PROPHECY

Introduction

The English word prophet comes through the Latin propheta from the Greek
, which the LXX uses to translate the Hebrew word aybin" (nabi) most
commonly used to define the term prophet and to indicate the nature of the prophetic
mission.3 The term 'nabi' perhaps derives from the root naba،, which means to cause to boil
or to expand. And in fact several times prophets express themselves as feeling the word of
God boiling in them (cf. Jer.20:9b). It could also derive from the root ‫ ( ָנ ָב א‬naba’ ), which
means to proclaim and to call. This etymology looks more probable, in this way a prophet is
defined as one called by God through a divine vocation or as one who proclaims the will of
God, by inspiration of the Spirit of God. Understood in this way, a prophet comes to be
characterized by three fundamental elements: vocation, inspiration and proclamation. Hence,
he is one called by God, inspired by the Holy Spirit and sent to proclaim the divine message.
He is a messenger of God mediating and interpreting the divine mind and will, not limited to
any specific time but judging the past, the present, and the future, without being limited by
the circumstances surrounding him (in the case of court prophets, for instance).
The person of the prophet and his function have been accorded a role of unparalleled
significance in the literature and tradition of both Judaism and Christianity. Generally
speaking, prophetism begins with the historical Moses and continues without critical
interruption through both testaments of the Bible.
The phenomenon of prophecy, understood in a broad sense, is not limited to Israel.
"Obviously…although Jewish translators might have been among the first to insist that
Israelite prophecy was something special, they recognized, and so must we that it also stood
in some kind of relation to the greater human culture of the Ancient Near East of which Israel
was but a tiny part."1 Besides, most religions - if not all, from the so called primitive
religions to the highly sophisticated ones - have produced the phenomenon of prophecy either
continuously or at some stage in their development. It becomes necessary, therefore, to show
briefly the distinctive character of Israelite prophecy.
Just as Israel's religion had traits in common with the religions of the other, mainly
Semitic, peoples of the Ancient Near East, it also expressed itself in kindred institutions, one
of which was prophetism. But in the same way Israel's religion differed from others in the
Ancient Near Eastern world, its prophetism also became something unlike that of any other
people. *For instance, like that of other peoples in the Near East, Israelite prophecy was
characterized by the phenomenon of court prophets, that is, prophets associated with the
person of the king, such as Nathan with king David. However, Israelite prophecy
distinguishes itself from all the rest. To give an example, "it would be impossible to find a
non-Israelite court prophet who would speak to his king as Nathan did to David (2Sam. 12)
or even one who would speak of the king as the royal psalmists do. No true parallel to such
literature has yet been found outside Israel, for it was the expression of a religion without true

1
. Bruce Vawter, Prophecy and Israel's Institutions, in Jerome Biblical Commentary, p. 186
parallel in its contemporary world." 2 *More still, extra-biblical prophecy was characterized
by a strict bond of the prophet not only with the person of the king but also with the political
interest and aspirations of the latter. So to say, prophets were "principal actors" in the
political play of the kings. On the contrary, the preoccupations of an Israelite court prophet
are not the personal interests of the king but "the interests of God and His people."3
*Furthermore, we find, in close relationship, in the prophecy of Israel like in that of
other Near Eastern peoples (such as the Egyptians) some moral concerns. However, unlike
those of Israel, the moral voices of the other Near Eastern prophecy do not possess a
prophetic tradition.
In conclusion, regarding the difference between Israelite prophecy and that of other
near Eastern peoples, we can say with Bruce Vawter that, "Israelite prophecy broke with the
ancient pattern when it began to produce prophets who not only spoke from the Israelite
institutions but also judged them and became their conscience. We thus have the distinctive
literary forms that found no genuine literary echo in the other literature of antiquity." 4

A. NAMES AND NOTION:

Names for Semitic peoples in general and for Jews in particular, designate the nature
of the thing and person to which they refer. The biblical terminology for defining the
prophets describes three things concerning the prophet:
(1) The nature of his mission.
(2) His relations with human beings
(3) His relations with God.

I. TERMS THAT DESCRIBE THE NATURE OF THE PROPHETIC

MISSION:

There are three terms most commonly used in the MT to indicate the nature of the
prophetic mission: nãbî’, hōzèh, and rō’èh. The LXX rendered the Hebrew word
aybin" (nãbî’) with an equivalent Greek term  and the words hz<xo
(hōzèh) and ha,ro (rō’èh) with o`  (visionary, seer of a vision) and o` 
(seer) respectively.

a. aybin" Nãbî’:

2
. Ibid. p. 191-192
3
. Cfr. EMMANUELE TESTA; “Spiegazioni Inadeguate e False del Profetismo Israelitico,” in Messaggio della
Salvezza, Vol. VI, Elle Di ci, Torino, 1990, p. 86
4
. BRUCE VAWTER, Prophecy and Israel's Institutions, p. 192

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It appears 309 times in the Hebrew bible and is used in the reference both to true and false
prophets. The most probable meaning of its verbal form is “to proclaim”, “to call”. Used for
the prophet, it would then have an active and a passive meaning: a prophet would be:
-Either (i.e. Active Meaning) one who proclaims or announces something, a herald who
proclaims the will of God
-Or (i.e. Passive Meaning) one called by God, by means of a divine vocation.
The Greek equivalent (from the verb  = to proclaim externally,
make publicly known, announce) was used from about the 5 thC BC to designate those who
interpreted the divine mind as made known in various ways to them and to others. Their
function was preeminently a public one: to mediate and interpret the divine mind and will.
Other terms than  were used to refer to private soothsayers or diviners.

b. hz<xo Ḥōzèh (visionary)

It is used 17 times in the bible. It means to see, “to see in a vision” (cf. 2 Sam. 24:11).
Like aybin" nãbî’, hōzèh is also used both for true and false prophets.

c. ha,ro, Rō’èh (seer)

Scholars disagree as to whether or not to give the same meaning to this term as for
hōzèh. Some prefer to translate it as “seer” leaving “visionary” for hōzèh. The fact is,
however, that the two terms often appear parallel to each other and the LXX translated them
indifferently with  and . One thing is certain: with the term “seer” (rō’èh) are
designated Samuel, Hanan, and even the high priest Zadok (2sam15: 27 & 1Chr 2: 52) but
never the “ visionaries of the king” (as it happens with hōzèh), who were generally taken to
be false prophets)

In conclusion, we can affirm that the three terms (prophet, visionary, seer) were at least for
the biblical redactor, synonyms and used both for true and false prophets.

II. TERMS THAT DESIGNATE THE PROPHET IN HIS RELATIONS WITH

ISRAEL:

There are three principal terms that describe the prophet in his relations with the people of
God:

a. Shepherd/keeper of the people

This is taken from pastoral vocabulary. The prophet is called rmeêvo šōmēr (from the
verb rm;v' = keep watch, stand guard), which literally means “keeper” of the flock: He

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has to guard over Sion (1 Sam 17:20), he has to be the guard of the “camp” of Israel (Jer.
4:17).

b. Watchman /sentry of Yahweh (hp,îco)

The prophet has also to be watchman in military terms. He has like sentry to be on the alert in
order to warn the people, the army of God, in case of any imminent danger (Ez. 33:1-9,3:17-
21)

c. Prophets as mothers and fathers

This title is in relation to ecstatic groups of primitive prophetism. Each group has to have a
prophet who acts as a father, considered as the founder and master of the whole college. We
also find in Israel some mothers –prophetesses, among whom are Deborah (Jg. 5: 7) and the
“mother of Israel” who reproves Joab who wants to destroy the city of Abel-Bet-Maaca (2
Sam. 20: 14-19).

III. TERMS THAT DESIGNATE THE PROPHETS IN THEIR RELATIONS

WITH GOD:

There are three principal terms under this:

a. The prophet as a man of God (e.g. ‘~yhil{a/-vyai in

ISam9:6):

In the historic books exclusively, the ancient prophets were called “men of God”. The title
had already been given to Moses and David, as legislators of the cult, and people went on to
give it to the ancient prophets in their capacity as:
(i) people familiar with God.
(ii) inspired men (Hos 9:7)
(iii) people attached to a certain sanctuary.

b. The prophet as “angel of God”

After the exile, the prophet was also called “angel of Yahweh” ( hw"±hy>

%a:ôl.m;), legate and intermediary between the sovereign (God) and his vassal state
(Israel). God himself promises to confirm the words of his servant to make succeed the plans
of his “angel” (Is 40: 3, Mal. 3:23, Mt 11:10, 11:14, Mk 1:2, Lk 1:17.76)

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 c. The prophet as servant of God (~yhi²l{a/h'-db,[,()

Although this term did not belong exclusively to the prophets, they appropriated it for their
own ministry. Indeed the prophets, like servants (1Chronicles 6:34, 2Chronicles 24:9,
Nehemiah 10:30, Daniel 9:11), were always before God their sovereign, they made part of
the council of celestial ministries; they received orders from their supreme king and were sent
by him to his people, to communicate the divine mysteries.

Conclusion

From this analysis of the prophetic terminology of the bible, it becomes clear that the
prophet, other than being a diviner/soothsayer and discoverer of the future, is that person-
(i) Who announces and interprets the will of God.
(ii) Who does all this with divine authority and mandate?
Such communication may concern the past, the present and the future and is received directly
without intermediaries in a certain time and space by a person, servant of God, and therefore
able to comprehend the divine message and to communicate it to the people, of whom he
feels himself to be herdsman/sepherd, watchman and father/mother.
Hence some of the characteristics of biblical prophecy are the following:

(a) Communication of the divine world with the earthly world, through a mediator
(prophet) who speaks in the name of God.
(b) An interior illumination or inspiration received through ecstasy, vision or dream by a
seer or visionary.
(c) Immediate manifestation of the message received without any need of seeking the help
of specialized interpreters.
(d) A message that is not solicited. Soliciting happens in divination, which is condemned
by biblical prophets.
(e) The message is exhortative and admonitory.

B. PROPHETISM: AN ARTICLE OF FAITH:

The three big monotheistic religions of the world (Judaism, Christianity, and Islam), believe
that God has spoken to human beings through intermediaries or prophets.

I. THE FAITH OF THE JEWS IN PROPHECY

The prophets constitute one of the three parts of the Jewish bible, and prophesy is one of
the principal dogmas of Judaism. For the Rabbis, prophets are the very “mouth of God”,
second only to the figure of Moses. With the disappearance of the prophets, the Holy Spirit
also disappeared from Israel.

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II. THE FAITH OF CHRISTIANS

At the council of Nicaea, the Catholic Church professes its faith, teaching that the “Holy
Spirit has spoken through the prophets” (cfr. Heb. 1:1-2). The church has held and taught this
doctrine all along its history. Then, in the last affirmations of the Church in Vatican Council
II, we have the following: “The church of Christ acknowledges that in God’s plan of
salvation the beginning of her faith and election is to be found in the patriarchs, Moses and
the prophets.” (see also, Dei Verbum nn 3-4,7,14,17,21, page 678…)

III. THE FAITH OF MUSLIMS IN PROPHECY

Muslims are heirs of the Jewish-Christian thought and repeat many times a day: “I
confess that there is no other God apart from Allah and that Mohamed is his prophet”. But
Mohamed is not the only prophet. He is only the “seal of prophets” (sura 33:41). Before God
made a covenant with him, he made it with other prophets: Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus son
of Mary (sura 33:7 or 8-9), according to a hierarchy (sura 2:254) and according to the needs
of the various peoples, to whom God sent his own messengers (sura 3:46, sura 7:156.158).

Conclusion

From this brief synthesis, it is clear that prophecy constitutes a fundamental article of
faith in all the big monotheistic religions of the world. Seen more broadly, most religions, if
not all, have produced the phenomenon of prophecy either continuously or at some stage in
their development.

C. CHAIN OF PROPHETS

Prophets are not isolated figures, fallen in history from nowhere, as Wellhausen used to
affirm. Anchored in the Sinai covenant, from the time of Moses to Jesus, yet each in their
variety of accents /points of stress, prophets carry on a unitary theological message which
forms the specialty of the Bible.
In the Hebrew canon the Prophets are divided into (1) the Former/Earlier Prophets
(Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings) and (2) the Latter Prophets (Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel,
and the Twelve, or Minor, Prophets: Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum,
Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi). Today OT prophets are divided into
two broad groups: 1. Oral prophets and 2. Writing prophets. The oral prophets in the Old
Testament are those prophets that are known for speaking their prophecies rather than writing
them down. They are also referred to as non-writing prophets. The writing prophets are those
for whom we have written accounts of their prophecies in books that carry their names. Their
prophecies are written down for us, either by the prophets themselves or by their disciples.

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These include: 1. the 4 Books of the Major Prophets: Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Daniel, and 2.
the 12 Books of the Minor Prophets: Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum,
Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi. The terms “major” and “minor” do not
mean more important and less important respectively; they mean the length of the written
prophecy: major prophets are longer, minor prophets are shorter. But major and minor
prophets were of equal importance. OT writing prophets are further divided into three groups
based on the time of their prophecies: some are pre-exilic, others are exilic, and others are
post-exilic.

I. ORAL PROPHETS or FORMER/EARLIER PROPHETS: e.g. Moses, Deborah,

Samuel, Nathan, Abijah, Elijah, Elisha, etc.

a. The origins of Israelite prophetism

They are neither well determined nor determinable. Some people think they are to be found in
the patriarchal period, with the call of Abraham especially. In any case, a majority of
historians and exegetes, basing on Amos 2:10f, situate the origin of Israelite prophetism in
the time of Moses (Nb 12:6-8, Dt 18:9ff, 34:10)
The Bible reminds us of the following:
(i) The 70 elders, who share of the prophetic spirit of Moses (Nb 11:25-29).
(ii) Aaron’s and Miriam’s prophetism was inferior to that of Moses, their brother (Nb 12:6-8)
(iii) Deborah who like the prophets of Mari was connected to the holy war (Jg. 4-5), as judge,
prophetess (Jg. 4: 4), and mother of Israel (Jg. 5:7).
(iv) The anonymous prophet sent against the Midianites, in defense of the exodus tradition
and of the conquest (Jg. 6:8-10).
(v) The unnamed “man of God”, who announces to Eli the rejection of his family in the
priestly office, around the Ark (I Sam 2:27-36).

b. Samuel (I Sam 9:11f) and the Ecstatics (1Sam9: 11ff, 10:9)

Early biblical tradition describes Samuel also as an “Alter ego of Moses”. In his mission of
defending mosaic Yahwism, he was aided by a group of Nebî’îm of a Canaanite type,
ecstatic, enthusiastic, and peculiar.

c. Court prophets and popular prophets

i. Court Prophets

Both later Jewish tradition and NT tradition (Mt 22:43, Act 2:30, Heb 11:32) present David
as a prophet, intimately bound with Samuel and for that matter with the Mosaic covenant and
with the new order that David himself inaugurated. This naturally influenced the prophetic
circles that acted at David’s court, similar to the ancient prophets of Mari.

