Module-3

Technical Reading and Writing Practices: Technical writing process, Introduction to Technical Reports writing,
Significance of Reports, Types of Reports. Introduction to Technical Proposals Writing, Types of Technical
Proposals, Characteristics of Technical Proposals. Scientific Writing Process. Grammar – Voices and Reported
Speech, Cloze Test and Theme Detection Exercises.

Technical Writing

The technical writing process is a set of steps used by technical writers to create clear, accurate, and useful
documents. These documents include user manuals, guides, reports, instructions, and more. Each step in the
process ensures the final content is well-organized, easy to understand, and meets the needs of its audience.

1. Planning

 Define the purpose of the document.

 Identify the target audience (Who will read it? What do they already know?).
 Understand the scope (What topics will be covered? How long will it be?).
 Decide on the format (Manual, report, online help, etc.).

2. Researching

 Collect accurate and up-to-date information from reliable sources.

 Use technical materials, books, interviews with experts, online sources, or company data.
 Understand the subject deeply to explain it clearly to others.

3. Organizing

 Create an outline or structure for the content.

 Group related ideas together.
 Decide the order in which the information should appear (logical flow).
 Use headings, subheadings, bullet points, and numbered lists for clarity.

4. Writing (Drafting)

 Begin writing the first draft using the outline.

 Use clear, simple, and precise language.
 Write in a logical order, keeping the audience in mind.
 Avoid jargon (unless the reader understands it), and define technical terms when needed.

5. Reviewing and Revising

 Re-read the document to check if it is clear and complete.

 Edit for grammar, spelling, and punctuation.
 Check the flow and readability.
 Revise parts that are confusing or too technical.
 Get feedback from others if possible (like a subject expert or editor).

6. Formatting and Designing

 Apply proper formatting (fonts, headings, spacing).

  Insert diagrams, images, charts, or tables where necessary.
 Make sure the layout looks professional and easy to read.

7. Publishing or Delivering

 Finalize the document and share it with the intended audience.

 This may be done by printing it, uploading it online, or sending it by email.
 Choose the best format (PDF, Word, website, etc.) based on the reader’s needs.

Step What You Do Why It Matters

Planning Set goals and know the audience Keeps writing focused and relevant
Researching Gather correct information Ensures accuracy and depth
Organizing Outline and structure content Makes reading easy and logical
Writing Draft the content Turns ideas into clear messages
Revising Edit and improve Polishes the writing and corrects errors
Formatting Add layout and visuals Enhances readability and looks
Publishing Share the final version Delivers value to the reader

Technical Report

A report is a clear and organized way of giving information about something. It explains
what happened, why it happened, and sometimes what should be done next.

It’s often written for school, business, or work to help people make decisions.

Significance of reports :

1. Clear Communication

Reports organize and present complex information clearly, making it easy for people to
understand key points quickly.

2. Informed Decision-Making

Reports provide accurate data that helps managers and leaders make well-informed decisions
based on facts rather than assumptions.

3. Tracking Progress

They track progress by showing what has been completed and what still needs attention,
helping ensure goals are met.

4. Problem Identification

Reports highlight issues early, allowing problems to be addressed before they grow larger.

5. Accountability and Responsibility

Reports show who is responsible for tasks and their performance, ensuring everyone stays on
track and is held accountable.

6. Improvement and Planning

Reviewing past reports helps organizations learn from experience, make improvements, and
plan future goals and strategies.

7. Legal and Record-Keeping

Reports often serve as official records, ensuring transparency and compliance with legal or
regulatory requirements.

8. Building Trust and Credibility

Regular, detailed reports build trust with stakeholders by demonstrating honesty and
transparency.

9. Setting Standards and Expectations

Reports help set benchmarks and expectations, comparing actual outcomes to standards to guide
necessary adjustments.

Types of Reports (with Simple Examples)

1. Informational Report
Gives facts only — no opinions or suggestions.
Example: A weather report that shows temperature and rainfall data.

2. Analytical Report
Gives facts and also explains what they mean. Often includes suggestions.
Example: A report that analyzes sales numbers and suggests how to improve sales.

