ANIMAL

FORM AND
FUNCTION
Presented by: Ma’am Sean
Learning Objectives
At the end of the lesson, student should be able to:

● explain the difference of asexual and sexual

reproduction
● identify the three types of asexual reproduction
● enumerate the essential elements, vitamins, and
physiology of animals
● determine the parts of animal nervous system
● identify and explain the regions of vertebrate nervous
system
FOCUS OF 01 | Animal
THE Reproduction

LESSON 02 | Animal
Nutrition

03 | Animal
Nervous System
 ANIMAL
REPRODUCTION
Animal reproduce asexually,
sexually, or by both means.
What do you think is the difference
of asexual reproduction to sexual
reproduction?
 SEXUAL
REPRODUCTION
Sexual Reproduction
● This type of reproduction is more complex
and lengthy as compared to asexual
reproduction.

● Reproducing sexually gives the benefit of

variation and offsprings are unique.
Sexual Reproduction
● New individuals are formed from the
combination of haploid gametes to form a
genetically unique offspring.

● Sexual reproduction is a natural way of

reproduction in humans, animals and the
majority of plants also choose to reproduce
sexually
 What do we mean by
hermaphrodites or monoecious?
Hermaphrodites or monoecious
● It is a sexually reproducing organism that
produces both male and female gametes.

● This are organisms that can produce both

sperm and eggs, they usually do not self-
fertilize.
 ASEXUAL
REPRODUCTION
Asexual Reproduction
● It is a mode of reproduction in which a new
offspring is produced by a single parent. The new
individuals produced are genetically and physically
identical to each other, i.e., they are the clones of
their parents.

● Therefore, individuals are the exact clones of the

parent with identical genetic makeup.
Characteristics of Asexual Reproduction
Following are the important features of asexual
reproduction:

● Single parent involved.

● No fertilization or gamete formation takes place.
● This process of reproduction occurs in a very short
time.
● The organisms multiply and grow rapidly.
● The offspring is genetically similar.
 Three common types of Asexual
Reproduction

01 | Regeneration 02 | Budding

03 | Parthenogenesis
Three common types of Asexual Reproduction

01 | Regeneration

- It involves the production and differentiation

of new tissues to replace missing and
damaged parts of the body.
Three common types of Asexual Reproduction
01 | Regeneration
Three common types of Asexual Reproduction
02 | Budding
- It involves forming a new individual from an
outgrow on the parents’ body.

- This is typical of hydras and polyps

- Hydras produce buds that branch of from the

side of the body. Once a bud breaks off, a new
hydras will form a new life independently.
Three common types of Asexual Reproduction
02 | Budding

- In other cases, a bud is left attached to the

parent and remains bound with the others to
later grow as a colony.
Three common types of Asexual Reproduction
02 | Budding
Three common types of Asexual Reproduction
03 | Parthenogenesis
- It is a development that involves an activated
unfertilized egg that undergoes mitosis in the
absence of cytokinesis (division of cytoplasm).

- The two nuclei then fuse together to form the diploid

nucleus then further develop as if it had been
fertilized.
Three common types of Asexual Reproduction
03 | Parthenogenesis
- It is a form of asexual reproduction where females
can reproduce without a male to mate with.

- This is common in some species of aphids, wasps,

and ants.
Three common types of Asexual Reproduction
03 | Parthenogenesis
Animal Reproduction
● Some organisms change sex from male to
female or vise versa.

● An organism may start off as male, converting

to female (protandry) or as female converting
to male (protogyny).
 Animal Reproduction
● Some clown fish can start as a small
non-breeding male, which will grow
bigger when the only female in the
group dies.

● The largest male “transforms” into a

female clownfish, then the largest
non-breeding male becomes the
male breeding fish.
 ANIMAL
NUTRITION
There are twelve (12) essential
elements, thirteen (13) essential
vitamins, and physiology in animals
12 Essential Elements
and Physiology in
Animals
12 Essential Elements and Physiology in Animals
Elements Function in Animals
Calcium component of bone and teeth
Chlorine formation of HCI in stomach
component of enzymes involve in
Copper the synthesis of melanin,
hemoglobin, and iron metabolism.
Fluorine maintenance of bone and teeth
Iodine component of thyroid hormone
12 Essential Elements and Physiology in Animals
Elements Function in Animals
Iron component of hemoglobin,
myoglobin, cytochromes, and
electron carriers
Magnesium muscle and nerve function
Phosphorous component of bone, ATP, DNA, and
RNA
Potassium acid-base balance, water balance,
and neural function
12 Essential Elements and Physiology in Animals
Elements Function in Animals
Sodium acid-base balance, water balance,
and neural function
Sulfur component of body proteins
Zinc components of digestive enzymes
13 Essential Vitamins
and Physiology in
Animals
13 Essential Vitamins and Physiology in Animals
Elements Function in Animals
A (retinol) regulation of bone cell activity
D (calciferol) involved in calcium absorption,
bone growth, and
mineralization
E (tocopherol) antioxidant
K (phylloquinone) blood clotting
13 Essential Vitamins and Physiology in Animals
Elements Function in Animals
B1 (thiamine) maintains the normal function of
the nervous system
B2 helps convert food
(riboflavin) (carbohydrates) into fuel (glucose)