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1. Prophet Nathan, the model

Free from every servilism, but intimate with David, Nathatn courageously:
-prohibits David to construct the temple for the ark of the covenant, because of the
latter’s “bloody hands” (2 Sam 7, I Chr. 21:8).
-condemns David for his dealings with Uriah, which profaned the holy war against the
Amonites (2 Sam 12:1ff).
-promised David eternal duration of the latter’s dynasty, which was to lead to the
reign of the Messiah (2 Sam 7:1b).
2. Gad, David’s seer: vindicates/sustains the ancient rights of the tribes (Ex.32:32-33)
with regard to the census (2Sam.24:11ff). (cf. 1Chr.21:1ff)
3. The “Seers of the king” for the affairs of God organized the Levite Cantors, after the
ark was at its place of rest (1Chr.25:1ff, 2Chr.35:15).
4. The anonymous “Mother of Israel” saves the “heritage of the Lord” by obtaining
liberty for Abel-Beth-Maacah which had given refuge to the rebel Sheba (2Sam
20:1ff).
5. Ahijah (or Abijah) of Shiloh was a jealous preserver and defender of pre-davidic
Yahwism (1Kgs 11:16-39).
6. Shemaiah “a man of God”; preaches against the abandonment of the mosaic Covenant
and assures that the schism of the 10 tribes of the north was willed by God (1Kgs
12:12-24, 2Chr.12:1ff).
7. “A man of God from Judah”, defender of the rights of God and of David He
prophecies against the idolatrous cult of Bethel (1Kgs 13:1ff).
8. Iddo the seer: preaches against Jeroboam and has visions (2chr 9:29b, cf 1kg 13).
9. Azariah the herald: promises reward to the observers of the covenant and threatens
apocalyptic punishments against the unfaithful. He pushes king Asa to solemnly
renew the Sinai promises (2chr 14:1-15:9).
10. The prophet Hanani; the seer: Reproches /rebukes Asa for his alliance with the king
of Syria against Baasha king of Israel. The prophet is put into prison for this
(2chr16:1-10).
11. Jehu, son of Hanani; the seer: reproaches king Jehoshaphat of Judah for his alliance
with the worst Ahab against Syria (2chr19:1-3,20:34)
12. The prophet Jehu, son of Hanani from the north was killed by king Baasha of Israel
for having preached against the royal family, which had followed the footsteps of
Jeroboam against the covenant (1kg16:1-7,12).
13. The anonymous prophet who announced to Ahab his victories against the king of
Damascus (IKg 20:13-14.22.28).
14. An anonymous son of the prophets performs two symbolic actions to convince Ahab
of having made a mistake to spare Ben-Hadad, king of Aram, whom he had held
prisoner (1kg20: 35-43).

ii. Popular Prophets:

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Not all court prophets had the courage we have noted in those above of reproaching their
sovereign who misbehaved against the Sinai Covenant and against the house of David.
Several, especially in the north, were servile and compliant to the will of the kings (cf. 1kg22:
5-38). Thus, they threw into discredit the whole category of court prophets. They thus led to a
reaction from popular prophetism constituted by some sort of monks of the Old Testament.
These contested the court in the name of a pure and heroic Yahwism that reflected the times
and faith of the desert.

1. Elijah the Tishbite (1kg17-19)

He is the champion of popular prophets. He defends the tribal right to private property against
Ahab, who had stolen the vineyard of Naboth. He fights against popular syncretism, kills the
priests of Baal who were protected by the impious Jezebel (wife of Ahab).He repeats Moses’
deeds by returning to the holy mountain of Sinai. He institutes a successor, Elisha, and
disappears from earth in a mysterious way.

2. Micaiah son of Imlah

He is contrary to the expansionist politics of Ahab (1Kg 22: 13ff) against the Arameans.
Ahab is defeated and falls in war.
3. Jahaziel, son of Zechariah, the Levite. He inspires Jehoshphat, king of Judah, to
conduct a holy war against the Moabites and amolites: the enemies destroy one
another (2 Chr 20:1-29).
4. Eliezer, son of Dadavahu: He foretells for Jehoshphat the sinking of the fleet (ships)
of Ezion-Geber, which Jehoshaphat had put up together with the very impious
Ahaziah, king of Israel, with whom he was allied (2 Chr 20:35-37).
5. The letter of Elijah to Jehoram: Jehoram was son of and successor to Jehoshaphat
king of Judah. The letter of Elijah accuses him of having led Judah into “fornication”
against God, and threatens him with a “severe disease of the bowels” (2 Chr 21: 12-
19).
6. The stoning of Zechariah, son of Jehoiadah, ordered by Joash king of Judah.
Zechariah had reproached Joash for having abandoned Yahweh (2 Chr 24: 20-22).
Like Zechariah, other prophets also tried in vain to lead people back to Yahweh (2
Chr 24: 19).
7. The “man of God”: who advised Amaziah king of Judah to dismiss the mercenary
troops he had hired from Ephraim (and Israel) against Edom. For Yahweh was neither
with Israel nor with the Ephrainites, but with the line of David (2 Chr 25: 5-13).
8. The “anonymous prophet” who took a risk to threaten Amaziah, king of Judah with
destruction from God, for having adopted the gods of the Edomites, having defeated
them in war (2 Chr 25: 14-28)
9. Elisha, the organiser of popular prophets: Elisha is a charismatic man in whom is
personified the prophetic spirit:
-of Elijah, his master.
-of Joshua, his example
-of Moses, his ultimate ideal.

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 He conducts a type of politics of his own, not based on human philosophy, but completely
supernatural. With divine power, he deposed unworthy kings, chose individuals
desired by God and by God’s people, polemised with and instigated action against
court prophets, fraternised with yahwistic fanatics (Jehu, Jehonadab). He organised
the “sons of the prophets” over whom he appointed himself head (2 Chr 1-10)
10. The “sons of the prophets”. Although they lived near ancient sanctuaries, they do not
seem to have had any duty in the cult. They seem to have been common people, very
attached to the yahwhistic traditions of the north. Although they were married, they
lead a certain community life, satisfied with public charities, disdainful of riches,
satisfied with a few items for their daily work. They played a determinant role in the
transmission and putting into writing of the oral traditions. It is these eventually who
formed themselves into groups of prophets, under a teacher/master; the so called
“writing prophet”.

In conclusion, oral prophets felt themselves tightly bound with Moses and the covenant of
Sinai, with David and his eternal and messianic family. The ark and the temple represented
for them the symbols of a pure yahwhism, rooted in tradition (cf. Exodus tradition).

II. WRITING PROPHETS (Major and Minor Prophets)

a. Pre-exilic writing prophets:

In the 8th century, the ancient, charismatic prophetism based especially on the spirit, gradually
transformed itself into written prophetism, founded on word and vocation. The first group;
that which preached before the exile, had as their principle objective to admonish the court,
the leaders, the people, who were betraying the Mosaic tradition by living in magical
syncretism. The destruction of Samaria and Jerusalem confirmed their preaching
i. Jonah son of Amittai, the prophet from Gath-Hepher (2 Chr 14:25-27). According to
some scholars, he should be the last court prophet, an ardent nationalist. According to
other scholars, he should have been the first universalistic prophet and the first
writing prophet. The book of Jonah in the Bible is pseudonymously assigned to him.
ii. Amos, prophet of doom: Economically and socially, the conquests of Jeroboam II
brought to the northern kingdom economic boom and gross inequality between the rich and
the poor, leading to social injustice coupled with corrupt city life. Religiously, the cult/
worship became totally external and formalistic: simply external acts of worship were
performed; acts that no longer touched the interior life and behaviour of the worshippers.
Yahweh came to be seen as the guarantor of this iniquitous system. Amos confronts these
deceitful consolations and insincere ceremonies (Amos 5:21-22): that is, the conviction that
by the mere performance of the cult, they were guaranteed of God’s friendship and
protection. The Mosaic covenant was being transformed into a mere set of external
observances without a soul. It is against this state of affairs that Amos was sent. God, the
sovereign who punishes nations (Amos 1-2) would severely punish Israel, who having been
chosen by God are bound to practice a type of morality that is stricter than that of others

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 (Amos 3:2). Hence, the day of the Lord will be a bitter one: one of darkness and not of light
(Amos 5:18ff). Amos, however, also gives a glimmer of hope: the salvation of the house of
Jacob (Amos 9:8), the “remnant” of Joseph (5:15). Amos forcefully restates the demands of
pure Yahwism.
iii. Hosea, the prophet of betrayed love: With symbolic marriages the prophet is called
upon to stress Israel’s infidelity to the old marriage of the desert to Yahweh. From Hosea
6:4,9:7-9,12:8-11,13-15, we come to learn that the prophet had intimate relations with
levitical prophetic groups, defenders of the purity of the cult.
iv. Proto-Isaiah, prophet of faith (Is. 1-39). During one of the most troubled periods of
the history of Judah (under Ahaz, and Hezekiah) proto-Isaiah together with his wife (the
prophetess) and his children became a sign for the people of God (Is8:1-4.18). Isaiah’s
mission (6:1-13) was to proclaim the fall of Israel and Judah as a punishment for the
nation’s infidelity (5:1-7). For all the 40 years of his ministry, Israel and Judah lived under
growing threat from Assyria. For Isaiah, God is the Holy One, the Strong One, the Mighty
one, and the king. Human beings are creatures defiled by sin for which God demands
reparation. God insists on justice among people and sincerity in divine worship. God looks
for faithfulness and Isaiah is the prophet of faith: in all crises, he calls on people to have
faith and trust in God, from whom alone salvation comes. Through the hard times, a
remnant will be spared having as its king the messiah, a descendant of David, who will
establish peace and justice on earth and propagate the knowledge of God (2:1-5, 7:10-17,
9:1-6, 11:1-9, 28:16-17).
v. The reprimand of Micah: A humble peasant of Judah, Micah pronounces the hard word of
God against the urban centers of Judah and Samaria and laments over the devastation
inflicted by the enemies against the poor cities of the province (e.g. Mic 1: 8ff). Micah’s
message is one of condemnation and disaster. God has found his people guilty (1:2ff, 6:1ff),
their religion and above all their morals are corrupt. The following are scourged: the
moneyed capitalist, swindling tradesman, families divided by rivalry, avaricious priests and
prophets, tyrants, poisonous judges. These are directly against the divine will and ideal: “to
do what is right, to love loyalty, to walk humbly with God” (6:8). God is going to punish
his people (1:3-4). To be destroyed are Samaria (1:6-7), the towns of the lowlands (1:8-15),
Jerusalem (3:12). But Micah also teaches hope (7:7, 5:1-5).
vi. The prophesy of Oded under Ahaz. He convinces the victorious army of the north to
release the prisoners of war of Judea, which had lost the war in a fratricidal battle (2 Chr
28:5-15).
vii. Nahum, prophet of divine justice: Shortly before 612, this learnt patriot composed a
prophesy on the destruction of Nineveh. The fall of Nineveh is a judgment of God, who
punishes those who oppose his holy purpose (1:11,2:1), the oppressors of Israel (1:12-13),
and of all the nations (3:1-7).
viii. Habakkuk, the just who lives by faith: Influenced by the Deuteronomic reform, this
Levite tackles the theme of justice in the governance of the world, affirming that the unjust
will succumb in the end, while the just will live because of his own faith. Habakkuk has a
great puzzle that haunts many people of our time: Judah has sinned indeed, but why should
a God of holiness with eyes too holy to look on evil (1:13), choose the savage Chaldeans to
effect his vengeance against Judah? Why must the bad be punished by the worse? Is this

11
 not strengthening the arm of injustice? Then, runs the divine answer: by paradoxical ways
the Almighty God prepares the final triumph of uprightness: trusting in God, the life of the
upright will be secure (see2: 4, cf. Rom 1:17, Gal 3: 11, Heb 10:38).
ix. Jeremiah, the prophet who uproots and plants: He was seduced right from his
childhood to the prophetic vacation. He was a priest of Anathoth who with all his
sensitiveness, participates in the political and religious upheavals of his time. Following the
defeat of Pharaoh, Nacho of Egypt by Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon, at Carchemish (on
the river Euphrates), Jeremiah spoke of the activity of Nebuchadnezzar “servant of Yahweh
for divine justice against Syria-Palestinian nations.
x. Ezekiel: He could have preached in Palestine (not only to the exiles in Babylon).

In conclusion, pre-exilic writing prophets preached against the exaggerated and magical
interpretation of some dogmas: the security of Jerusalem as city of God, the eternity of the
house of David, divine protection of the chosen people. All these are revealed truths, but
which had to go hand-in-hand with the observance of the covenant and with an interior and
spiritual cult, things that were not found in the kings, the leaders and the people: all of whom
were syncretistic.

b. Exilic Period

Prophecies of this period include the following:

i. The lamentation of Habakkuk 9 under the name of Jeremiah, but perhaps composed by a
priest Seraiah.
ii. The theocratic restoration of Ezekiel.
iii. The book of consolation of pseudo-Jeremiah (Jer30: 33) composed by one of Jeremiah’s
disciples.
iv. The oracle against Babylon (Jer 50:1-52:34) again by one of Jeremiah’s disciples.
v. The “return”scheme of Zefaniah (3:14-20).
vi. The return in Micah 2:12-13.
vii. The massage of Deutero-Isaiah (Is 40-55)

The prophets that belong to the period of exile had some themes in common
notwithstanding their personal particularities:

a. Consolation of the exiles who, through the pain of the exile, were being purified of
their past, magical trust in some old articles of faith: the election of Israel as people of
God, the eternity of the house of David, the sacredness of the temple and of the
external cult
b. hope in the new exodus better than the first one, with a new pact written in the
hearts transforming the old one into a new one and with individual responsibility
c. the restoration of holy Zion transformed into an earthly paradise, wholly holy and
pure

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 d. triumph over the classical enemies of theocracy, especially over Babylon which
had abused its mission of being God’s “hammer”.

c. Post-Exilic or Restoration Period

This period runs from Cyrus to Alexander the great. The prophets in this period are
preoccupied with restoration, though from different angels.
-Some talk of material restoration.
-Others speak of universal restoration, but centered in holy Sion, the place of convergence
for those returned from exile and the converted gentiles (Is 56:1-9, 60:1ff, 62:1ff).
-a Third group talks of universalistic but decentralised restoration.
Among the prophets of this period, we have the following: Daniel (1-6), third Isaiah (56-
66), Obadiah, Haggai, Zechariah (1-8), Micah (4: 1-5:14+7:8-20), Malachi, Joel, Jonah. “The
servant of Yahweh”, the ideal prophet (Is 42:1-4, 49:1-6, 50:4-9, 52:13-53, 12).