3. Progress Report
Shows how much work has been done on a project so far.
Example: A builder writes a report about how much of the new school building is
finished.

4. Technical Report
Explains technical or scientific information in detail.
Example: An engineer writes a report on how a machine works or why it failed.
 5. Research Report
Gives the results of a research study.
Example: A student writes a report about the effects of plastic on ocean life.

6. Incident or Accident Report

Tells what happened during an unusual or unexpected event.
Example: A factory worker writes a report after an injury happens on the job.

7. Feasibility Report
Explains if a project or idea is possible or practical.
Example: A company checks if starting a new branch in another city would be a good
idea.

Technical Proposals

A proposal is a formal plan or suggestion that is presented to someone (like a person,

company, or organization) for approval or support.

A proposal is a document that explains what you want to do, why you want to do it, how you
will do it, and what you need to make it happen.

A technical proposal is a structured document that outlines how a specific technical project or
solution will be carried out. It is commonly used in engineering, IT, construction, research, and
consulting fields to propose solutions to problems, respond to RFPs (Requests for Proposals), or
seek approval/funding.

Characteristics of technical proposals:

1. Clear Objective

 Defines the problem or need.

 Outlines specific goals and desired outcomes.

2. Well-Structured Format

 Includes standard sections such as an executive summary, introduction, technical

approach, implementation plan, timeline, budget, and qualifications.
 Often follows specific formatting requirements given by the requester.

3. Technical Accuracy

 Provides detailed, accurate information about methods, processes, equipment, and

technology.
 Uses appropriate technical language suited to the audience’s knowledge level.

4. Evidence-Based
  Cites data, research, case studies, or previous successful implementations.
 Demonstrates feasibility through simulations, prototypes, or references.

5. Persuasive Tone

 Convincingly argues why your approach is superior.

 Addresses potential concerns or limitations with proposed solutions.

6. Audience-Oriented

 Tailored to the needs, expectations, and technical expertise of the target audience.
 Balances technical depth with clarity.

7. Budget and Resource Planning

 Includes a realistic cost estimate and resource allocation.

 Explains funding needs and cost-efficiency.

8. Compliance with Requirements

 Directly responds to all items in the RFP or client specifications.

 Uses required forms, attachments, and formatting.

9. Implementation Plan

 Provides a detailed timeline, milestones, and deliverables.

 Includes risk management and contingency plans.

10. Qualifications and Team

 Highlights the expertise, experience, and roles of the project team.

 Demonstrates capability to deliver as proposed.

Types
1. Solicited Proposal

Definition: A company or organization asks for this proposal (often through an RFP – Request
for Proposal).

Example:
A government agency wants to build a new bridge. They send out an RFP to engineering
companies. One company sends a proposal explaining how they will build it, how much it will
cost, and how long it will take.

2. Unsolicited Proposal
Definition: This is not requested. The writer sends it on their own to suggest an idea or service.

Example:
A solar panel company sends a proposal to a shopping mall suggesting they install solar panels
to save on electricity bills—even though the mall didn’t ask for it.

3. Internal Proposal

Definition: Sent within an organization to suggest a new idea, project, or improvement.

Example:
An IT manager at a company writes a proposal to the CEO asking for funds to upgrade all the
office computers for better performance.

4. External Proposal

Definition: Sent from one organization to another to offer a product or service.

Example:
A software company sends a proposal to a hospital to sell them a new patient management
system.

5. Business Proposal

Definition: Focuses on offering products or services for profit.

Example:
A marketing agency proposes to manage a company’s social media in exchange for a monthly
fee.

6. Research Proposal

Definition: A plan for conducting research, often submitted for academic or scientific funding.

Example:
A university professor sends a proposal to a science foundation to fund research on climate
change.

