q10. Formulate a linear programming

problem for a company that wants to
maximize profit given constraints on labor
and raw materials.
✅ Answer:

General steps to formulate:

1. Define Decision Variables:

o Let x1,x2,...,xnx_1, x_2, ..., x_nx1,x2,...,xn represent the number of units of
different products produced.
2. Objective Function (Maximize Profit):
o Suppose each product has a profit of p1,p2,...,pnp_1, p_2, ..., p_np1,p2,...,pn.
o Then,

Maximize Z=p1x1+p2x2+...+pnxn\text{Maximize } Z = p_1x_1 + p_2x_2 + ... +

p_nx_nMaximize Z=p1x1+p2x2+...+pnxn

3. Constraints:
o Labor Constraint:
(If product 1 needs l1l_1l1 labor hours per unit and total labor available = L)

l1x1+l2x2+...+lnxn≤Ll_1x_1 + l_2x_2 + ... + l_nx_n \leq Ll1x1+l2x2+...+lnxn≤L

 Raw Material Constraint:

(If product 1 needs m1m_1m1 kg material per unit and total material available = M)

m1x1+m2x2+...+mnxn≤Mm_1x_1 + m_2x_2 + ... + m_nx_n \leq Mm1x1+m2x2+...+mnxn

≤M

4. Non-Negativity Constraints:

x1,x2,...,xn≥0x_1, x_2, ..., x_n \geq 0x1,x2,...,xn≥0

✅ Example:

Suppose:

 2 products (P1 and P2)

 Profits: ₹5 per P1, ₹8 per P2
  Labor limit: 500 hours
 Raw material limit: 400 kg
 P1 uses 2 hours and 3 kg
 P2 uses 3 hours and 2 kg

Formulation:

Let:

 x1x_1x1 = units of P1
 x2x_2x2 = units of P2

Then:

Maximize Z=5x1+8x2\text{Maximize } Z = 5x_1 + 8x_2Maximize Z=5x1+8x2

Subject to:

2x1+3x2≤5002x_1 + 3x_2 \leq 5002x1+3x2≤500 3x1+2x2≤4003x_1 + 2x_2 \leq 4003x1

+2x2≤400 x1,x2≥0x_1, x_2 \geq 0x1,x2≥0

📘 Q11. Apply the graphical method to

solve a two-variable LPP.
✅ Answer:

Steps to Solve LPP by Graphical Method:

1. Formulate the problem clearly (Objective function and Constraints).

2. Convert inequalities into equations to draw straight lines.
3. Find intercepts on axes:
o Set x1=0x_1=0x1=0 to find x2x_2x2-intercept
o Set x2=0x_2=0x2=0 to find x1x_1x1-intercept
4. Plot the lines on a graph paper.
5. Identify feasible region (common area that satisfies all inequalities).
6. Find corner points (vertices) of feasible region.
7. Evaluate Objective Function at each corner point.
8. Select the point that gives the maximum (or minimum) value depending on the
problem.

✅ Important:

 Always ensure non-negativity (Region must be in first quadrant).

 In maximization, highest Z-value is optimal.
  In minimization, lowest Z-value is optimal.

📘 Q12. Demonstrate how to identify the

feasible region in a graphical LPP solution.
✅ Answer:

Steps to Identify Feasible Region:

1. Draw each constraint line by converting the inequality into an equation.

2. For each constraint:
o Take a test point (like (0,0)) and check whether it satisfies the inequality.
o If it satisfies, shade the region containing the point.
o If not, shade the opposite side.
3. The feasible region is the area common to all shaded regions.
4. It must also satisfy non-negativity constraints (x1,x2≥0x_1, x_2 \geq 0x1,x2≥0) →
first quadrant only.

✅ Important:

 Feasible region can be bounded (closed) or unbounded (open towards infinity).

 Corner points of the feasible region are critical for optimal solution.

✅ Example:
Constraint: x1+2x2≤8x_1 + 2x_2 \leq 8x1+2x2≤8

 Draw the line x1+2x2=8x_1 + 2x_2 = 8x1+2x2=8.

 Test point (0,0):

0 + 2(0) = 0 \leq 8 \] (True) - Hence region including (0,0) is feasible side. --- #

📘 Q13. Apply the concept of non-

negativity constraints in real-life LPP
scenarios. ✅ **Answer:** **Meaning of Non-Negativity Constraints:** In
real-world problems: \[ x_1, x_2, ..., x_n \geq 0

which means decision variables cannot be negative.