In the conclusion, the prophets of this period affirm an integral restoration:

-From the reconstruction of the temple and the city walls to divine presence and
spiritualization of holy Zion.
-From the reestablishment of the hut of David to the glorious appearance of the true orient
(Messiah).
-From the return of the exiles to the arrival of all nations having been converted.
-From the deuteronomic reform of the nation to the law preached by the servant of Yahweh
to all peoples.
-From the simple life to the new earthly paradise to vicarious suffering accepted for love of
all men.

d. Hellenistic Period:

The prophets of this period, frustrated by the way the plans of restoration were practically
realised, preached transformation of this wicked generation, through the direct intervention
of God, who will inaugurate the kingdom of the “Son of man” and of the saints of the most
High (apocalyptic current).
The Messiah announced by these prophets will arrive in Jerusalem, humble and just,
riding on a colt like the ancient charismatics, and will inaugurate a peaceful and universal
reign/kingdom. Then the whole Palestine will become a paradisiacal plain and all peoples
will flow to it to celebrate, in holiness, the feast of tabernacles. Among these prophecies, wee
have:

i. The liturgy of Baruch: it is a liturgical manual of the universal feast mentioned

above, attributed to Jeremiah’s secretary.
ii. The pseudonymous letter of Jeremiah ridicules idolatry and the cult paid to them. By
this, he warns the Jews against syncretism(Baruch 6:1ff).
In the conclusion, the prophets of this period refer salvation to an age that is to come and
they attribute it to the son of man that is to come from heaven.

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 e. Prophetism Among The Mystics And Messianists:

It was an official doctrine of Judaism that the series of prophets came to an end with the
reign of Artaxerxes, king of Persia (464-425 BC), and that nobody should have been able to
add new prophesies to the old ones. Only the Messiah was awaited to decide on questions
which remained unsolved (1 Macc. 4: 46). Because of this belief and for other reasons
already seen of course, prophetism disappeared from official Judaism and took refuge in
mystic and messianic movements.

i. Among the mystic groups are the following:

1. The prophets of the Sadducees: The Sadducees are a Jewish sect whose origin
cannot definitely be traced. Tradition tells us of some of these who could have
possessed a prophetic charism, e.g. Caiaphas (Jn11: 52). The High priesthood
which they held during the time of Jesus’ passion also enhanced their
prophetic position. This because the ancient esteem attributed to the prophets
had been absorbed by the figure of the high priest, the only one person who, in
the holy of holies, could have contact with the divinity, whose name he carried
impressed on his face. Thanks to his office, only the high priest could enjoy
divine communications and, for this reason, take advantage of being a
legitimate successor of the ancient prophets.
2. The prophets of the Essenes:
This was another Jewish mystical sect somewhat resembling the Pharisees. It
demanded great purity. It originated about 100BC and disappeared with the
destruction of Jerusalem. In this movement especially there was a real chain of
individuals who presented themselves to their contemporaries and were
believed by them as true prophets.

ii. Prophetism in the New Testament:

Christianity as a messianic community was conscious of having inherited the prophetic

spirit of Old Testament. From its very beginning, the Church was convinced that with the
Pentecost, the era of the spirit prophesied by Joel (3:1ff, cf. 2:16-21) began for the whole
world, and felt that this prophecy was one of the essential foundations of its very constitution
(Eph 2:20). The church looked at prophets as an essential factor, at the same level with or
immediately after the apostles (1Cor. 12:28, Eph 4:11). The charism of prophesy was one of
the principal ones for the church (1Cor 12:7-11): it served for the Church’s edification,
exhortation to do good, consolation in trials (1cor14: 3-5). Profound knowledge of the gospel
also often depended on this charism (1Cor 14:6, 13:2). With this esteem and veneration for
prophetism, it becomes clear why the prophetic argument was very fundamental for the
preachers of catechesis: the demonstration that the actions and sayings of Jesus and of his
Church were already foretold by the prophets of the Old Testament.

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 There was a firm conviction that prophesy was not produced of man’s will, but of
divine inspiration, so much so that it glows like a light in profound darkness (2Pt 1:19-21).
It becomes clear also why the church before presenting her founder (Jesus Christ), as God,
presents him as a prophet.
Among the prophets of the New Testament, we mention the following:
-Jesus of Nazareth, the prophet: Several times during his early life, Jesus is believed by the
people to be one of the prophets of the old style: perhaps a famous prophet comes back to
life (e.g. Elijah or Jeremiah: Mt 16:14, Mk 8:28, Lk 9:19). The church in her very first
preaching, however, presented him as the prophet per excellence, the one foretold by Moses
as his “Alter ego” (Dt 18:15, Acts 3:22ff, 7:37)
-Other minor prophets stayed around this arch-prophet, during his life:
 Zechariah, father of John the Baptist (Lk1: 67,76)
 Elizabeth, cousin of Mary (Lk1:41ff)
 Simeon, just and God-fearing man (Lk2: 25-35)
 The prophetess Anna (Lk2: 36-38).
 John the Baptist (Malachi 3:23-24,mt 17:10-13,is 40:3,mc1: 3, mt 3:3,Lk3: 8, Jn1: 23)
-Besides these prophets, the church also communicates to us the names of its prophets, sent
by God to edify her to exhort her, and too console her in the difficult moments of her
infancy. These are:
 Ananiah of Damashen (Acts 9:10-19)
 The prophets of Jerusalem (Acts 11:27).
 Agabus of Jerusalem (Acts 11:28f, 21:10-b-11).
 The prophets of Antioch (Acts 13:1-3).
 Judah and Silas (Acts 15:32).
 Prophets of various cities (Acts 20:22,21:4)
 The daughters of Philip (Acts 21:9)
 The prophets of Timothy (1Tm 4:14, cf. Acts 13:2).
 Apocalyptic prophecy (cf. the book of apocalypse Ap 1:3, 11:6, 9:10,
22:7.10.18.19)
 The two witnesses (Ap 11:1-14): It is this vision of the final triumph that brings to
an end the chain of prophets of the Old Testament and the New Testament.

Summary of the Chain of Prophets

I. ORAL PROPHETS or FORMER/EARLIER PROPHETS: e.g. Moses, Deborah,

Samuel, Nathan, Abijah, Elijah, Elisha, etc.

a. At the origins of Israelite prophetism

e.g. Moses, the 70 elders, who share of the prophetic spirit of Moses, Aaron and Miriam,
Deborah.
b. Samuel (I Sam 9:11f) and the Ecstatics (1Sam9: 11ff, 10:9)
c. Court prophets and popular prophets
i Court Prophets
e.g. Nathan, Gad, etc

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 iii. Popular Prophets:
e.g. Elijah, Elisha
II. WRITING PROPHETS (Major and Minor Prophets)
They comprise of four major prophets (Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel) and twelve
minor prophets (Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah,
Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi).
1. Pre-exilic writing prophets
e.g. Jonah, Amos, Hosea, Proto-Isaiah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Jeremiah,
Ezekiel (in Palestine before Babylon).

2. Exilic Period
e.g. Ezekiel, Deutero-Isaiah (Is 40-55)

3. Post-Exilic or Restoration Period

e.g. Daniel (1-6), third Isaiah (56-66), Obadiah, Haggai, Zechariah (1-8), Micah (4: 1-
5:14+7:8-20), Malachi, Joel.

4. Hellenistic Period:
-The liturgy of Baruch
-The pseudonymous letter of Jeremiah

5. Prophetism Among The Mystics And Messianists:

-The prophets of the Sadducees
-The prophets of the Essenes

D. ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF BIBLICAL PROPHECY

Biblical prophecy has essential characteristics and elements which distinguish it from
other institutions of Israel like priesthood and kingship. Some of these concern the origin of
prophetism (i.e. Vocation), others divine communication to the prophet (i.e. Inspiration), and
others the communication of the prophet to God’s people (i.e. Proclamation of the message,
orally or in writing).
Hence, there are three essential elements of Biblical prophecy:
1. Vocation
2. Inspiration and Revelation
3. Proclamation

I. VOCATION

This element has to do with the origin of prophecy. A prophet is called directly by God.

a. A prophet’s Disposition: a “man of the Spirit”

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 The premises to this are the following:
i. There is no natural inclination to prophetism in a human being. Because of this we see
even Moses resisting the mission (Ex.3:11-4:17, Nm 22:18.38, 23:12.20-26, 24:13).
The following also do the same thing: Jeremiah (1:4-6.17-19, 20:7.18), Amos (3:3-8,
7:10-16), Ezechiel (2:2-3:15).
ii. There is no psychology that is specific and common to prophetism. Those called are
very different one from the other.
iii. God does not hide from them the difficulties involved in the mission. Instead, He
makes them clear to the called from the very beginning, so much that the prophet
develops uncertainty and dismay (Is 6:9f, Jer. 1:6ff, 1:17ff, Ez. 2:3-7).
Therefore, a prophet was a prophet without any natural inclination to his mission, without any
specific suitable psychology, and well aware of the difficulties awaiting him. But “the Spirit
of the Lord was on him” (Is. 61:1-2, Lk 4:18) to transform him into another person (I Sam
10:6). That is:
-to constitute the prophet’s sanctity (Is. 63:11) so that the prophet may be a
“revelation” of God’s own sanctity in everything.
-as the superior principle of the prophet’s activity, to prevail over chaos as it
happened at creation (Gen 1:1.2) and to give life (Job 34:14f, Ps 104:29f).
-to inspire him: ie the Spirit of the Lord inspires any human being, empty,
devoid of virtue or capacity, who expects nothing, hopes nothing, does not
solicit or provoke anything, that is, a person essentially passive and transforms
him into a prophet.
-to dwell in him, dominating and transforming him.
It is through His Spirit that God relates with the world and humanity to make them participate
in his supernatural reality and life. This happens like a conjugal adventure between God and
the prophet (Jer. 20:7), transforming the latter into another person, “a man of the Spirit”, and
making of the two “intimate partners”. But in all this it is never the prophet to seek God, it is
God who calls his prophet (see also Jn in the NT). Likewise, the prophet cannot force or
obligate the word of God, he is there in silence (Jer. 42:6.7, I Sam 28:6) waiting to receive it
and pass it on as such, under the action of the Spirit of God. All depends, therefore, not on the
human will of the prophet but on the Holy Spirit, who makes him to speak and act on behalf
of God (2Peter 1:21).

b. Psychological Characteristics of the Prophetic Vocation

i. In the first place, a prophet is conscious of having been called by God, i.e. of having
received a prophetic vocation which implies dedication of his whole life to the service of
God, often with the total acceptance of self-sacrifice. He is also conscious that he is morally
bound to accept this call, lest he incurs disgrace from God, who does not accept excuses (Ex.
4:14, Jer. 20:9, Jonah 1:3.10, 3:1ff, 4:2).
ii. He feels that this irresistible call comes directly from God, without intermediaries.
Characteristic of the call is that it is unexpected, and thus finds man psychologically
unprepared. The answer to it may be:

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 -generous like that of Isaiah (6:8 “Here I am; send me”)
-hesitant like that of Moses (Ex. 4:10) and Jeremiah (1:6-10).
-Daring like that of Jonah (4:1-11).
-urgent/pressing like that of Habakkuk (1:2-2:4)
-Adoring like that of Ezekiel (1:28).
iii. At the same time each prophet feels that his call is particular, specific, unique, given
that it constitutes a personal and unrepeatable historical and religious experience, as each call
varies according to place, social condition, and mission.

c. Religious Characteristics of the Prophetic Vocation

Quite often, though not always, the prophetic vocation appears with some connection
with the liturgy, the cult, the temple and above all the ark. Besides, God makes the prophet
experiment His sanctity and transcendence on the one hand, and the prophet’s human
impurity and fragility on the other: the result of this is the consecration of the prophet for the
word (cf. Isaiah 6:1ff).
Furthermore, although the prophet cannot do anything to prepare himself for the call,
it is quite clear from biblical texts that God himself might have prepared him in secret. We
learn this from God’s words to Jeremiah: “Before I formed you in the womb I knew you; and
before you came forth out of the womb I consecrated you, and I appointed you a prophet to
the nations.” Hence, in a special way God was preparing the prophet for his eventual total
consecration, either from the womb or from the day of the call.
As a result of this preparation, both physical and moral, the ears of the prophet are
opened, his tongue becomes like a sharp sword, he is intimately transformed into a new
person, broken from his past, firm and secure in the society he has to confront, irreproachable
in his morals, ever more alien to avarice and personal ambitions, ever more dedicated to the
triumph of social justice and of the glory of God.

*******
II. INSPIRATION AND REVELATION

With the call, the “man of the Spirit” receives the power of prophecy. According to
St. Thomas, this power of prophecy should be a charismatic gift, which is not habitual but
transient. Although prophecy usually extends to the whole life of the prophet, he cannot use it
according to his own will either in his private or public life, but only when the Lord is
pleased to communicate to him His word. Hence, in moments of deprivation the prophet
could also make a mistake (cf. Nathan’s case: 2 Sam 7:1ff).
In order to obtain the prophetic function and to recognize the word of God in obscure
moments, the prophet had to pray (Jer. 42:1ff), to subdue himself to the will of God (Jer.
15:10), to wait even for several days of pressing impenetration (Jer. 42:7ff, 33:3, I Sam 8:6-9,
2Kgs 3:11-16, 4:27). Having received the illumination, the prophet then became a “bearer of
the word” of God, his intellect would be elevated by inspiration, and he would receive all the
communications that would come to him from the Spirit.

