1.

ASCII
ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) is a character encoding standard used to represent text in
computers and other digital devices. It assigns a unique numerical value (ranging from 0 to 127) to letters, digits, punctuation
marks, and control characters.
2. Abstruction:
Abstraction is a concept in computer science and programming that focuses on hiding unnecessary details and showing only the
essential features of an object or system. It helps simplify complex systems by breaking them into smaller, more manageable
parts.

 Using a TV remote: You press buttons to change channels, but you don’t need to understand the electronics inside.
 Google Search: You enter a query and get results, without seeing the algorithms working behind the scenes.

3. Algorithm:
What is an Algorithm?

An algorithm is a step-by-step procedure or set of rules for solving a specific problem or performing a task. It is a finite
sequence of well-defined instructions that take input, process it, and produce an output.

Example of an Algorithm:

Let's say we want to create an algorithm to add two numbers:

1. Start
2. Take two numbers as input
3. Add the numbers
4. Display the result
5. End

4. AI:

What is AI (Artificial Intelligence)?

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is the simulation of human intelligence in machines that enables them to perform tasks that
typically require human thinking, such as learning, problem-solving, decision-making, and understanding language.

Types of AI:

Narrow AI (Weak AI) – AI specialized for a specific task.

Examples: Google Search, Siri, Chatbots, Self-driving cars

General AI (Strong AI) – AI that can think and learn like a human (still in research).

Super AI – AI that surpasses human intelligence (theoretical concept).

5. AUTONOMUS:

The term autonomous refers to something that operates independently without human control. It means having the ability to
self-govern or make decisions without direct external influence.

6. Bandwidth:

Bandwidth refers to the maximum amount of data that can be transmitted over a network or internet connection in a given
amount of time. It is typically measured in bits per second (bps), such as:

 Kbps (Kilobits per second) – 1,000 bits per second

 Mbps (Megabits per second) – 1 million bits per second
 Gbps (Gigabits per second) – 1 billion bits per second

7. Boot program:
A boot program (also called a bootloader) is a small piece of software that runs when a computer or device is powered on. Its
main job is to initialize the system hardware and load the operating system (OS) into memory.

Examples of Boot Programs:

 Windows Boot Manager – Loads Windows OS.

 GRUB (GNU GRUB) – Used in Linux distributions.
 LILO (Linux Loader) – An older bootloader for Linux.

8. Broadcast and unicast:

1. Unicast (One-to-One Communication)

✅ Definition: Unicast is a communication method where data is sent from one sender to one specific receiver.
✅ Example: Sending an email to a friend or loading a webpage.
✅ Usage:

 Web browsing
 Video streaming (like Netflix, YouTube)
 Online gaming

2. Broadcast (One-to-All Communication)

✅ Definition: Broadcast is a communication method where data is sent from one sender to all devices in a network.
✅ Example: A router sending a DHCP request to all connected devices.
✅ Usage:

 ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) to find MAC addresses

 DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) for assigning IP addresses
 Network-wide announcements

9. Cache:

Cache is a temporary storage space that stores frequently accessed data to make future access faster. It helps reduce load
times, processing power, and network traffic.

Types of Cache:

1. CPU Cache – A small, high-speed memory in the processor that stores frequently used instructions and data.
2. Browser Cache – Stores web pages, images, and scripts to speed up website loading.
3. Disk Cache – A part of RAM that stores frequently used disk data to speed up access.
4. DNS Cache – Stores IP addresses of websites to resolve domain names faster.
5. Application Cache – Mobile apps store data (like images or settings) to reduce loading time.

10. Clock:

Clock in Computing (System Clock)

Definition: In computing, the system clock refers to the timing mechanism that synchronizes the operation of the
CPU and other components. It generates regular pulses or ticks to control the speed and timing of operations.

Clock Speed: Refers to the number of cycles the processor can complete in one second. It is measured in Hertz (Hz),
with modern processors often running at GHz (gigahertz), or billions of cycles per second.

o Example: A CPU with a clock speed of 3.5 GHz completes 3.5 billion cycles per second.