Standard Structure of a Technical Proposal

1. Title Page
o Project title
o Proposal date
o Author or company name
o Client or recipient name
2. Table of Contents
 o Auto-generated if the document is long or detailed
3. Executive Summary
o Brief overview of the problem, the proposed solution, and expected outcomes
o Written last, but placed at the beginning
4. Introduction
o Background information
o Purpose and scope of the proposal
o Objectives
5. Problem Statement / Needs Assessment
o Detailed description of the issue or opportunity
o Impact or consequences if not addressed
6. Technical Approach / Methodology
o Description of the proposed solution
o Technologies, methods, and tools to be used
o Justification for chosen approach
o Possible alternatives considered
7. Project Plan / Implementation Timeline
o Project phases or milestones
o Schedule (e.g., Gantt chart or timeline)
o Deliverables
8. Team and Qualifications
o Project team members and their roles
o Relevant experience and technical capabilities
9. Budget and Cost Estimate
o Detailed breakdown of costs (labor, materials, software, travel, etc.)
o Justifications for each cost
10. Risk Assessment and Mitigation
o Potential risks or challenges
o Mitigation strategies
11. Evaluation and Success Metrics
o How project success will be measured
o Evaluation tools or performance indicators
12. Conclusion
o Recap of the proposal’s value
o Call to action (e.g., request for approval, funding, or meeting)
13. Appendices
o Technical diagrams, charts, specifications
o References or supporting documents
o Glossary (if needed)

Active and Passive Voice

What is Active Voice?
In active voice, the subject of the sentence performs the action. It focuses on who is doing the
action.

Structure: Subject + Verb + Object

Examples of Active Voice:

1. She (subject) writes (verb) a letter (object).

2. John (subject) kicked (verb) the ball (object).
3. They (subject) are building (verb) a house (object).

In active voice, the subject is the focus of the sentence.

What is Passive Voice?

In passive voice, the object of the active sentence becomes the subject. The focus shifts from
who is doing the action to what is being done to the object. The action is often more important
than the person performing it.

Structure: Object + Form of "to be" + Past Participle (Verb 3) + (by Subject)

Examples of Passive Voice:

1. A letter is written (verb) by her (subject).

2. The ball was kicked (verb) by John (subject).
3. A house is being built (verb) by them (subject).

In passive voice, the object of the action becomes the focus of the sentence, and the person
performing the action is either mentioned at the end or omitted.

Changing from Active to Passive

To change a sentence from active to passive:

1. Identify the subject, verb, and object in the active sentence.

2. Move the object to the beginning of the sentence.
3. Change the verb to the appropriate form of "to be" (based on the tense of the active
sentence).
4. Use the past participle of the main verb.
5. The original subject becomes the agent (optional), introduced by "by" or is omitted.

When Do We Use Passive Voice?

1. When the focus is on the action, not the person doing it:
o "The cake was baked yesterday."
o (Who baked it isn’t important, just that the cake was baked.)
 2. When the doer is unknown or unimportant:
o "The car was stolen."
o (We don’t know or care who stole it.)
3. In formal or scientific writing:
o "The experiment was conducted carefully."
o (Here, the action is more important than who did it.)

Example 1: Present Simple

 Active: The teacher teaches the lesson.

 Passive: The lesson is taught by the teacher.

Example 2: Past Simple

 Active: She wrote the letter.

 Passive: The letter was written by her.

Example 3: Present Continuous

 Active: They are building the house.

 Passive: The house is being built by them.

Example 4: Present Perfect

 Active: I have completed the project.

 Passive: The project has been completed by me.

Important Points:

 When to Use Passive Voice: We use passive voice when the action is more important
than the subject performing it, or when the subject is unknown or unimportant.
o Example: "The book was read by many people." (Here, the focus is on the book
being read, not the people.)
 Omitting the Subject: In many passive voice constructions, the "by" agent is often
omitted if it's not necessary to know who performed the action.
o Example: "The cake was eaten." (It doesn't matter who ate it.)
 Not All Verbs Have a Passive Form: Some verbs, especially intransitive verbs (verbs
that don't take an object), cannot be used in the passive voice. For example: "He sleeps"
(No object, so no passive voice).

When we convert sentences from active voice to passive voice, the verb tense changes
according to specific rules.

1. Present Simple Tense

 Active: Subject + verb (base form)

 o Example: She reads the book.
 Passive: Object + form of "to be" (am/are) + past participle
o Example: The book is read by her.