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 a. A Prophet as bearer of the “word”

It was in those privileged moments of contact between the prophet and God that the
Spirit spoke to him and made the revealed and revealing word flourish on his lips. God, the
Spirit, reveals himself and his will to the prophet through the word. The communication of
the Spirit (through dreams, ecstasy, visions, inspiration, etc) is explained and defined, made
knowable by the word. Among classic prophets, to the vision, symbol, ecstasy is always
attached the word which explains and interprets them (Am. 7:1ff, 8:1ff, 9:1ff, Ez. 2:1ff).
Without this word the prophet remains for some time without grasping their meaning (Zach.
1:7ff, 6:1-8) and an intervention of an angel becomes necessary to give him a word of
clarification (Zach. 1:9,2:4, 4:4, 6:4).
Therefore, without the word the revealing action of the spirit would have no meaning.
Both the word and the Spirit come from God. The word “falls” (Is. 9:7) on the prophet, it
transforms itself in him into a devouring and ardent fire which cannot be contained (Jer.
20:9b), into a hammer that shatters every rock (Jer. 23:29), or into honey that penetrates into
the bowels and seduces, filling the prophet with cheerfulness and joy (Ez. 2:8-3:3, Jer.
15:16). This word of God creates or destroys (Is. 9:7, Gen 1, Ez.37:4, Is.40:26, 44:24ff,
48:13), blesses or judges (Is.2:3, 28:13), irrespective of whether the prophet wants it or not.
For the word is not from the mind of the prophet but from the Spirit himself, and absolutely
intends to achieve what it means (Jer. 28:9), in the same way as rain and snow fall on arid
ground, to irrigate it, fertilise it, to make it germinate (Is. 55:10f): For as the rain and the
snow come down from heaven, and do not return there without having watered the earth,
fertilizing it and making it germinate to provide seed for the sower, and bread to the eater: So
it is with the word that goes forth out of my mouth: it shall not return unto me unfulfilled or
before having carried out my good pleasure and having achieved what it was sent to do.
A prophet has been seized by the word, bears it, and because of this he has
extraordinary capacity to analyze it, but not without continued prayer and submission, and at
times instances of impenetration (Jer. 42:1ff, 15:10, 42:7f). And this word remains eternally
even without the collaboration of man (Is. 40:8).

b. A Prophet is Inspired

The communication of the word done by God to his prophet necessarily involves
divine inspiration: that is, the illustration or illumination of the prophet’s intellect. True
prophets are always moved, as instruments of God:
-to understand what they have to do/say,
-to feel the need to speak out, knowing the significance and weight of the
words they are saying,
-to carry out some symbolic actions, with knowledge of their meaning
The illustration or illumination of the prophet’s intellect can be formal or objective.

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 i. Formal illustration is that in which the intellect of the prophet is
elevated and empowered to infallibly judge the truths revealed or
brought to the notice of the prophet through other ways.
ii. Objective illustration is that in which the prophet receives messages-
word from God, so that he can communicate them to God’s people
(Am. 3:7, Jer. 1:9.17, Ez. 2:2-7, 3:1-3).

c. Characteristics of Divine Communication to the Prophet

God reveals himself to his prophet, communicating to him through words and visions
(in wake state or in dreams). This communication of words/visions happened in three
different ways:

i. Through External or sensible words/visions

-Seeing: Moses for instance saw a blazing bush on Sinai (Ex 3). Daniel affirms that a
writing was seen on the wall (5:5). Quite often prophets affirm to have seen the word
or oracle (Is. 2:1, 13, Am.1:1, Hab. 1:1).
-Hearing: Moses affirms he heard the voice of Yahweh who was speaking to him from
the bush (Ex. 3:4-4:17). The same thing happens to Samuel (1Sam 3:1-14) and Elijah
(1Kg 19:11-13).

ii. Internal or imaginary words/visions

This phenomenon is more frequent and more reliable than the first one. Here divine
communication is perceived by the prophet with imaginary forms, ie with internal
senses, either created directly by God or derived from a past sensory experience of the
prophet himself (consider the agricultural and pastoral character of Amos’ visions).
These internal communications are of various nature:
-Some are of a visual nature: have to do with seeing, but which takes place internally,
inside the prophet: Am. 7:1-9, Is. 6:4b, Jer. 1:11-15, 24:1-10.
-Some are auditory in nature: have to do with hearing (internal): Is 6:3.4a.8.
-Others are born of tactile experiences: have to do with touching: Is 6:6, Jer. 1:9
-Others had to do with taste: Ez. 3:3b
In many cases, during these internal or imaginary words/visions, the external senses of
the prophet are suspended, not to disturb the internal vision, but the prophet does not
lose his consciousness (Is 6:5) it is refined instead. Besides he retains his personal
characteristics, culture, personal qualities, sensibility, impressionability, temperament,
health conditions, etc… The prophet’s spiritual faculties are more active than ever and
seem to absorb the external sensible ones so that the whole person can participate in
the revelation.

iii. Immediate or intellective words/visions.

This is the most reliable phenomenon of divine communication. It consists in the
immediate communication of the truth to the intellect of the prophet, without recourse
to sensible images. This form excludes every ecstasy; it is the most frequent way God

20
 communicates to the prophet, but also the most difficult way to explain. It is usually
related to phrases like: “The word of Yahweh came to me, saying” (Jer. 2:1, 3:1.6, Ez.
6:1), “Yahweh says this” (Am. 1:3, Is 3:16, 7:7, 10:24, Jer. 5:1, 6:6.16), “Listen to the
word of Yahweh” (Am. 3:1, Jer. 10:1). These phrases usually serve to introduce
sayings, promises, and threats made in God’s name, without any visionary elements,
in an expositive-rational way, as it happens in most prophetic writings.

III. PROCLAMATION

Prophetic proclamation is the third fundamental element of biblical prophetism. Only

with this does prophecy attain its effect and the prophet become “mouth of God” and
communicate to God’s people the word/truth (2 Kg 24:2, Jer. 15:19, 18:18, Am. 7:15, cf. Dt
18:18.22, I Kg 8:15, Jer. 1:9, 15:19).
In order that the prophet became “mouth of God” it was necessary for him to receive
supernatural influence on his will so as to communicate to others that word which he carried
on his lips. This supernatural influence is of two types:

a. Inspiratio ad loquendum: ie inspiration during oral proclamation of the word. In

the eastern world in general, and in the Bible in particular, the principal way of
communication and transmission was the oral one. Prophets mainly
communicated their messages orally.
b. Inspiratio ad scribendum: Inspiration while writing.
Sometimes prophets wrote their messages also, apart from proclaiming them
orally. Some witnesses to this fact include: Is. 8:1f, 30:8, Jer. 36, Ezekiel 2:9-10,
Hab.2:2, Mal. 3:16, Dan. 7:10, 12:4. Usually, however, it was the immediate
disciples of the prophets, who acted as their secretaries that wrote the messages of
their masters: eg. Baruch for Jeremiah (Jer. 36:4.27.28.32). These writings (of
prophets and their secretaries) constituted the first phase of the prophetic book,
consisting of diaries, biographies, autobiographies, oracles, instructions. In the
second phase, these elements were put together by disciples to form the various
complexes, to which the final redactor will give the form we have today.

E. PROPHECY AND THE INSTITUTIONS OF ISRAEL

While almost all scholars acknowledge the existence of the phenomenon of prophecy in
the Bible, differences among scholars have arisen in history as to the definition of the nature
of this prophecy and its attitude towards the established institutions of Israel, like the
monarchy, priesthood, the cult, and so on.

I. PROPHECY AND THE MONARCHY

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 Some authors, basing themselves on extra-biblical prophetism and generalizing the
existence of court prophets even in biblical circles, have affirmed that all prophets, classical
prophets included, should have to be considered as principal actors in Israelite politics.
Recent scholarship, on the other hand, has reacted against these generalizing exaggerations,
defining prophets as "theocratic agents" preoccupied with the interests of God and His
people. Prophets are so to say, "officials of the celestial court", permanent representatives of
Yahweh to the government of His vassal kingdom, Israel.5
It is a fact beyond doubt that even in biblical prophecy there exist cases which reveal
instances of close relations between prophecy and the monarchy. The two temporally
coinciding almost exactly, the monarchy served partly as stimulus to prophecy. For with the
institution of the monarchy there entered into Israelite life a new conception of the relation of
Israel with Yahweh, one that had to be under constant review by prophecy. Prophecy
presided over the transition to kingship (1Sam.9:1ff), in spite of its anti-monarchical view
against the popular call for a king (1Sam.8:4ff) seen as a repudiation of the covenant
relationship. It was this in fact that provided the charismatic guarantees and which alone
could have made the monarch acceptable to Israel (Jdg.9). Despite this state of affairs,
however, prophecy never headed any movement in Israel to replace the monarchy with
another form of government of its own preference. Neither is there any indication that the
prophetic tradition had either the taste or the talent for practical politics. In short, "the
function of prophecy was to form the conscience of the people, not to dictate its politics. It
did not necessarily desire the coming of the monarchy, but it assured that its coming would
be in accordance with Yahweh's will. Once it had come, it played the role that destiny had
now allotted it - to insist on obedience to the old covenant precepts […]."6
It is in this context that we see prophecy liberated from the accusations of some authors
who present prophets as puppets and forerunners of the politics of kings, as in the case of
extra-biblical prophecy. The task of Israelite prophecy was to make the kingship of Israel
truly Israelite and to defend the regality of Yahweh, the master of history, against every type
of Canaanite regality on the lines of absolute and tyrannical power. Clear examples of this
are the episodes of: Samuel against Saul (1 Sam. 15), Nathan against David (2Sam.12), Elijah
against Ahab (1Kings 21:17-24), Shemaiah against Rehoboam (2Chr.12:5-7), Jehu against
Baasha (1Kings16:1-4), Isaiah against Ahaz (Is.7:10f). These examples help to see that
Israelite prophecy, far from being a property of the kings, seeks to see to it that the existing
institutions are made the best use of and that all temporal power is subordinated to the will
and regality of Yahweh.
In their efforts to achieve this, however, some prophets have been accused of being
forerunners of the politics of foreign rulers against Israel and its Kings. In fact, neither does
"the prophet feel himself to be - as some critics at the beginning of this century claimed - a
political agitator at the service of foreign powers, instead he sees himself as a guide for all the
politics of Israel, according to the dictates of the Spirit of God, because, as Yahweh Sabaoth
says, events happen 'not through might or force but through my spirit' (Zach. 4:6), so that
Israel can be judged to be truly happy, having received the communication and revelation of
5
Cfr. Emmanuele Testa, Op. Cit. p. 86.
6
. Bruce Vawter, Op. Cit. p. 194

22
what is pleasing to their God (Bar. 4:4). For this, the prophet sometimes favours even the
politics of the enemy to the extent of seeming to be a spy (cf. Jeremiah), but at other times he
is diametrically opposed, and appears as a fanatic nationalist (cf. Jonah)."7

II. PROPHECY AND PRIESTHOOD

There was a once persuasion in critical circles that the prophetic and the priestly offices
were somehow opposed, at least in the pre-exilic period. It is to be observed, however, that
prophet and priest were not so positively, consistently, and inimically opposed. The two
most important figures of Judaism, Moses and Elijah, played the dual role of prophet-priest
(Ex. 2:1, 1Kings 18:32ff). The same for Jeremiah and Ezekiel, both of whom came out of
priestly background (Jer.1:1, Ez.1:3). There is little doubt that the prophets saw themselves
as essentially allied to the priesthood, as colleagues in a fundamentally common task. In the
light of this Bruce Vawter affirms that: "the functions of priest and prophet were always
carefully distinguished in Israel, however, these functions coincided in part. Jer.18:18 speaks
of the law (Tôrâ) of the priests, the counsel (êsâ) of the wise man, and the word (dãbãr) of the
prophet. While these three conveyed their teaching in different ways - the priest by an
institutional tradition, the wise man by a professional tradition, the prophet by a charismatic
prompting - they doubtless felt that they were contributing each in his own way to a common
objective. When the prophets condemned the priesthood, as they often did, it was not for
what the priests were teaching but rather for what they were not: they had rejected knowledge
and had ignored the law of God (Hos.4:6). In the same spirit the false prophets were
condemned, not to reject the idea of prophecy but rather a travesty of it."8
Two are the attitudes responsible for some critics' opposition of prophecy to priesthood.
The first is the one which makes the law a relatively later development in Israel, representing
the triumph of formal over spiritual religion. Another is that which makes two religions of
the single religion of Israel, thus talking of the religion of the prophets and the 'official'
religion of Israel in which the priest played their role. "It is quite true, of course, that some
difference invariably existed between the attitudes and interests of priestly and prophetic
religion, but they were attitudes not different religions. At its best priesthood did the same
work, or part of the same work, that prophecy did: that is, it transmitted the revealed moral
will of the God of Israel. The priesthood did so by the tradition of religious law, preserved in
the sanctuaries, prophecy accomplished the task by the communication of the living word. In
principle the latter was not intended to oppose the former." 9 Between priesthood and
prophecy, therefore, there existed relations of constructive criticism and not of condemnation.
Furthermore it is a fact beyond doubt that prophetic teaching is always in conformity
with the law in spite of its own particular ways of expression and points of stress. However,
supposed direct citations of the law by pre-exilic prophets largely remain subject to doubt and
in fact they are very few. This gives rise to the question as to whether or not the law existed
in pre-exilic times in written form, and in what form. Without entering into a lengthy
7
. Cfr. Emmanuele Testa, II Profetismo e la 'Storia della Salvezza, Op. Cit. p. 44
8
. Bruce Vawter, Op. Cit. p. 192
9
. Ibid.

23
discussion of this problem, it is enough for our purpose here to acknowledge that the
prophetic tradition requires no glorification at the expense of other traditions, which
characterize the various streams of tradition through which the OT has been transmitted, and
which served their own truths in their own way, supplementing, without necessarily
contradicting, the truths of prophecy.