B3 Niacin helps convert food

(carbohydrates) into fuel (glucose)
13 Essential Vitamins and Physiology in Animals
Elements Function in Animals
B6 (pyridoxine) normal brain development
and function
red blood cells production;
B5 Pantothenic sex and stress-related
acid hormones
proper brain function,
B9 Folic acid mental, and emotional health
13 Essential Vitamins and Physiology in Animals
Elements Function in Animals
B7 Biotin converts food into glucose to
produce energy
B12 healthy nerve cells; helps in
cyhocobalamin the production of DNA and RNA
C aids in resistance to infection;
carbohydrate metabolism
Diversity of Digestive Enzymes

● Most common form of digestion adapted

by both unicellular and multicellular
animals called phagocytosis.
What do we mean by
phagocytosis?
― Irene M. Pepperberg
Phagocytosis
● This involves an
intercellular
digestion
through fusion
of food vacuole
and lysosome.
 How does gas
Exchange happen?
― Irene M. Pepperberg
Circulation and Gas Exchange
● Oxygen availability to animals
depends on the external
respiratory medium and
environments such as
temperature, salinity (aquatic
life), altitude (terrestrial life)
and distance from air
interference.
Circulation and Gas Exchange

● Terrestrial organisms directly

take in oxygen from the
atmosphere whereas aquatic
organisms obtain the supply as
dissolved oxygen, which
occurs in minute amounts.
Circulation and Gas Exchange

● It is more
challenging and
energy intensive for
aquatic organisms
to perform gas
exchange.
 ANIMAL
NERVOUS SYSTEM
It is divided into three (3) parts
Three parts of Animal Nervous System

01 | Central Nervous 02 | Peripheral Nervous

System System

03 | Autonomous Nervous
System
 Three parts of Animal Nervous System
01 | Central Nervous System
- it comprises of the brain and neurons. It is in
the head and continues along the back

- It controls things like thought, movement, and

emotion, as well as breathing, heart rate,
hormones, and body temperature​
 Three parts of Animal Nervous System
02 | Peripheral Nervous System
- it includes all the nerves continuing from the
central nervous system to the entire body.

- it plays key role in both sending information from

different areas of your body back to your brain, as
well as carrying out commands from your brain to
various parts of your body.​
 Three parts of Animal Nervous System
03 | Autonomous Nervous System

- it regulates unconscious body processes such as

heartbeat, blood flow, breathing, and digestion.​

- it consists of sympathetic and parasympathetic

nerves.​
 Three parts of Animal Nervous System

03 | Autonomous Nervous System

Sympathetic Parasympathetic
Nerves Nerves

Carries signals that Carries signals that

put your body’s relax your body’s
system on alert system
Vertebrate Nervous
System
― Irene M. Pepperberg
 Bertebrate Nervous System
This contain three (3) regions:

01 | Hindbrain 02 | Midbrain

03 | Forebrain
 Vertebrate Nervous System

01 | Hindbrain
- it coordinates autonomic processes and
motor responses.

- its purpose is to regulate vital functions,

such as breathing, heart rate, sleep and
wakefulness
 Vertebrate Nervous System

02 | Midbrain
- responsible for the visual processing
and some motor control

- responsible for motor control,

particularly eye movements and
processing of vision and hearing
 Vertebrate Nervous System
03 | Forebrain
- it is important for the planning and
execution of movements, sensory
processing, regulating sleep-wake
states, and behavioral responses to
emotions such as stress and fear
 Vertebrate Nervous System
03 | Forebrain
- divided into two (2) regions:

➢ Diencephalon - contains the thalamus

and hypothalamus

➢ Telecephalon - it directs appropriate

response to all sensory information
Vertebrate
Nervous
System
Vertebrate Brain Differences

● Visual information is processed by a small

midbrain just above the hindbrain and a
small forebrain for olfaction (sense of
smell).
Vertebrate Brain Differences
● In amphibians, hindbrains are
larger but the cerebellum is
smaller compared to fishes.