Role: The clock is responsible for determining how fast data can be processed and how components interact. Higher
clock speeds usually mean faster processing, but factors like architecture, number of cores, and other components also
impact overall performance.
 11. Cloud computing:

What is Cloud Computing?

Cloud computing refers to the delivery of computing services over the internet (the cloud) instead of using local servers or
personal devices. These services include storage, processing power, software, databases, analytics, and more, all provided
remotely.

12. Cloud storage:

Cloud storage is an online service that allows users to store data (such as files, documents, photos, videos, and backups) on
remote servers instead of using local storage devices like hard drives, USBs, or SD cards. This data is stored in data centers
managed by cloud service providers and can be accessed over the internet.

13. cluster computer:

What is a Cluster Computer?

A cluster computer refers to a group of independent computers (often called nodes) that work together as a single system.
These nodes are connected through a network and coordinate their tasks to act as a more powerful computing system than any
individual computer in the cluster.

How Cluster Computing Works:

 Each node in the cluster is typically a separate machine with its own processor, memory, and storage.
 The nodes are linked together via a high-speed network.
 Clustered nodes share tasks, often dividing a large problem into smaller parts that can be processed simultaneously.
 Depending on the setup, the cluster can either work on parallel computing or provide high availability and
redundancy.

14. Data minning :

Data Mining is the process of discovering patterns, relationships, and useful insights from large datasets using techniques such
as machine learning, statistical analysis, and database systems. It is widely used in fields like business, healthcare, finance, and
artificial intelligence to make data-driven decisions.

15. Declaration :

Declaration is the process of specifying the name and type of a variable, function, or other entity in programming,
without necessarily assigning a value or defining its implementation. It informs the compiler or interpreter about the existence of
the entity.

Examples:

Variable Declaration (C/C++)

Function Declaration (C++)

16. Embedded:

Embedded Definition:

Embedded refers to something that is integrated or fixed within a larger system. In computing, Embedded Systems are
specialized computing devices designed to perform dedicated functions within a larger system, such as in automobiles, medical
devices, and home appliances.

Examples:

 Embedded Systems: Microcontrollers in washing machines, ATMs, and smart thermostats.

 Embedded Software: Firmware in smartphones and IoT devices.
 17. Encryption:

Encryption

Encryption is the process of converting plain text into a coded format (ciphertext) to prevent unauthorized access. It ensures data
confidentiality and security by making the information readable only to those who have the decryption key.

Types of Encryption:

Symmetric Encryption – Uses a single key for both encryption and decryption.

Asymmetric Encryption – Uses a pair of public and private keys.

18. File extension:

A file extension is a suffix at the end of a file name that indicates the file format and helps the operating system determine which
program should open it. It is usually composed of three or more characters after a period (.).

Common File Extensions:

 Text Files: .txt, .docx, .pdf

 Image Files: .jpg, .png, .gif
 Audio Files: .mp3, .wav, .aac
 Video Files: .mp4, .avi, .mkv
 Executable Files: .exe (Windows), .app (Mac), .sh (Linux)
 Compressed Files: .zip, .rar, .tar.gz
 Programming Files: .py (Python), .java (Java), .cpp (C++)

19. IDE:

IDE (Integrated Development Environment)

An IDE (Integrated Development Environment) is a software application that provides a comprehensive environment for
coding, testing, and debugging programs. It combines multiple tools into a single interface to streamline software development.

Key Features of an IDE:

 Code Editor – Helps in writing and formatting code.

 Compiler/Interpreter – Converts source code into executable form.
 Debugger – Helps identify and fix errors in the code.
 Build Automation – Simplifies code compilation and execution.
 Version Control Integration – Works with Git and other version control systems.

20. IOT:

IoT (Internet of Things)

IoT (Internet of Things) refers to a network of interconnected physical devices that communicate and exchange data over the
internet. These devices are embedded with sensors, software, and connectivity to collect and share information without human
intervention.