III. PROPHECY AND THE CULT

Some biblical critics have maintained that prophets were against the Israelite cult, that
their oracles were intended to categorically repudiate the institutionalized expression of the
religion of ancient Israel and sought to cut out as vile malignancy the totality of Israel's
cultus. These assertions were based on such prophetic oracles judged to be against
sanctuaries and sacrifices, as we find in Am.5:21-27, Hos.6:6, Jer.7:21-23, Is.1:10-17, Mic.6.
On the other hand there has also been a tendency to exaggerate in the opposite direction, by
assimilating even the classical prophets of Israel to the Near Eastern pattern of cult prophets.
It is true that pre-exilic prophets like Ezekiel, Jeremiah, Habakkuk, Malachi, and Nahum
deeply got involved in the cult and ritual of the pre-exilic community. By so doing they
judged the cult religion of Israel and also called for reform of the same, as Bruce Vawter
argues: "….pre-exilic prophets were indeed involved with the cult…. It was one of the
institutions of Israel over which they had been appointed as judges, and judge it they did. In
doing so, however, they no more excluded it than they excluded the priesthood, the covenant,
the doctrine of election, or prophecy itself, all of which they also judged." 10 However, there
is no evidence in this to force us to the conclusion either that these were cult prophets on the
Near Eastern pattern or that, then, all biblical prophets were of the category of cult prophets.
The relationship between Yahwehistic prophetism and the cult was one of mutual
indebtedness: prophets were familiar with the ritual and meaning of the cultus and sometimes
even spoke in language borrowed from it, on the other hand, the meaning and role of the
cultus was influenced by prophetic interpretation. Even with this fact, however, as G.A.
Buttrick rightly puts it, "it does not at all necessarily follow that the great OT prophet was a
'cult' or 'guild' prophet, a member of an 'association' of cult prophets officially and
professionally related to the cultic institution in a manner and degree comparable to the
priest."11
On the point of the prophets being seen as people who were out to abolish the cult of
Israel, the tide is increasingly changing in favour of the prophets among scholars. Recent
scholarship, looking at the whole structure of Israel's life and history, have come up with a
contrary idea. While recognizing expressions of prophetic impatience with or even
intolerance of the cultus, they also affirm that such expression are "castigation, not of the cult
qua cult, not of cultic practice per se, but of the cultus in its present guise - the even
enthusiastic performance and perpetuation of formalized, regularized, prescribed outward
acts of piety unsupported by the qualities of justice and righteousness revealed as at once the

10
. Ibid. p. 193
11
. George Arthur Buttrick, p. 902

24
character and demand of the very Yahweh upon whom the very cultus centers." 12 (cf..Is.1:13-
17, Am. 5:21-24).
Besides, it is exceedingly difficult, if not impossible, to maintain anti-cult and therefore
anti-institutional prophetism in Israel when one takes a close look at the life and history of
Israel. As G.A. Buttrick argues: "The cult was from the beginning the tangible expression of
the faith of Israel. From the beginning Israel could exist only cultically…The cultus
embodied the faith of Israel: it was the rehearsal of God's mighty deeds - and therefore his
self-disclosure - of the past, it was, as appropriation of the past, also the dramatic conveyance
of meaning in the present, and bringing past and present into the immediate continuum of
identity, it appropriated in anticipation the future of the people of God and the history of
God."13 Given this fact, it becomes crystal-clear that being against authentic cult in Israel
would not be other than being against Israel itself. It is logically difficult, therefore, to think
that the prophets would come out against the cult if not for the fact that the latter had lost or
was losing its authentic face and intrinsic meaning before the eyes of any faithful and
responsible Israelite. There is much evidence to support the idea that prophets criticized the
externalism and formalism of Israel's cult religion, devoid of meaning, and called for a
religion of the heart characterized by acts of love and justice. In the same spirit prophets
criticized external animal sacrifices which failed to be accompanied by an interior change of
heart, and advocated for a return to the authentic cult pleasing to Yahweh. In fact, "the cult
preached by these prophets is certainly much more interior than both the official one of the
priests and the popular one: it has to spring from the depth of the heart (Jer.31:31), as an
expression of submission to the will of God, of imitation of his kindness and of the meeting
with him in a 'new' covenant written in the heart. It had to be confronted with divine
judgement in relation to political, social and personal ethics, contained in the new covenant,
in the 'heart of flesh' and not of stone, in 'a new spirit': that is, it has to be transformed into the
'knowledge of God' and into 'justice'.14 The strongest assertions of this kind are found in Am.
5:21-27, Hos.6:6, Jer.7:21-23, Is.1:12-17. It is important to know that the prophets were
existentialists in their approach to this aspect of Israelite life, as to any other, and for that
matter their teaching can hardly be understood other than in its existential situation.

IV. PROPHECY AND THE FUNDAMENTAL ELEMENTS OF ISRAEL'S

RELIGION

It is not uncommon to find scholars who accuse the prophets of having been against the
popular religion of Israel, that is, against the fundamental elements that constituted the faith
of Israel's ancestors. A brief consideration of the major aspects of Israelite religion will help
us to see clearly the conformity of prophetic teaching to this religion, against contrary
affirmations. These aspects can be identified under three major headings:
- Eschatology, which includes Mesianism, Israel's Election and the Judgment
Day
- Social and Moral implication of this
12
. Ibid.
13
. Ibid.
14
Cfr. Emmanuele Testa: I Fondamenti teologici Dell' Insegnamento Profetico, Op. Cit. p.39

25
 - Ethical Monotheism

a. Eschatology

-The belief in a future Messiah, characteristic of the religion of Israel, was based on the
prophetic oracle given to the house of David (2Sam.7:4f, Ps. 89:20-38). It is a tradition,
which, resting on a religious promise was held, and sometimes exaggerated, by the royal
psalmists. As B. Vawter maintains, "the classical prophets accepted this tradition as a
revelation of Yahweh. It essentially conditioned their theology … contrary to their
instinctive dislike for monarchy".15
In spite of the common belief in the future Messiah, however, there existed two
differences between the emphasis of the prophets and that of the psalmists and other
Israelites. On the basis of the belief in a royal Messiah the royal psalmists, like a majority of
Israelites, more or less entered into the mystique that surrounded kingship in the Near East,
according to the kings divine titles and unending days, a thing hardly found in the literary
prophets. The second is the idea of a royal messianism, of a Davidic king, characteristic of
the royal psalmists and most Israelites: i.e. “hopes for a new Davidic king who would act as
God’s agent to judge corrupt rulers and priests, to purge the nation of foreign influence and
domination, and to bring in an era of justice, peace and prosperity” 16. In classical prophecy
we can hardly discern more than a faint reflection of the royal messianic idea (cf. Ez. 44:3;
45:7-8; 46:16-18). Exilic prophecy in general placed no emphasis on royal messianism. For
instance, for Isaiah (41:14) the only redeemer of Israel is Yahweh. It is true that none of the
prophets denied the relevance of Davidic Messianism to the divine economy. But they
recognized that it had its proper place in Yahweh's salvific plan: an attitude that Jesus himself
adopted toward royal messianism (cf. Jn 18:36).17
-Furthermore, the prophets shared Israel's faith of its divine election. "The prophets did
believe in Israel's election, the vast majority of their utterances, as a matter of fact, would
cease to make much sense if their life situation were not founded in such a belief. Election
was part of the fundamental religious constitution of Israel, and the prophets were quite
prepared, even if their contemporaries were not, to accept all the consequences of Israel's
status as the chosen of God” (cf. Am. 3:9-12).18
The belief was spiritualised by the prophets in the light of the idea of the "Remnant",
characteristically associated with Isaiah and embedded in Israel's best traditions older than the
literary prophets. It was also moralized, by the same prophets, in the light of the "Covenant"
which in Israelite tradition and for most prophets - with the exception of Amos who never
uses it - is the most important expression of the conception of election. There will always be a
small group of faithful people to carry on the covenant/election.

15
. Bruce Vawter: Op. Cit. p. 194
16
Strauss, Mark L.: The Davidic Messiah in Luke - Acts: The Promise and Its Fulfillment in
Lukan Christology. Sheffield, England : Sheffield Academic Press, 1995 (Journal for the
Study of the New Testament 413), S. 40
17
. Bruce Vawter: Op. Cit. p. 195.
18
. Bruce Vawter: Op. Cit. p. 196.

26
Finally, judgement itself was an eschatological idea profoundly spiritualised in prophetic
teaching. It is the "Day of Yahweh" (cf. Am. 5:18-20), an event that would celebrate
Yahweh's triumph over his enemies, the end of the peoples opposed to the people of God
(Zeph.2:1-15), but also Israel is to be included among these peoples (Zeph.1:1-18).
Therefore, Yahweh's judgement does not lie between Israel and non-Israel but between the
just and the wicked (Mal.3:13-21)
In conclusion, "there seems to be no doubt that popular eschatology looked toward a
future in which Yahweh would have a setting of accounts with his enemies, from which his
people (Israel) would emerge triumphant. Prophecy accepted the eschatology but made it
clear, apart from all nationalistic considerations and in the light of the moral law alone, just
who these people would be. It would not be the Israel of the flesh, but the Israel of the Spirit
- the Remnant, the truly chosen"19

b. The Social and Moral Teaching of Prophets

The doctrines of election and covenant in Israel's religion had important moral and
social implications, on which the prophets so focused their attention that they have been
designated by some as social prophets, preachers of the social welfare. In fact, "the social
message was admittedly a major emphasis, but its explanation is to be found in the function
of an Israelite prophet - serving as a conscience for his people in precisely those matters
where conscience was needed…They were only insisting on the social virtues inherent in the
doctrines of election and covenant, virtues which had been flagrantly violated in an Israel that
had largely abandoned its ideals assimilating itself to Gentile ways. In presuming a social
character to the religion of Yahweh, the prophets were proposing nothing new but recalling a
known, although forgotten, morality".20
In this task, the specific contribution of the prophets consisted in the fact that to the
ancient traditions of Israel they also added the immediacy of the word of God in their own
time, drawn from their own experience of the God of Israel's history. They presented
themselves as impartial preachers of divine justice which had to be practiced by all without
distinction, in favour of widows, orphans, pilgrims.

i. Prophets and Social Justice

The cult of God is not meant to be a cover for deeply rooted egoism; it has to lead the
faithful to the practice of divine justice and kindness towards the brothers in need.

1. Social Injustices

The prophets were neither conservatives nor revolutionaries, they were not servile to kings,
priests, or social groups, or parties, but they came out as preachers of divine justice, which
19
. Ibid. p. 196.
20
. Ibid.

27
had to be practiced indiscriminately by all, in favour of the widows, orphans, and pilgrims
etc.
Wealth (like land) is a good from God and has to be owned by all collectively. In Israel
there must be neither misery nor ostentatious wealth: these are oftentimes the fruit of fraud
(Jer.5:27, cf 15:13, 17:3, Ez.7:19) and usury (Hab.2:7): consequences of which are
condemnable luxuries (Hos.8:14, Am.3:15, 5:11), seizing of fields (Is.5:8, Mic.2:1-2) by
dictatorial kings (Isam.8), privileged classes (Is.3:14, 10:2) and the cunning (Is.32:7).
Scales/measures and money are often tampered with (Mic.6:11, Hos.12:8-9, Is.1:22, &
Jer.6:30). Money is lent to the poor at unrealistic interests (Hab.2:7). Exaggerated prices are
demanded even from "brothers" fallen in misery and slavery (Am.2:6, 8:6).
The prophets condemn these injustices in the strongest terms (Jer.17:11).

2. The Messiah, Servant and Liberator of the "Poor": Salvation

The prophets were convinced that there is no salvation outside God (Is.43:11,
Hos.13:4). Jeremiah puts the point more precisely: "Accursed be anyone who trusts in
human beings….and whose heart turns from Yahweh…Blessed is anyone who trusts in
Yahweh…." (Jer.17:5-8). They, hence, preach conversion to God, who alone will liberate
them from sin (Jer.3:19-25, Hos.14:2-9), transforming their heart of stone (Jer.31:31ff) and
making it receptive and submissive to the will of God (Ez.36:24-27).
Man's egoistic history will end with the creation of a new era/age, with new heavens and new
earth, with salvation that descends from heaven (Dan.7:13:27), with a new heavenly
Jerusalem descending on earth (Ap.21:2-10), with total resurrection of the just (Dan.12:2).
Only in this way, will reign God, his Messiah and justice upon our earth (not in heaven)
recreated and pneumatised.
From the beginning the Messiah was understood in the Canaanite sense as a king
representative of God on earth, but this view changed with time following the betrayal of
some kings (e.g. Ahaz) and the decisive downfall of the davidic dynasty. Eyes were turned to
eschatological times and to an ideal messianic king.
According to Isaiah this liberator will be (9:5):
a. a Wonderful - Counsellor: i.e. a sage
b. a Mighty - God: i.e. a divine hero
c. an Eternal - Father: i.e. leader of the poor people, who will
see their kingdom affirming itself evermore, under his
leadership.
d. a Prince - of - Peace: who will rehabilitate the poor, opening
their eyes, if blind, liberating them if prisoners.

According to Zechariah, this Messiah will enter into the new Sion as a king "vindicated
(upright/just) and victorious, humble and riding on a donkey" (9:9).

According to Second and Third Isaiah, the Messiah will sympathise with and be in solidarity
with the miseries of all people (cf. Fourth Song of the Servant: Is.53:1ff, 45:1-4).

28
According to Daniel, this Messiah will finally descend from heaven where he resides in
eternity, to take up the reins of the kingdom of the Holy Ones of the Most High, following his
enthronement by God (7:9-27).

3. Justice and Peace have embraced

During the kingdom/reign of this Messiah and the Holy Ones of the Most High, peace
will reign over all the nations (Is.2:2-4, Mic.4:1-3, Is.11:6-8, Zech.8:20ff, 9:10, 14:16ff,
Is.56:6-8, 60:11-14). Then "each man will sit under his vine and fig tree with no one to
trouble him" (Mic.4:4, Zech.3:10). For messianic peace will flourish from his reign of
justice, not only social and political, but also interior and spiritual. Peace and justice that only
God can give. The love for such true peace will constitute one of the final messages of
biblical prophecy (Zech.8:19).

c. Ethical Monotheism

Ethical Monotheism, the most important of all prophetic discoveries drawn out of the
sacred traditions of Israel, means that "the God of Israel had a moral will and only by moral
life could he be worshipped according to that will".21 Here we are in the sphere of 'practical'
or 'dynamic' monotheism, that is, an existential monotheism which characterized not only the
teaching of pre-exilic prophets but also the most ancient sacred traditions of Israel, ranging
from the Patriarchs. Given this fact, the idea, once held by some critics, that prophetic
teaching could have been much outside of the mainstream of Israelite thinking, cannot hold
ground. The teaching and writings of classical prophets was nothing other than a heritage of
the religion of Israel. Their transmission "makes sense only when we recognize the obvious
fact that they depended for their continued existence on their acceptance by a people who
acknowledged in them the word of a God who was also the God of their faith, however
reluctant they may have been to act on the word as delivered to them."22
Another accusation has been made against prophecy, from critical circles, that its
answer - based on Ethical monotheism - to all social and moral problems was always
religious and not practical. It is true; the prophets provided no policy by which outworn
institutions could be replaced by better ones. It should be noted, however, that "the prophets
were not moralists, statesmen, or politicians, they were prophets. Their function was to
reveal the mind of God, which they had as others did not. In this function was the reason of
their existence, and it was the function of the others (priests, rulers, and the people) to
translate the prophetic word in plans of action whether for personal or public life."23

1. The oneness of God

21
. Ibid.
22
. Ibid. p. 197
23
. Ibid.

29
The Commandment of Exod.20:3 "You shall have no other god to rival me" became
fundamental in the teaching of the prophets. Only Yahweh is God, the idols of the pagans are
sheer "vanity". The difference between Yahweh and other gods, who in the misfortunes and
military defeats of their faithful lost every confidence and credit for not being able to defeat
the enemy and evil, Yahweh, even after the tragedy of 587, imposed himself evermore in
Jewish faith, being - as the prophets were preaching him then - an ethical God who punishes
even his very faithful if they sin.