2. Past Simple Tense

 Active: Subject + verb (past form)

o Example: She wrote the letter.
 Passive: Object + form of "to be" (was/were) + past participle
o Example: The letter was written by her.

3. Present Continuous Tense

 Active: Subject + form of "to be" (am/are/is) + verb (ing form)

o Example: She is writing the letter.
 Passive: Object + form of "to be" (am/are/is) + being + past participle
o Example: The letter is being written by her.

4. Past Continuous Tense

 Active: Subject + form of "to be" (was/were) + verb (ing form)

o Example: She was writing the letter.
 Passive: Object + form of "to be" (was/were) + being + past participle
o Example: The letter was being written by her.

5. Present Perfect Tense

 Active: Subject + have/has + past participle

o Example: She has written the letter.
 Passive: Object + form of "to be" (has/have) + been + past participle
o Example: The letter has been written by her.

6. Past Perfect Tense

 Active: Subject + had + past participle

o Example: She had written the letter.
 Passive: Object + form of "to be" (had) + been + past participle
o Example: The letter had been written by her.

7. Future Simple Tense

 Active: Subject + will + base verb

o Example: She will write the letter.
 Passive: Object + form of "to be" (will be) + past participle
o Example: The letter will be written by her.
8. Future Continuous Tense

 Active: Subject + will be + verb (ing form)

o Example: She will be writing the letter.
 Passive: Object + form of "to be" (will be) + being + past participle
o Example: The letter will be being written by her.

9. Future Perfect Tense

 Active: Subject + will have + past participle

o Example: She will have written the letter.
 Passive: Object + form of "to be" (will have) + been + past participle
o Example: The letter will have been written by her.

The object of the active sentence becomes the subject in the passive sentence.

The verb in the active sentence changes based on the tense, usually using a form of "to
be" and the past participle.

In passive voice, the "doer" (the agent) is often omitted unless it's necessary or
important (e.g., "The book was read by her" vs. "The book was read")

Active Voice Passive Voice

She plays the piano every day. The piano is played by her every day.
The chef prepared the dinner last night. The dinner was prepared by the chef last night.
The children are playing soccer in the park. Soccer is being played by the children in the park.
The house was being painted by him when I
He was painting the house when I arrived.
arrived.
She has finished her homework. Her homework has been finished by her.
They had built the house before we moved The house had been built by them before we
in. moved in.
The company will announce the results The results will be announced by the company
tomorrow. tomorrow.
The team will be practicing for the match The match will be being practiced for by the team
all week. all week.
By next year, they will have completed the By next year, the project will have been completed
project. by them.

Exceptions – When Passive Voice Can’t Be Used

1. Intransitive Verbs (No Object)

You cannot make a passive sentence if the verb does not have an object.
Intransitive verbs = verbs that do not act on anything (no object).

Example – Can’t be made passive:

 Active: "He sleeps peacefully."

o Verb: sleeps (no object!)
o You can’t say: "Peacefully is slept by him." – Not correct

Other common intransitive verbs:

 sleep, go, arrive, die, swim, fall, cry, walk, sit, appear

2. Stative Verbs (State, Not Action)

Stative verbs describe a state of being, feeling, or thought – not a physical action. They usually
don’t work well in the passive voice.

Examples of stative verbs:

 like, love, hate, know, believe, prefer, own, belong, understand

Not usually changed to passive:

 "She likes pizza."

o "Pizza is liked by her." → Sounds unnatural (though technically possible, it's rare
and awkward)
 "I know the answer."
o "The answer is known by me." → Awkward and rarely used

3. Reflexive Verbs

These verbs refer back to the subject and usually don’t have a clear external object, so passive
voice is not meaningful.

Example:

 Active: "She dressed herself."

o Passive: "Herself was dressed by her." → Doesn’t work well

4. Some Fixed Expressions / Idioms

Some expressions just don’t translate into passive because their meaning would be lost or sound
unnatural.