● The size of the cerebellum in

reptiles and birds is larger
compared to amphibians.
Birds require complex
regulation of muscle activity
and coordination needed for
flying.
 ANIMAL
FORM AND
FUNCTION
Presented by: Ma’am Sean
 01 | Sensory
FOCUS OF Mechanisms 02 | Immune
THE System
LESSON
03 | Endocrine
System

04 | Homeostasis
and Feedback
Mechanisms
 SENSORY
MECHANISMS
Sensory Mechanisms
● Animals have adapted to a wide range of
stimuli that include touch, pressure, pain,
temperature, chemicals, light, sound,
movement, and position of the body by
producing nerve impulses that are received
by the brain.
Sensory Mechanisms
The senses are often divided into two:
1. General Senses
2. Special Senses
What do you think is the difference
between general and special
senses?
Sensory Mechanisms
● General Senses
- this refers to the
sensation of touch, pressure,
pain, and temperature that is
distributed in the skin,
muscles, and joints
Sensory Mechanisms
● Special Senses
- this refers to the
senses of smell, taste,
sight, hearing, and balance
which are incorporated
organs with complex
structure
Sensory Mechanisms
● The organs responsible for recognizing taste
and smell were only separated when animals
moved to lands.

● In bodies of water, all chemicals are

dissolved; therefore, separation of these
senses is necessary.
Sensory Mechanisms
Example:
● Catfish have

chemoreceptors that
● run all over their body

whereas flies have receptors

present on their feet to
easily identify the source of
food upon landing.
Catfish
Fly
 Sensory Mechanisms

01 | Taste 02 | Smell
 Sensory Mechanisms
01 | Taste
● In reptiles, birds, and
mammals, taste receptors
are mainly located on the
upper surface of the
tongue.

● An animal’s tongue usually

contains ridges and valleys
called papillae.
 Types of Papillae

01 | Filiform 02 | Fungiform

04 | Circumvallate
03 | Foliate
Papillae
 Types of Papillae
01 | Filiform 02 | Fungiform
- cone-shaped and - mushroom-shaped
distributed on the found at the tip and
whole surface of the sides of the tongue
tongue

03 | Foliate 04 | Circumvallate Papillae

- folds along the - flat mounds
sides of the tongue surrounded by a trench
 Sensory Mechanisms
02 | Smell
● This sense organ is the
most useful in animals as
this allows locating food,
marking a territory,
identifying offspring, and
attracting a potential
mate.
 Sensory Mechanisms
02 | Smell
● The olfactory organ
consists of modified nerve
cells with microscopic
hairs on the surface (cilia)
distributed from the
epithelium on the roof of
the nose cavity up to the
mucus lining.
IMMUNE SYSTEM
Immune System
● Animals defend themselves from pathogenic
microorganisms such as viruses, bacteria,
and other pathogens in the environment.

● There are two major kinds of defense

mechanisms: (1) innate immunity and (2)
acquired immunity.
What do you think is the difference
between innate and acquired
immunity?
Sensory Mechanisms
● Innate Immunity
- it is the inborn resistance against
infections that an individual possesses right
from birth, due to his genetic or constitutional
markup.

- it involves barriers that keep harmful

materials from entering your body.
Sensory Mechanisms
● Acquired Immunity
- it is the resistance against infecting
foreign substances that an individual
acquires or adapts during the course of life.

- there are two types of acquired immunity

and two major cell types.
 Types of Acquired Immunity

01 | Active Immunity 02 | Passive Immunity

What do you think is the difference
between active and passive
immunity?
 Types of Acquired Immunity
01 | Active Immunity
● Develops in response to infection or vaccination.

● NATURAL: Antibodies developed in response to

an infection

● ARTIFICIAL: Antibodies developed in response to

vaccination
 Types of Acquired Immunity
02 | Passive Immunity
● Develop after you receive antibodies from
someone or somewhere else.