2. A national and universal God

That Yahweh is the God peculiarly of Israel is an un-debatable certainty in the

preaching of the prophets, which, for this reason, underlines the Covenant of Sinai, the
salvific event with which God formed Israel as his people (Jer.31:31-34, Ez.36:24-27).
At the same time prophets are never tired of repeating that their national God is also the
Creator of light (Is.9:1), of universal peace (Is.11:6-9), of the fertility of the soil (Is.35:1-2),
of the new heavens and new earth of the eschatological time (Is. 51:16,65:17, 66:23), and he
is the God of all nations. All people, Jews and pagans, have to answer to him for their doing
(Am.1).

3. God who is transcendent and near

This God, unique/one, peculiar and universal, is above all holy, i.e. "separated" from
the profane, and for this, independent from the world he created, infinitely superior to sons of
men in greatness, power and sovereignty (Is.1:4, 5:19-24, 10:17-20, Jer.50:29, 51:5,
Hos.11:9).
Yet the prophets are never tired of reminding Israel that Yahweh is her spouse, intimately
united with her, his wife, by the Sinai pact (Hos.1:1ff, Jer.3:6-10). For this reason the whole
history of Israel is described in matrimonial terms, above all by Ez.16:4-7, 15-35.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion we can say the following:

In the first place biblical prophets were not politicians interested in advancing the politics of
kings, they were the divine conscience of every human politics. Theirs was to advance the
interests of God and his unique sovereignty over every human king and over Israel as a
whole. We can, therefore, agree with E. Testa when he defines them as "officials of the
celestial court" and "permanent representatives of Yahweh to the government of His vassal
kingdom, Israel".24

Second, it is true that in the teachings of many biblical prophets there are expressions of
impatience and sometimes even intolerance with the cult. In this, however, the prophets, far
from fighting the Israelite cult as such, were out to stamp out of it every element of
24
. Cf. Emmanuele Testa: Op. Cit. p.86

30
syncretism, externalism, and formalism, which rendered it devoid of meaning, and to restore
it to its authenticity: that is, to a cult of the heart and not of external sacrifices, a cult whose
effects would be concretized in day-to-day living, in the practice of justice, righteousness,
and charity, as demanded by Yahweh (cf. Amos 5:21-27). Yet that several prophets were
directly and positively interested in the cult, and that Israel could be Israel only cultically,
makes it difficult, if not impossible, to believe that biblical prophets were against authentic
Israelite cult. Neither can the thesis that prophets were against the priesthood be maintained,
if not with the presupposition that the latter had abandoned the law of Yahweh.
Finally, prophets cannot be accused of having been against the sacred traditional religion of
Israel. From the evidence of their teachings, they emerge as the defenders per excellence of
Israelite Monotheism, Eschatological faith, and social, moral and ethical implications of such
monotheism and faith. As E. Testa puts it, " they were mediators between God and Israel,
defenders of the past other than innovators, conservers other than revolutionaries. However,
they made sure that the old traditions were always formulated anew, deepened and instilled
into the life of the people."25
Conclusively, therefore, we can say that biblical prophets, far from being out to abolish
Israelite institutions and far from being engulfed into their negative elements, were appointed
by God to be judges of such institutions and to continually lead them back to their
authenticity, according to the will of Yahweh. And judge these institutions they did,
irrespective of whatever time or environment they found themselves in. They were the
mouth of God in every time and the conscience of the people and their institutions.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

1. BROWN E. Raymond, FITZMYER A. Joseph, and MURPHY E. Roland: The New

Jerome Biblical Commentary, The Bath Press, Avon 1991
2. BUTTRICK A. George: The Interpreters' Dictionary of the Bible, Abingdon Press,
Nashville, 1982
3. HARTMAN F. Louis Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Bible, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York, 1963
4. RIVA Giuliano, Dizionario Teologico, Vol.II Queriniana, Brescia, 1967.
5. TESTA Emmanuele e MARCONCINI D. Benito (a cura di): II Messaggio della
salvezza: Profetismo, profeti e Apocalitica,Elle Di Ci, Torino, 1990

F. PROPHETS AND THE HISTORY OF SALVATION

25
. Cf. Ibid. p. 35

31
 According to W. Zimmerli, there cannot be divine revelation if not through the word,
which in its turn is made manifest in prophetic oracles and in the manifestation of the divine
Name in history and through history. Although we cannot identify universal history with
revelation, we can talk of a sacred history within civil and profane history: that is, we can talk
of events and words through which God has revealed Himself, has entered human history
through election and covenant. The prophets are the principal instruments of the knowledge
of this sacred history, the original interpreters of the theological traditions of Israel, the
independent critics of the same: cf. Ezekiel, Amos, Hosea, Isaiah.
Israelite prophets are convinced that human history has God as its absolute master,
who gives them the capacity to discover in it His plan of salvation. Hence, Yahweh who
revealed Himself on Sinai is the king of the world and of the universe. He gives the rules that
govern the universe, and also guides human history, especially that of His chosen people
(Hos 11:1, 12:10, 13:4,Mic. 6:4, Ez. 20:5ff). It is necessary, therefore, to acknowledge his
kingship and to have trust in Him (Hos. 7:11, cf. Is 7, Jer. 2:18.36, 27, Ez. 17:15).
Prophets, as officials of the celestial court and permanent representatives of Yahweh-King for
Israel, have always constituted the conscience of the nation, all along Israel’s history.

I. PROPHETIC UNDERSTANDING OF TIME

For the prophets all the three historical dimensions (past, present, future) are loaded with
good encounters and clashes with God.

a. Value of the past

Prophets talk much about the past, but none of them does so for archeological or
scientific interest, for them the past is:
-a guarantee for the purity of the Sinai covenant
-a guarantee for rejuvenation
-a fresh and generous spring (of water) for Israel (eg. In liturgical commemorations:
cf. annual feasts, for instance)
All prophets return to the past to find motivations for conversion in the present and
for preparing better times in the future. Their recalling of the past is dynamic and actualizing:
the past returns and acts in the present while at the same time preparing a better future.

b. Actualisation of the divine will in the Present

Prophets also concern themselves with contemporary affairs/facts, to discover which

of them conform to the divine will and which of them are loaded with sin. They also analyze
and interpret contemporary history with the eye of God, so as to liberate eternal divine truths
from any temporal and nationalistic conditioning.
By reading the prophets, therefore, we come to discover the judgment that God had on
the facts that were happening: it could be condemnation or infallible approval. Prophets lived
and wanted to make others live daily history together with God.

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 c. Future Hopes

According to R. Baudet, the work of the prophets rests on a two-fold approach: they
continually recall God’s great works of the past, to provide foundation for the faith of God’s
people in His great works of the future. What God has done in the past is a sure guarantee for
what God has promised to do in the future for the salvation of his people.

II. PROPHETS AS ACTORS AND WITNESSES OF HISTORY

As seen above prophets were divine judges of the past, of the present, and of the
future. The discussion below explains how the prophets were also witnesses and actors of
several national and international facts.

a. Prophets’ witness to Past traditions

-Tradition of the Patriarchs: Jacob (Hos. 12). Amos also knows some patriarchs (7:9 cf v.16,
3:13, 6:8, 7:2.5, 5:6.15, 6:6, 7:15, 2:6, 3:1). Sodom and Gomorrah (Amos 4:11, Hos. 11:8).
Judah and Tamar (Hos. 12:1, Mal. 2:11.13).
NB. Prophets are completely ignorant of Abraham.
- Tradition of the Exodus and Sinai (Covenant tradition): Moses (Hos. 12:14). Amos talks of
four Ex. Themes (4:10 cf Ex 9:1-7, 2:10/3:1/Hos12:14, 2:10/5:25, 2:9f). Election (Hos. 11:1,
Mic. 6:4). Desert (12:10, Hos. 8:1/Jer. 6:16/18:15/Is30:10.11/Ez 20:25). Conclusively, the
prophets enthusiastically embraced the Exodus faith, which has at its centre the election and
the giving of the covenant.
-Tradition of the Judges: Is 9:3/10:26 cf Jg 7:25/ps 83:10-12, Jer. 15:1.
-Davidic tradition: Amos 9:11-12, Is 7,9, 11, Jer. 23:5-633:15-18, Ez 34:23-24, 37:22-25,
Mic. 5:1-5, Zech. 9:9ff.
-Tradition of Sion: Prophets from the south like Amos, Isaiah, Sofonia, Jeremiah, Ezekiel,
and Deutero-Isaiah, all speak of the election of the holy city.
In conclusion, concerning Israelite past traditions, the prophets of the north are more attached
to those of the patriarchs and Exodus, while the prophets of the south to the traditions
concerning David and holy Sion.

b. Prophetic Interventions in Contemporary History

Often prophets are witnesses and unique interpreters of several facts of their time. Let’s see
their principal interventions.
-Samuel intervenes in a decisive way in the institution of the monarchy: in the election of
Saul and David and in the rejection of the former (1Sam. 10,13,16).

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-Nathan intervenes on the question of the eternity of the house of David (2Sam. 7), on
David’s crime of adultery (2Sam. 12), and on the crowning of Solomon (1Kg 1).
-Ahijah of Shiloh has a decisive role in favour of Jeroboam, in occasion of the schism (1Kg
11:26-40).
-Shemaiah convinced Rehoboam to accept the fact of the schism of the northern tribes (1Kg
12:21-24).
-Michaiah son of Imla condemned, against all, the expansionist politics of Ahab (1Kg 22).
-Elisha is the instigator of the usurpation of the throne by Jehu (2Kg 9) and is a promoter of
international politics, intervening in the affairs of Damascus (2Kg 8:7ff).
-Isaiah constantly intervenes in the politics of his time (7:1-7, 8:1-4.5-8.9-10.11-15, 17:1-11).
Also Hosea (5:1-9).
-There are numerous prophetic interventions in relation to the fall of Samaria (Is 9:7-10, 4,
5:25-30, 28:1-6, Hos. 7:8-12, 9:11-14, 12:2, Mic 1:2-16).
-etc

c. Prophets as Preachers of the Future

Prophetic teaching profoundly influenced and prepared the future history of God’s
people in the following ways:
-The recalling of the Exodus tradition by prophets like Amos, Hosea, Jeremiah,
Deutero-Isaiah gave to God’s people the certainty of a secure future and of a vocation for
Israel, rooted in God’s election of and covenant with Israel. On a sad note, however, this also
became a source of false security, where people continued to cherish Exodus hopes without at
the same time living the spiritual message enclosed within the same Exodus tradition.
-The “remnant of Israel” (Is 4:3,11:11,16:14, 28:5). This also contains interesting
historical perspectives for the future of Israel.
-The Restoration of Israel is expressed in terms of a resurrection of a people reduced
by sin to a cemetery of bones. This is done first by Ezekiel (40-48). He also describes the
future reconstruction of the Temple and Jerusalem in a way that will profoundly impact on all
future Judaism. See also Is 53:1-12, Dan. 12.
-Eschatology: Here the prophets see the history of salvation flowing towards absolute
victory of the Creator over the forces of chaos. The Messiah-king, the Spirit and the people of
God will be the decisive actors in this triumph of good over evil.
-The theme that summarizes all the above and hence, for the prophets, the most
loaded with future historical implications is that of the “eschatological prophet”. In him the
following are synthesized as complementary figures: return of David, Messianic Israel,
Servant of Yahweh, the messenger of Malachi or return of Elijah, a prophet like Moses, the
Messiah or Aaron and the Davidic Messiah. All the multiple characteristics of the
“eschatological prophet” will be actualized in the figure of Jesus of Nazareth, prepared by all
the OT history of salvation.

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 G. JEWISH AND EXTRA-BIBLICAL PROPHETISM

Several non-catholic scholars admit till today that biblical prophetism did not have a
supernatural origin of its own, but that it should have originated from that of the Ancient
East, with which it has similarities. A short examination of the prophetism of the Ancient
East will reveal what similarities and essential differences this had with Israelite prophetism.
Israel, or rather Judaism, is not the only religion that has produced prophecy. In fact,
most religions, if not all, have produced the phenomenon of prophecy. The question as to
where the origins of Israelite prophecy lie is here viable. This apparently harmless question
has provoked a wide range of responses. Egyptian, Arabic, Canaanite and Mesopotamian
parallels have been recovered or discovered in order to show that Israelite prophecy owed a
considerable debt to her Near East neighbours.
On the other hand the inadequacy of such responses has at times led to the other
extreme view that Israelite prophecy does not owe anything to any one and is completely
independent from any foreign influence.
As usual the truth lies between the 2 extremes. There are important analogies
between the O.T Prophecy and the ancient Mesopotamian, Canaanite and Egyptian prophetic
movement, without affirming a strict dependence. Israelite prophecy has an unmistakable
measure of originality, just as its monotheistic religion.

a. Prophetism of Egypt:

In many texts the prophets are simply magicians, using magic techniques, telling
popular stories. But there are also other, more serious prophets.
The prophet Nefer-rohu (about 2.000 B.C.) was known as an expert in the art of
‘telling past and future events’. He is also a ‘man of divinity’ i.e. prophet priest attached to
the temple of a god (ANET pp.446).
The prophet Ipouwer, living more or less at the same time or a bit later, is not afraid to
announce to the pharaoh future disasters, foreign invasions and social revolution. At the
same time he announces a liberator, who will bring salvation and re-establish order (ANET
pp.441-444).
These are neither mere soothsayers nor fortune-tellers. They announce a message of
doom, but associate with it also a message of hope, happiness; hence threat and promise. In
the prophecy of Nefer-rohu we find the contrast justice–injustice and this shows that his
message has a social and moral dimension.
We cannot deny in this a great resemblance with the Israelite prophets. At the same
time we also need to see clearly the difference between the Egyptian prophet and the Israelite
one.
The Egyptian prophet does not claim a divine revelation to announce the element to
hope for the future, nor a desert-revelation, as Moses, Elijah, Amos and John the Baptist have
known.