Example:

 "They had fun." → This is an idiom.

 o Passive: "Fun was had by them." → Technically possible, but awkward
 "He took a shower."
o Passive: "A shower was taken by him." → Possible, but sounds strange and too
formal for everyday use

5. Imperatives (Commands) – Limited Use

Passive voice can sometimes be formed from commands, but not always.

Possible:

 Active: "Close the door."

 Passive: "Let the door be closed."

Not always natural:

 Active: "Go to bed."

 "Let bed be gone to." → Doesn't make sense

Reported Speech
Definition:
Reported speech, also known as indirect speech, is used to report what someone has said
without using their exact words. It conveys the message in the third person and often involves
changes in pronouns, tense, and certain adverbs. Unlike direct speech, it does not use quotation
marks around the speaker's words.

Teacher said, “Learning grammar is fun.”

Teacher said that learning grammar was fun.

Rules for Reported Speech:

1. No Quotation Marks: In reported speech, quotation marks are not used because you are
not quoting the exact words of the speaker.
2. Structure: The general structure is:
o Subject + said (that) + reported message
o Example: He said (that) he was tired.
3. Types of sentences - Reporting verb - linker
o Declarative sentences: said, told - that
o Interrogative sentences: asked, inquired, enquired -wh /(if/whether-yes/no)
o Imperative sentences: ordered, requested, commanded -to/not to
o Exclamatory sentences: exclaimed -that
 4. Tense, Pronouns, and Adverbs Change: When changing direct speech to reported
speech, changes are made in:
o Pronouns
o Tense
o Adverbs of time and place

Transforming Direct Speech into Reported Speech:

1. Changes in Pronouns:

Direct Speech Reported Speech

I He, She
Me Him, Her
We They
Us Them
You He, She, They
You (plural) Him, Her, Them
My His, Her
Mine His, Hers
Our Their
Ours Theirs
Your His, Her, Their
Yours His, Hers, Theirs

2. Changes in Adverbs of Place and Time:

Direct Speech Reported Speech

This That
These Those
Here There
Adverbs of Time
Now Then
Today That day
Tomorrow The next day
Yesterday The previous day
Tonight That night
Last week The week before
Next week The week after
Last month The previous month
 Direct Speech Reported Speech
Next month The following month
Last year The previous year
Next year The following year
Ago Before
Thus So

3. Changes in Tense:

Direct Speech Reported Speech

Simple Present: "I cook pasta." Simple Past: "She cooked pasta."
Present Continuous: "I am cooking pasta." Past Continuous: "She was cooking pasta."
Present Perfect: "I have cooked pasta." Past Perfect: "She had cooked pasta."
Present Perfect Continuous: "I have been Past Perfect Continuous: "She had been
cooking pasta." cooking pasta."
Simple Past: "I cooked pasta." Past Perfect: "She had cooked pasta."
Past Perfect Continuous: "She had been
Past Continuous: "I was cooking pasta."
cooking pasta."

4. Changes in Modal Verbs:

Direct Speech Reported Speech

Will Would
May Might
Can Could
Shall Should
Has/Have Had

Important Notes

 No quotation marks: Reported speech does not use quotation marks.

 Tense shifting: Tenses usually shift backward in reported speech. For example, present
tense changes to past tense.
 Pronoun changes: Pronouns need to be adjusted based on the context.
 Adverbs of time/place: They often change to reflect the time of reporting.

1. Future Simple (will + base verb)

 Direct Speech: "I will go to the party tomorrow."

 Reported Speech: He said (that) he would go to the party the next day.

2. Future Continuous (will be + verb-ing)

  Direct Speech: "I will be traveling next week."
 Reported Speech: She said (that) she would be traveling the following week.

3. Future Perfect (will have + past participle)

 Direct Speech: "By next year, I will have finished my studies."

 Reported Speech: He said (that) by next year, he would have finished his studies.

4. Future Perfect Continuous (will have been + verb-ing)

 Direct Speech: "By next month, I will have been working here for two years."
 Reported Speech: She said (that) by next month, she would have been working there
for two years.

Key Points to Remember:

1. “Will” becomes “would” in reported speech for all future tenses.