● NATURAL: Antibodies received from mother

through breast milk

● ARTIFICIAL: Antibodies received from medicine,

from gamma globulin injection or infusion
Types of Major Cell in Acquired Immunity

01 | B cells 02 | T cells
 Types of Acquired Immunity
01 | B cells
- it produces the antibodies

- the presence of antigens triggers the

production of numerous types of B cells
 Types of Acquired Immunity
02 | T cells
- can attack infected cells by phagocytosis
or by injecting chemicals (perforins) to
break down and kill the pathogen

- There are three major types of T cells:

 Three Major types of T Cells
01 | killer T cells that inject chemicals into
pathogens;

02 | helper T cells that attract and assist B cells

in antibody production; and

03 | suppressor T cells that stop the B and T

cells after infection.
 Innate Immunity Acquired Immunity

Physical Barriers Internal

Defenses
• Skin, hair, cilia • Inflammatory • Antibodies and
• Mucus and response the humoral
chemical • Complement immune response
secretions proteins • Cell-mediated
• Digestive • Phagocytic immune response
enzymes in the cells • Memory response
mouth • Natural killer
• Stomach acid (NK) cells
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Do you have any idea what is an
Endocrine System?
Endocrine System
● The endocrine system and
nervous system act
individually and together in
maintaining homeostasis.

● Animal’s hormones are

mostly produced by the
endocrine system.
Endocrine System
● It is instrumental in
regulating growth and
development, tissue
function, metabolism, and
reproductive processes.

● It is also referred to as
hormone system
Endocrine System
● The endocrine glands
include the pituitary
gland, thyroid gland,
parathyroid glands,
pancreas, adrenal
glands, ovaries, and
testes.
Endocrine System
Based on your idea, what is a
hormone?
Hormone
● It is the chemical signals secreted by
endocrine glands that communicate
regulatory messages within the body.

● There are three types of hormonal pathways;

(1) endocrine pathway; (2)neurohormone
pathway; and (3) neuroendocrine pathway.
Do you have any idea what is a
hypothalamus?
Hypothalamus
● It is the main region that
integrates both the
endocrine and nervous
functions in vertebrates.

● This region of the brain

contains neurosecretory
cells that regulate the
activity of the pituitary gland.
Hypothalamus
● Its main function is to
keep your body in a stable
state called homeostasis.

● It helps produce
hormones that regulate
heart rate, body
temperature, hunger, and
the sleep-wake cycle.
Do you have any idea what is a
pituitary gland?
Pituitary Gland
● Also known as hypophysis, it is a small, pea-
sized gland located at the base of your brain
below your hypothalamus.

● It sits in its little chamber under your brain

known as the sella turcica. It's a part of your
endocrine system and is in charge of making
several essential hormones.
Pituitary Gland
● The pituitary gland is
divided into the
posterior pituitary
(neurohypophysis) and
anterior pituitary
(adenohypophysis).
Pituitary Gland
 HOMEOSTASIS AND
FEEDBACK MECHANISMS
Homeostasis And Feedback
Mechanisms
Most living organisms especially plants
and animals are separated from their
external environment by a boundary,
thereby forming differences in external
and internal conditions.
 Homeostasis and Feedback Mechanism

01 | Control Mechanism 02 | Glucose Mechanism

03 | Temperature
04 | Thermoregulation
Regulation
 Homeostasis and Feedback Mechanism
01 | Control Mechanism

- Plants and animals

respond to their
environment through a
basic regulatory
system:
 Homeostasis and Feedback Mechanism
02 | Glucose Mechanism

- The human body maintains a fasting blood

glucose concentration of 70-100 mg per
-1
100 mL of blood. The body responds to sugar
fluctuation through the mechanism below:
 Homeostasis and Feedback Mechanism
03 | Temperature Regulation
- The optimum temperature for life forms to exist is
0-100℃. Below 0℃, reactions occur too slowly, and
above 100℃, there is too much heat that destroys
various biological structures.

- Temperature is a dictating factor for the survival of

organisms in certain habitats.
 Homeostasis and Feedback Mechanism
03 | Temperature Regulation
- It is how an organism keeps
its body temperature within
certain limits

- It maintains a steady
internal body temperature
despite changes in external
conditions
 Homeostasis and Feedback Mechanism
04 | Thermoregulation
- In living organisms, thermoregulation may refer to
endothermy or ectothermy.

- Endothermy (warm-warm-blooded organisms) create

most of their heat via metabolic processes.

- Ectothermy (cold-blooded organisms) use external

sources of temperature to regulate their body
temperatures.
 Homeostasis and Feedback Mechanism
04 | Thermoregulation
- It is the maintenance of physiologic core body
temperature by balancing heat generation with heat
loss.

- Therefore, it is the ability of an organism to keep its

body temperature within certain boundaries, even
when the surrounding temperature is very different.