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 Also we lack in the Egyptian prophecy the element of an historical and doctrinal
tradition. They are not like the Israelite prophets, reformers or creators of a tradition. There
are some Egyptian individuals, who have a common link of the ‘‘Ma’ at’’ of the wise men i.e.
the principle of order.
There is an absence of Salvation History in Egyptian prophecies. They do not
envisage the future of a whole people or of the nations, but they see this as individual cases
e.g. the salvation of the king, of a priest, a functionary or of a certain period or situation. We
do not have that wide, universal outlook on salvation, as it is in the prophetic biblical
teaching from Genesis to Apocalypse.
We do find in the Egyptian prophecies a certain apocalyptic pattern of which the main
motifs are: denouncement of social justice in relation to physical or cosmic catastrophes, link
between the wrath of the gods and social disorder, the return of happiness at the coming of a
good king. But this again is seen in a rather individualistic perspective. In all this the
personal immortality played an important role. In the Israelite theology there is always
fundamentally this communitarian aspect, which will eventually involve the nations.
Both the Egyptian and the Israelite prophets show a great concern to glorify the
godhead; we find frequent expressions of thanksgiving and praise for the beneficent majesty
of the godhead. This is surely an admirable element we find here, but was this really
unselfish?
In summary we note the following about Egyptian prophets:
-their predictions are all ex eventu prophecies, they contain no revelation.
-they always have a positive theme of: peace, happiness, political and military
success, material abundance, etc…
-always tied to concrete situations of individuals, never to a communal and
continuous history of salvation
-always connected with gross polytheism and depends on magic and superstition
-etc…

Biblical prophetism is far different from all this.

b. Prophetism of Canaan

In Canaan and its surroundings we find the prophecy of ecstasy and enthusiasm, a
certain delirium brought about by music, dance and corporal mutilations, denudations and
sexual excesses. They appeared often in guilds. This we find particularly in Phoenicia
(ANET pp. 25-29).
The description of the Phoenician prophets is mainly given by the Bible. The story of
IKgs 18:19-40 witnesses to the character of the ecstatic prophecy among the Canaanites in
the time of Elijah, very similar to the bands of ecstatic Yahwistic prophets e.g. I Sam. 10:5-
7.10-13, 19:18-24, Zech. 13:4-6. The same elements are found in a text of Ras-Shamra of the
14th century. All these seers and fortune-tellers are counselors of kings at the service of the
state, in the vicinity of the royal temples.

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 We may conclude, that there was indeed, in the ancient Near East of which Israel was
a small and politically speaking insignificant part, a fairly consistent pattern of prophecy, of
men, who in various ways spoke the word of God to their coreligionists, whether of
Mesopotamia, Egypt, Canaan or Israel. The recognition of a certain common pattern does
not detract from the unique qualities of biblical prophecy.
Israel suffered many historical drawbacks, yet they survived. They reconstructed
their community and handed down a continuous and developing tradition which exerted a
creative influence upon the whole of subsequent history. Why was it? The only answer that
explains the facts is that the great Israelite prophets induced their people to accept it, at least
in sufficient numbers to give a new direction to their history for the future and here lies the
strength of Israelite prophecy.
In summary, Canaanite prophets also are presented by biblical tradition as (cf. 1Kg
18:26f):
-possessed groups,
-who shout from morning to evening,
-perform orgiastic dances
-raise prayer to their god
-make bloody cuttings in their flesh
Precisely, they are soothsayers, diviners, magicians, mediums, all of which are condemned by
Deuteronomy (18:9-14).
As far as language and ritual are concerned there is some similarity between
Canaanite and biblical prophetism (especially with the “sons of prophets” – cf. 1Sam 10:10f,
19:20-24), but the essence is completely different. Prophets of the Canaanite type passed into
the Bible where they are classified as “false prophets”, and are in constant contrast with true
prophets.

c. Mesopotamia

Soothsaying and fortune telling have an important place in the political and social life
of the state, far more than in Egypt. To know the divine will, they appealed to dreams or to
witchcraft (liver of animals, dice etc). The people who practiced this were called sha’llu or
baru. In many cases this has the function or meaning of an exorcist and the magic element
has an important place. They often worked in groups and were close to the sanctuary.
There were also prophets of a different kind, called mahhu, the seer, who gave his
oracles without the use of witchcraft or soothsaying techniques.
Probably the element of prophetic ecstasy was strong. The temple of Ishtar had those
prophets, whose main function is cultural and by whose mouth Ishtar spoke her oracles in the
first person. So, the mahhu did not address himself to the godhead but was possessed by him
or her - not a magical but mystical phenomenon. The mahhu had a very important function in
the running of the state. All acts of the state of peace and war etc. depended on this. We had
here the truly institutionalized prophecy, the existence of which we also attested in biblical
history during a certain period in Israel (cf. ANNET pp. 449ff).

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 Special mention should be made of the royal archives of Mari (a town on the western
river of the middle course of Euphrates: 20.000 tables were found there, mostly of the time of
Hammurabi, at beginning of the 2nd millennium B.C.). There is a great resemblance between
this milieu of Mari and the biblical world. There may well have been a blood relationship
between the ancestors of Israel and the inhabitants of Mari. Most probably both were of
Semitic origin. Here in Mari the prophet was a real messenger, word-bearer of the divinity,
someone called (as in vocation). Like the biblical prophets they are a kind of charismatic,
intuitively inspired prophetism. Another interesting link is the element of election and
covenant, which is related to the divine intervention. However, in contrast to the biblical
prophet we do not find here any prophetic action. Moreover, again we don’t find here the
theological depth of the biblical prophets: the perpetual appeal to the conversion of heart and
the eschatological hope.
The prophetism of Mari has many external similarities with biblical prophetism, but
essential differences between the two are clear, as far as content is concerned:

Similarities
-divine initiative (i.e. intuitive prophesy)
-existence of cult and lay prophecy
-public character of several prophecies
-union between dream/vision and word (which explains them)
-existence of prophecies with messages
-value put on election and covenant especially for the king
-oral origin of prophesy, but almost immediately put into writing
-similarity above all of style, and to an extent also of formulation.

Differences
-chronological difference of about 7 centuries (that of Mari is earlier)
-that of Mari is polytheistic, biblical prophecy is strongly monotheistic
-sin is purely external and ritual at Mari, it is ethical in biblical prophesy
-ritual and magical purification at Mari, need for conversion in biblical prophesy
-threat of punishments without ethico-moral justification at Mari, punishments as
castigation (of sin) and as purifying redemption from sin in the Bible.
-prophecies restricted to the king and to the royal palace at Mari, universalistic
prophecies among the Jews.
-episodic nature of the prophetic object at Mari (e.g. An act of cult to be fulfilled, a
sacrifice to be offered, a holy war to be fought …), and a transcendental and spiritual nature
in biblical prophetism: conversion, new spirit, universalism, etc…
-court and king as the beneficiaries of the prophesies at Mari, court and king but also
the community and the various peoples in biblical prophecies.
-Lack of any eschatology, of any Mesianism and the supernatural in the prophecy of
Mari, while in the biblical one they constitute the principal scope.
-lack of a chain of prophets and a common and progressive theology at Mari, these
exist in Israelite prophecy.

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 Conclusively, we can affirm with certainty that in its essence, Jewish prophetism has
its own originality and superiority which cannot be confused, and which cannot be explained
adequately without a necessary reference to the supernatural and without the history of
salvation revealed to the people of God through His holy prophets.

d. False Prophetism in Israel

Not every inspiration of the spirit was considered true prophetism in Israel: to be able
to discover true prophetism the discernment of spirits (diakrisei pneumatwn, cf. I Cor.
12:10) was necessary: that is a special charism with which it is possible to discover from
which spirit come the various prophesies pronounced as such by those who are inspired. John
makes this exhortation: “Beloved, believe not every spirit, but try the spirits whether they are
of God: because many false prophets are gone out into the world.” (1 Jn 4:1).
False prophetism is not only found with false prophets, it can also happen with a true
prophet without any malicious intention (1Kg 13:18.19, Is. 28:7, Jer. 23:5), but simply
because the prophetic charism is transitory for a true prophet as well. On the other hand, a
true prophetic Spirit can for a moment inhabit an individual who is usually a false prophet
and obligate him, for that particular occasion, to speak truthfully in the name of God (Nm
22:20.35, 23:12, etc.). For this it is always important to discern which spirit is at work.

H. TRAITS OF FALSE PROPHETISM ACCORDING TO

THE BIBLE

a. Old Testament (cf. especially Dt. 18:9-22, Jer. 23:9-40, Ez. 13:1-23)

i. False prophets have not had a divine vocation (Jer. 14:14-15, 23:21.32, 27:15, 29:9,
Ez. 13:6), and yet they pretend to prophesy (Dt. 18:20), deceived by false gods (Dt.
18:20) and by their own heart (Jer. 23:16.26, 14:14).
ii. Hence they put together prophesies from their own interior self, following their own
spirit (Ez. 13:2.3.17). With stubbornness (Jer. 23:17) they fabricate visions, but of
vain things (Jer. 23:16, Ez 13:6). They claim to have had dreams, but these are
falsehoods (Jer. 23:25.32). They speak with their own tongue as if it is to do with
divine oracles, yet it is their own words, or old prophetic words transformed and
twisted (Jer. 23:30.31.36).
iii. They shout: “Oracle of the Lord” (Jer. 23:31.33ff), yet they are oracles of Ba‘al (Jer.
23:13, cf. 2:8). They thus mix wheat and straw (Jer. 23:28) and prophesy lies (Jer.
23:25.26.32, 5:31, 6:13, Ez. 13:6.7.9.19.22): (in the name of Ba‘al) they say vain
things which are good for nothing (Jer.2:8, 23:13.16, Ez.13:6).
iv. They reinforce wrongdoers with their wicked behaviours, full of adulteries (Jer.
23:14-15) and profiteering greed (Jer. 6:13-15).

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 v. They deceive people with promises of well-being and peace (Jer.6:14, 8:11, 14:13.15,
23:17, Ez 13:10). By so doing they plaster a wall that is about to collapse instead of
letting God’s people continue to repair it (Ez 13:10ff).
vi. Their mission therefore does nothing other than to ensnare the wicked in their own
sins and to discourage the righteous from doing good (Ez 13:19-22): they thus
prepare for themselves and for all God’s people a dark and treacherous way
(Jer.23:12).

b. New Testament

i. Jesus calls upon the faithful to watch out against false prophets, who come to them
disguised as sheep while inside they are wolves. They say “Lord, Lord” but they have
always done evil works and produced bad fruits (Mt 7:15-23).
ii. These will appear especially at the end of the world, as antichrists, workers of
miracles and wonders, and as seducers of even the righteous (Mk 13:22, Mt 24:11.24,
2Thess 2:9ff, Ap.13:13, 16:13, 19:20).
iii. They will enchant/captivate the faithful by preaching peace and security, while the
end of the world will be imminent (1Thess. 5:3).
iv. 2 Pt 2:1-22 gives a fuller treatise on false prophetism: their behaviour, actions against
faith and the faithful, terrible heresies, etc…

I. HOW TO DISCERN A GENUINE PROPHET AND

UNMASK A FALSE ONE

The ascetics and mystiques of the Church give us three types of spirits that can be at
work in a human being, especially a prophet:
d. Human spirit, or carnal or mundane: this derives from our physical
concupiscence and from interior pride. It is a psychological problem.
e. Demonic spirit: This clearly comes from Satan who insinuates himself into us
from outside. He either reinforces our bad inclinations or weakens our good
intentions. It is a moral problem.
f. Divine Spirit, or angelic spirit: This comes from the supernatural world, and
makes true prophets participants in the word of God, to be communicated by
human beings for the salvation of human beings. It is a theological problem.
From here derives the duty of the community to “judge” the prophets who speak
during the assembly (1 Cor. 14:29), the necessity to “discern” the spirits (1 Cor. 12:10, cf.
Proverbs 16:2, 1Jn 4:1). Hence, also the necessity to discover the criteria of such
discernment.
This problem was faced in biblical times, particularly by Jeremiah, and we get from
him precious indications as to the genuine prophet.

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 i. The first sure criterion for an authentic prophecy is ‘the fulfillment of the prophecy”
(Jer. 28.9.16 – 17, cf. Dt 18:21-22). However, the main problem with this criterion is
that the truth of the prophecy can be verified only after the events and then it is too
late to affect one’s behaviour, to act upon it (convert).
ii. The second criterion is ‘fidelity to the traditional doctrine of Israel’s belief,
particularly the covenant’ (Jer. 28.7-8, cf. Deut. 13:1-5.
So, in biblical times, the prophet’s doctrine had to be in the line of pure, traditional
Yahwism, in accord with the known revelation, particularly with the covenanted
character of the people of God. Only the Israelite who held to the faith of his fathers,
could be the authentic voice of God i.e. a prophet.
However, fidelity to tradition is not simply an unchanging adhesion to old doctrines. It
still demands a judgment declared in the present, existential situation, and this may
differ in formulation from previous ones in other times.
iii. A criterion of false prophecy is implied in Jer. 23.17. “They say continually to those
who despise the world of God ‘It shall be well with you’ and to everyone who
stubbornly follows his own heart, they say ‘No evil shall come upon you’”.
The criterion here is the correspondence of the divine word to the moral state of the
recipient. If despite a fundamentally offensive ethical stance on the part of the
recipient, the word is an expression of divine acceptance and approval, then it is
surely not the word of God, it is a false prophecy.
iv. Jer. 28.8-9 says: “The prophets that have been before me and before you of old
prophesied both against many countries, and against great kingdoms, of war, and of
evil, and of pestilence. The prophet who prophesies of peace, when the word of the
prophet shall come to pass, then shall the prophet be known, that the LORD hath truly
sent him.” This seems to suggest, that a prophecy of judgment against a nation is
more likely to be a true prophecy, than one of approbation and welfare. This in no
way contradicts the fact, that disaster is not the last word of a prophet, it is
‘Consolation’ (cf. all Deut. Isaiah, e.g. 40:1ff).
When we look at these 4 criteria for true prophecy, we see that Israel in fact
discovered ‘negative’ rather than positive’ criteria. They could help identify FALSE
prophets, but not point out unmistakably true prophecy. If a word did not come true, or if it
urged infidelity to Yahweh, or if it expressed favour for the ethically wicked, then it was
false, and if it promised ‘Shalom’ (peace/prosperity) to the nation, it was suspect!
We support prophets reluctantly, not so much because we fear they are right, but
because we are afraid that they may be wrong and lead us beyond a point of no return. On
the other hand, if there were any way to be sure who the true prophet is, then his words would
not be prophecy. Either we accept the risk involved of following or accepting a prophet or
else we will never follow a single prophet. All prophecy involves uncertainty. There are no
absolute signs. A certain feeling of discomfort about the present situation is necessary, if we
are driven to venture out on any prophecy. However, this does not leave us without SIGNS
or certain criteria.
1. One vital criterion is that there should be no personal advantage involved for the
potential prophet. If our acceptance of him means risk for us, his announcement must

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 involve risk for him as well. In any other case, the prophet’s motives are suspect.
Only what involves no personal gain, can be true prophecy.
Loneliness’ is an integral part of the prophetic life, and so in a way only he
who stands alone can be a true prophet. It is not the seeker of popularity (a personal
advantage). Only he who seeks other’s good and not his own can be a prophet sent by
God.
2. His actions must be in conformity with his words (cf. Mt 7:15-16). The true prophet
acts and risks. By his world he risks what he is and likewise the prophecy must lead
us to action and not merely arouse us to confusion. Divine words arouse power
beyond their simple human utterance.
Today, the task of testing and discerning the truth and the true messengers of the
Lord, falls very heavily on those who listen to our modern-day prophets, who need to be in
the right disposition to discern God being present and God speaking through person so and
so. Then, after having discerned the true messenger and message of God, it is up to us to
respond to this message-word. We have the responsibility to search for the truth and the true
prophet in our days.
W. Vogels (N.R.T. 1977 pp.681 –701) says that it is difficult to find clear criteria to
distinguish the genuine prophet from the false one. According to W.Vogels the
contemporaries of the prophet have to rely on their personal judgment, one’s own conscience
through which God speaks but in a mysterious way. He states: ‘In a way there is a prophet in
each of us ‘(p.699). These prophets themselves have to continue constantly to discern their
prophetic character. They too, like all of us ‘the audience’, have to walk in faith.