Examples of IoT Devices:

 Smart Home Devices – Smart thermostats, lights, and security cameras (e.g., Google Nest, Amazon Echo).
 Wearable Technology – Smartwatches, fitness trackers (e.g., Apple Watch, Fitbit).

21. Malware:

Malware (Malicious Software)

Malware is any software designed to disrupt, damage, or gain unauthorized access to a computer system, network, or device.
It is often used by hackers to steal data, spy on users, or cause harm.

Types of Malware:

Virus – Attaches itself to files and spreads when executed.

Worms – Self-replicating malware that spreads across networks.

Trojan Horse – Disguised as legitimate software but contains harmful code.

22. Open source:

Open Source refers to software whose source code is freely available for anyone to view, modify, and distribute. It promotes
collaboration, transparency, and innovation by allowing developers to contribute and improve the software.

Key Features of Open Source Software:

✅ Free to Use & Modify – No licensing costs, and anyone can customize it.
✅ Community-Driven Development – Maintained by developers worldwide.
✅ Transparency & Security – Users can inspect the code for vulnerabilities.
✅ Continuous Improvement – Frequent updates and bug fixes from contributors.

Examples of Open Source Software:

 Operating Systems – Linux, Ubuntu, Android

 Web Browsers – Mozilla Firefox, Chromium

23. Parallel Computing:

Parallel computing is like having many workers doing different tasks at the same time to get a job done faster. Instead of one
computer processor handling all the work sequentially (one task after another), in parallel computing, multiple processors or
cores work together simultaneously on different parts of a problem.

24. Protocol:

A protocol is a set of rules or guidelines that define how communication or interaction happens between different systems,
devices, or software programs. It's like a common language or a standard procedure that ensures all the parties involved
understand each other and work together smoothly.

For example:

 Internet Protocol (IP) helps computers communicate over the internet by providing a system for addressing and
routing data packets.
 HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol) defines how browsers and servers communicate when you access websites.

25. Recursion:

Recursion is when a function calls itself to solve smaller instances of the same problem until it reaches a simple base case to stop.

Example: To calculate factorial:

def factorial(n):
if n == 1:
return 1
return n * factorial(n - 1)

26. Sementics:

Semantics refers to the meaning or interpretation of words, phrases, sentences, or symbols in a language or system. In
programming, semantics defines how the structures of a language are understood and what they do when executed, beyond just
their syntax (how they are written).
For example:

 In natural language, semantics is about understanding what words or sentences actually mean.
 In programming, it’s about understanding what a code or command does when run.

27. Soc

SoC stands for System on a Chip. It's a single chip that contains all the essential components of a computer or electronic system,
such as the processor (CPU), memory, input/output ports, and sometimes even graphics (GPU), all integrated into one unit. SoCs
are commonly found in smartphones, tablets, and other compact devices where space and power efficiency are important.

28. Syntax:

Syntax refers to the rules that define the structure or arrangement of words, symbols, or commands in a language. In
programming, it’s the set of rules that govern how code must be written for it to be understood by the computer.

29. system calls:

A system call is a way for a program to request a service from the operating system’s kernel. It allows a program to interact with
the underlying hardware or perform tasks that it doesn't have direct permission to do, like reading files, allocating memory, or
creating processes.

For example:

 When you open a file in a program, the program makes a system call to the operating system to open that file.

30. Thread

A thread is a small unit of a process that can execute code independently. It’s the basic unit of execution within a program, and
multiple threads can run in parallel, sharing resources like memory.

31. Time sharing:

Time-sharing is a method that allows multiple users or processes to share a computer’s resources, like the CPU, in a way that
each gets a small, time-limited slice of processing power. This makes it appear as though each user or process has its own
dedicated machine, even though they are all using the same system.

32. Unicode:

Unicode is a standardized system for encoding and representing text in computers, allowing characters from virtually all writing
systems around the world to be used consistently. It assigns a unique number (called a code point) to every character, symbol, or
punctuation mark, regardless of the platform or language.

For example:

 The letter "A" has a Unicode value of U+0041.

 The Chinese character "你" has a Unicode value of U+4F60.