✅ Why?
  You cannot produce negative products.
 You cannot assign negative workers.
 You cannot consume negative raw materials.

✅ Real-Life Examples:

 Manufacturing:
A company cannot produce -5 chairs. Only 0 or more chairs.
 Finance:
A bank cannot lend -₹10,000. Loans must be positive.
 Logistics:
You cannot transport -100 goods from a warehouse.

✅ Graphically:

 It restricts the solution to the first quadrant where x1,x2≥0x_1, x_2 \geq 0x1,x2≥0.

✅ Conclusion:
Non-negativity constraints make sure that solutions are realistic, logical, and implementabl
Unit 4

📘 7. Analyze how crashing a critical

activity can help reduce project duration
and evaluate its cost implications.
✅ Answer:

What is Crashing?

 Crashing means reducing the duration of a project activity by spending extra

money or additional resources to complete it faster.

Why Crash Critical Activities?

 Critical activities are activities on the critical path — if their duration is reduced,
overall project duration reduces.
 Crashing non-critical activities will not impact the total project time.

✅ Benefits of Crashing Critical Activities:

 Shortens project completion time.

 Helps avoid late penalties.
 Meets urgent deadlines.

✅ Cost Implications:

 Crashing usually increases direct costs (more workers, overtime, expensive

equipment).
 Trade-off: Balance cost of crashing with benefit of finishing early (like avoiding
penalties or earning bonuses).

✅ Example:

 Suppose Activity A (critical) normally takes 5 days at ₹1000/day.

 Crashing can reduce it to 3 days by spending ₹1500/day.
 Extra cost: ₹500/day for 2 days = ₹1000.
 If project delay penalty is ₹5000/day, then crashing is beneficial.

📘 8. Break down the process of converting

a project schedule into a network diagram
using activity-on-node (AON)
representation.
✅ Answer:

What is AON (Activity-on-Node)?

 A method where each activity is represented by a node (circle or box).

 Arrows show precedence relationships (which activity depends on which).

✅ Steps to Convert Project Schedule into AON Network:

1. List Activities:
Identify all activities and their immediate predecessors.
2. Draw Nodes:
Draw a box or circle for each activity.
3. Connect Activities:
Draw arrows to show dependency.
o If Activity B depends on A, draw an arrow from A to B.
4. Respect Precedence Relationships:
Ensure no activity starts until all its predecessors are completed.
5. Identify Start and End:
o Activities without predecessors start from the initial node.
o Activities without successors lead to the ending node.

✅ Simple Example:

Activity Immediate Predecessor

A -
B A
C A
D B, C

AON Diagram:

 A→B→D
 A→C→D

📘 9. Examine the impact of a delay in a

non-critical activity on the overall project
duration. Justify your answer with a
suitable example.
✅ Answer:

Impact:

 A delay in a non-critical activity usually does NOT affect the overall project
duration unless it exceeds the total float (the amount of delay the activity can
tolerate without delaying the project).

✅ Important Term:

 Float (Slack): Time an activity can be delayed without affecting project completion.

✅ Scenario:

 If delay ≤ float → No impact on project duration.

 If delay > float → Project gets delayed.

✅ Example:

Suppose:

Activity Duration Critical? Float

A 5 days Yes 0
B 3 days No 2

If Activity B is delayed by 1 day → No delay in project (1 < 2).

If Activity B is delayed by 3 days → Project delayed by 1 day (3 - 2 = 1 extra day).

✅ Conclusion:

 Non-critical activities can tolerate some delay, but excessive delay can affect project
completion.

📘 10. Critically examine how resource

constraints can affect the critical path and
project completion time.
✅ Answer:

Resource Constraints:

 Limited availability of labor, equipment, money, or materials that can delay

activities even if logically they could have started earlier.

✅ Effects on Critical Path and Project Duration:

1. Delaying Critical Activities:

o If resources aren't available for critical activities, the project completion time
increases.
2. Changing Critical Path:
o New activities may become critical if original critical activities are delayed
due to lack of resources.
3. Extended Project Duration:
o Project may finish later than planned because of resource shortages.

✅ Example:

Suppose:

 Activity A (critical) needs 5 workers but only 3 are available.

 Activity A takes 5 days normally → Now will take more time → Delays project.

✅ Conclusion:

 Resource leveling or resource allocation techniques are needed.

 Otherwise, resource constraints disturb critical path and delay project completion.
e.