2. Time expressions may also change when converting from direct to reported speech (e.g.,
"tomorrow" becomes "the next day").
3. The tense shift (will → would) applies regardless of the subject or other sentence
elements.

🕓 Tense Shift Examples in Reported Speech

Direct Speech Reported Speech Tense Shift

“I am happy,” she said. She said she was happy. Present simple → Past simple
“We are watching TV,” They said they were Present continuous → Past
they said. watching TV. continuous
“I have finished the work,” He said he had finished the
Present perfect → Past perfect
he said. work.
“She has been crying,” Tom said she had been Present perfect continuous → Past
Tom said. crying. perfect continuous
“I went to the store,” she She said she had gone to the
Past simple → Past perfect
said. store.
“They were playing He said they had been Past continuous → Past perfect
football,” he said. playing football. continuous
“I will help you,” he said. He said he would help me. Will → Would
“I can swim,” Anna said. Anna said she could swim. Can → Could
“You may leave now,” he
He said I might leave then. May → Might
said.
“I must go now,” she said. She said she had to go then. Must → Had to
⛔ When Tense Does Not Shift

 If the reporting verb is in the present or future tense, the original tense usually stays
the same:
o She says, “I like music.” → She says she likes music.
 When the statement is a general truth:
o He said, “The sun rises in the east.” → He said the sun rises in the east.

Cloze Test
A Cloze Test is a language assessment tool where words are removed from a passage at regular
intervals, and the student must fill in the blanks. Or replace the words. It’s used to test a
learner’s proficiency in context understanding, vocabulary, grammar, and coherence.

Types of Cloze Tests:

Type Description Example
Fixed-Ratio Every n-th word is removed (e.g., every 5th “The dog ___ over the fence to
Cloze word). ___ the cat.”
Specific words are removed (e.g., nouns, “The ___ jumped over the ___
Selective Cloze
verbs, or key vocabulary). to chase the ___.”
Extra words are added, and the student must “The the dog ran fast.”
Cloze Elide Test
identify and remove them. (Remove extra “the”)
Gaps are left, and no word options are given.
Open Cloze “She ___ to school every day.”
Tests grammar and syntax.
Multiple Choice Each blank has multiple options to choose “He ___ to the store. (A) go
Cloze from. (B) goes (C) going”
Cloze with Word Bank: [ran, fence, dog,
Students select from a list of given words.
Word Bank cat]

Skills Tested:

 Grammar
 Vocabulary
 Reading comprehension
 Logical inference
 Context clues usage

Cloze Test – Examples by Type

1. Fixed-Ratio Cloze (Every 5th Word Removed):

Original: The boy went to the market to buy some fresh vegetables for his mother.

Cloze: The boy went to ___ market to ___ some fresh ___ for his ___.
Answers: the, buy, vegetables, mother

2. Selective Cloze (Targeted Word Removal – Nouns):

Cloze: The ___ chased the ___ across the ___.

Word Bank: cat, mouse, garden

Answers: cat, mouse, garden

3. Cloze Elide (Remove Extra Words):

Sentence: She can to swim very fast.

Corrected: She can swim very fast.

(Extra word "to" removed)

4. Open Cloze (No Word Options):

Cloze: He ___ playing football when it started to rain.

Answer: was

5. Multiple Choice Cloze:

Theme Detection
Theme Detection involves identifying the underlying message, central idea, or main topic of a
text. It's key in literary analysis and reading comprehension.

Types of Themes:

Type Description Example Text Theme

Stated Theme Directly mentioned in the text. “Honesty is the best policy.”

Suggested through characters, A story about a kind stranger helping

Implied Theme
actions, or events. others implies kindness.
Themes that apply across cultures Love, justice, freedom, betrayal,
Universal Theme
and time. sacrifice

Skills Involved:

 Critical thinking
 Inference
  Synthesis of ideas
 Understanding character development and plot

How to Identify a Theme:

1. Summarize the plot.

2. Analyze characters' actions and consequences.
3. Look for repetition of ideas or symbols.
4. Ask: What is the author trying to say about life, society, or human nature?