J. SOME FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES AND CONCEPTS

OF INTERPRETATION OF O.T PROPHECY

a. The first element to be kept in mind is that prophecy was a message for the
prophet’s own day. The primary emphasis should be put there, though it does not exclude the
element of prediction. The prophetic message is one of repentance, of faith and obedience, a
teaching concerning sin and judgment and salvation, and it insists on the covenant-
relationship between God and man, as it should be realized in his time.
Thus, one should discern in the message of the prophet a reflection on the historical
situation to which it was primarily directed. It is effective preaching because it speaks to a
definite life-situation, and is worded in terms of that situation. Consequently, in the
interpretation, the meaning of those terms as they had in the time of the prophet, needs to be
investigated.
The terms may have a significance that goes far beyond the immediate situation of the
prophet, but our first task in interpretation is to ascertain, what is meant for the faith and hope
and religious life of those who lived within that historical situation and to whom the prophet
was sent as carrier of the word of God.

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 Even the predictive element must be interpreted from within this framework of a
religious message relevant for the day and the situation of the prophet. Any predictive, future
element is based on and flows forth from the historical horizon of the prophet’s situation: eg.
Is. 9. 1-7 is a prophecy to be read against the background and within the setting of the
Assyrian invasion of ch.8. From that concrete historical situation the future is envisaged and
this announcement of the future is again projecting light on the present as a message of hope.
The Book of Nahum is a prophecy of the downfall of Nineveh, which took place in
612 B.C.. The theology of the book which motivates the prediction is timeless and therefore
just as relevant now as it was then, but the prediction itself belongs to a specific historical
situation in the past (pride of Nineveh).
b. A second fundamental principle of interpretation of O.T prophecy is this.
Every prophecy must be interpreted in relation to the covenant between Yahweh and Israel.
The Covenant was the great guiding principle of the prophets.
The covenant is a major theological reality in the Bible. Even the idea of creation is
secondary to that of covenant in O.T. prophecy. The many facts of the divine covenant as
seen in the O.T are bound together in the unity of Yahweh’s saving love. The so-called
‘covenants’ with Noah, with Abraham, with Israel, with David are essentially one covenant:
and this covenant relationship is the framework for the Israelite understanding both of
theology and of history. So, the link between covenant and history is inseparable and as it is
the task of the prophet to read ‘the signs of the times’, he is himself necessarily guided by his
covenant-faith. This covenant-faith presupposes that God is active in human history and at
the same time points out that the direction of history is purposeful and has as goal: i.e the
perfect covenant between God and men ( in the light of the N.T we know that this has taken
place at the moment of the fullness of time in Jesus Christ, the God-man i.e. the perfect
covenant). So, there is a fundamental relationship between covenant and prophecy. A right
understanding of the covenant will help us in rightly interpreting prophecy for every
prophecy must be seen within the setting of the covenant-promise and hope. The prophets
believed in the covenant which God had made with their fathers and they interpreted the
present as well as the future in the light of this covenant from the past. Their interpretation of
the situations that confronted them was primarily religious rather than political: e.g. when the
prophet Hosea characterizes the sinfulness of his people as harlotry he does so because he
wishes to portray in vivid imagery their unfaithfulness to the God of the covenant-love. When
the prophet Isaiah indicts the sin of Israel as the rebellion of sons against a father he too uses
an image which comes forth with dramatic vividness: the offense against the God of
covenant-love (Is. 1:2-3). It is also within the framework of the covenant that we must
understand the requirements of God enunciated so simply and so strikingly by Micah 6:8. It
is the covenant from the past, which enables us to grasp the significance of Jeremiah’s
prediction of a new covenant, similar to and yet far transcending the old (Jer.31:31-34).
The fact is that the whole prophetic message (whether it concerns sin, judgment or
salvation, faith, hope or love, religion, the ethics or history, past, present and future) is
inseparable from the basic faith of Israel in the God of the Covenant. In relation to this
covenant every prophecy must be interpreted.

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 c. Because the covenant presupposed a divine activity in history, which looks
forward to a goal, so it implies growth towards a perfect realization, there is a forward-
looking or eschatological aspect also to all prophecy.
The prophets were not fortune-tellers, who sought merely to satisfy human curiosity
with respect to the future. They were preachers who sought to renew faith in the ultimate
fulfillment of the promises stated and implied in the very making of the covenant with
Abraham and with Israel. Their hope in the future was built on their faith in the faithfulness
of the Covenant-God, made in the past. That is why the present, the historical
contemporaneous situation, is always seen both in the light of the past, or of the covenant
with the fathers, and of the future or of ‘the period of the great Restoration. The theology of
the prophets is ‘pregnant’ with what may be called’ the future hope. The specific predictions
may be classified in a twofold way.
i. They may be predictions of events, which are quite near, even imminent. In
that case they are usually predictions of judgment, and they are applications of the spirit of
the eternal covenant to the existing situation: sin brings chastisement. The holy community
envisioned by the covenant must be achieved, if need be, by judgment.
ii. They may be predications of events, which are still in the remote, even
indefinite future. Then they are usually predictions of hope, and they represent the new
prophetic insight which progressively deepens the understanding of the covenant itself and
clarifies the nature of its final consummation.
This explains why in most prophets we find both judgment/punishment and prophecies of
hope. This is not contradictory in one and the same prophet and so the oracles of hope may
not be interpreted automatically as a later addition.
Once again, it needs to be remembered that, we cannot divorce predictive prophecy from
historical contemporaneity, there is always some local times colouring e.g. in Is. 40-66 we
reach the highest peak in Israel’s religious faith and messianic expectation and yet, so much
of the prophecy is coloured by the imminent return from the Babylonian Captivity. However,
while the letter of the prophecy refers to a material and national liberation, it has in itself the
germ of a universal and spiritual liberation of which the N.T can claim to be a fulfillment,
which far transcends the letter of the prophecy, as it is completely universal and spiritual,
dedicated by Christ.
Thus any O.T prophecy has in itself the germ of a universalization and spiritualization,
which by far transcends the present immediate application. There is a forward-looking or
eschatological aspect to prophecy, which both reflects and illumines the divine purpose
revealed in the covenant and this forward-looking aspect has to be kept in mind in the
interpretation of O.T prophecy.
d. From the preceding it follows that it must be borne in mind when interpreting
prophecy, that the fulfillment is almost always greater than the prediction.
It is wrong to assume, that if we are to claim fulfillment of a prophecy, there must be a literal
correspondence between the prediction and the fulfillment. There is within each prophecy a
central idea, and when this has been fulfilled we may claim fulfillment for the prophecy as a
whole. We need not look for a literal fulfillment of all its details. The literal correspondence
between the prediction and fulfilling historical event is not really the important thing.

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The chief concern of prophecy is not to prove that God can predict events with meticulous
exactness before they happen. Predictive prophecy does not intend to do away with the
necessity of walking in faith and not by sight. A prophecy may be a sign and the thing
signified is the central religious idea. The fulfillment is greater than the prediction e.g. the
kingly reign of Yahweh over His people Israel becomes the universal and eternal reign of the
King of kings and the Lord of Lords. Israel as the people of God becomes the Church of
Jesus Christ. The O.T. ‘Servant of the Lord’ becomes the only beloved Son of God who
humbles Himself to take on the form of a servant.
There is a predictive history in the OT, but we need commentary of the NT to declare
all that was really essential in the prophecy e.g. in Is.7:14 there are two significant words: the
Hebrew Ha ‘Almah, which means ‘a young woman of marriageable age’ and the name
Immanuel which means ‘God with us’. The central idea in the prophecy is the latter: the child
is to be the sign of God’s presence with His people which ties in with the very heart of the
covenant of blessing ‘I will be your God’. Every repetition of the promise, including the
Immanuel-prophecy, foreshadowed an even more wonderful experience to come, when God
Himself would take on human flesh and dwell among men. We say, the central idea of God’s
abiding presence with His people foreshadowed the Incarnation: the fulfillment is greater
than the prediction.
e. Our interpretation of prophecy must be guided by a clear recognition of the
two chief points of emphasis in O.T. prophecy: judgment and redemption. The covenant of
God in O.T history and theology envisions a goal. God who acts in history does so not
aimlessly but with purpose to reach the covenant-goal. The bible describes this goal in many
ways, as a new creation, as an era of justice and peace etc. God, who according to prophecy
acts in history, moves towards the fulfillment of this goal in 2 ways. The 2 are so closely
related that one often seems to be the reverse side of the other. There is nevertheless a
distinction between the two that needs to be kept in mind. We now speak of ‘judgment’ and
redemption’. These are the 2 motifs that run through all of biblical prophecy as well as
history.

i. Judgment

God moves forward towards the goal of His covenant with men by judgment. So much
of prophecy is devoted to the preaching or declaration of judgment. The conduct, on which
this judgment is passed, is in the first instance that of Israel as the covenant-nation, who in
their conduct show individual Israelite conduct as well. It applies to the nations who in their
conduct show themselves to be enemies of Israel and of Israel’s God. But it is first of all
within the covenanted relationship that prophecy passes this judgment on conduct in the light
of the Torah or Law of God.
The reason for the prophetic preaching of judgment is the presence of sin, more
precisely the sin of unfaithfulness to the covenant. For it is in this basic sin of faithlessness
that the prophets see the root of every sin. Israel’s conduct as God’s people did not
harmonize with the covenant-ideal. Called to be a holy nation, holy to the Lord, and devoted
to Him in humble faith and wholehearted obedience, they had turned ‘every one to his own
way’ (Is. 53:6).

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With such an attitude on their part, there could be no true covenant-fellowship, however
faithful God might be on His part. With such an attitude on their part they could not fulfill
their mission of being ‘a kingdom of priests and a holy nation’, through whom God would
bless all the nations of the earth.
The primary purpose of the prophetic preaching of judgment was repentance, but often
there was no repentance. The preaching seemed to be in vain. But God is not one to be
mocked. He is not only a God who speaks to men by the mouth of the prophets, whom He
sends. He is also a God who acts, when the people refuse to hear and despise His Word to
them. He will make the very events of history ‘speak’. His judgments take on the external
form of a national experience of calamity, conquest, or captivity. The judgment is meant to be
chastisement, not destruction. So the primary purpose is repentance.
It is the prophetic phrase ‘The Day of the Lord’, that in a special way, embodies this
judgment, wherein the judgment is seen as near, as repeated, as having a covenant-related
purpose, as having also a final eschatological quality and effect.

ii. Redemption
Parallel to and projecting beyond the motif of judgment is that of redemption. In
prophecy judgment is neither a must-happen thing nor the final word from God: biblical
prophets speak usually not about what will inevitably happen, but rather about what might
happen, depending on how people choose to react and act: whether they listen to the
prophetic message and live their lives accordingly, or ignore the words of the prophets and
suffer the consequences.
 For example: when God sends the prophet Jonah to the city of Nineveh, the capital of
Assyria (one of ancient Israel's fiercest enemies), Jonah's initial message seems to be
one of inevitable doom: "Forty days more, and Nineveh shall be overthrown!" (3:1-4)
 Contrary to Jonah's own expectations, however, the Ninevites respond to his
preaching by believing in God, proclaiming a fast, covering themselves with
sackcloth and ashes as signs of repentance, and praying to God not to destroy them.
(3:5-9)
 As a result, God changes his mind and does not destroy the city of Nineveh after all.
(3:10)
 This turn of events does not please Jonah at all, since he had been looking forward to
the destruction of the capital city of this great enemy empire! So God tries to teach
Jonah further that God is more interested in mercy and forgiveness than in
punishment and destruction! (4:1-11)
What can we learn from this story? At least one crucial point about the nature of
biblical "prophecy," namely, that even when prophets speak about the future, they are not
predicting an inevitable, unalterable future! Rather, they are warning people about a possible
future that might come upon them if they continue in their evil ways and do not turn back to
God. But if the people do listen to the prophet's message and react appropriately, with prayer,

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repentance, and faithfulness to God, then the future will look very different than what the
prophet had foretold!
Hence, God moves forward towards the goal of His covenant with men by redemptive acts,
or acts of deliverance. Judgment too is meant to be a redemptive act, not a mere punishment.
Redemption is the very goal of history, but from the prophetic viewpoint, it is also a divine
activity that is always present in history and which leads to the goal, such as exodus and
return from exile.
The collective aspect of redemption is more prominent in the O.T. just as the personal or
individual aspect is more prominent in the N.T: but in neither case does the one exclude the
other.

The historical contemporaneity of this redemption is obvious. God acts in given historical
situations, in concrete instances of trouble, in reference to definite human needs; but the
eschatological significance of it all is just as obvious, it all leads up to and points towards the
final redemption of the great restoration.
The covenant –background for this redemptive interpretation of history, be it the national
history of Israel or the personal history of the believer, is unmistakable. It is because God is
faithful to His covenant, that the believer is sure of his redemption.

The eschatological implications of the redemptive acts of God in Israel’s history are an
important part of the prophetic interpretation. Here, past, present and future are merged in
prophetic compenetration. Redemption is seen as an experience in the past, as an experience
that is near at hand, as an experience that is often repeated, as an experience in the future, that
is related to the time of the end. God moves towards his covenant–goal by acts of judgment
and of redemption. Each judgment–experience, each redemptive act brings the people of
God closer to the goal and the prophets had this goal constantly before their eyes.

We need to see clearly that God is moving towards the goal of His Promises, the full
realization of His gracious presence with His people, by acts of judgment and of redemption.
It isn’t important that Scripture should predict every time and each situation in which God
acts in history in this way.

It is important that we share the prophetic faith, that this is the way in which God does act,
not once but repeatedly. It is NOT important to PROVE that scripture is true, because it
PREDICTS events centuries before they happen. It is important to INTERPRET events when
they take place in the light of the prophetic message of the God Who acts continually in
judgment and in redemption (Milton: Prophecy Interpreted pp 3-52).

K.THE FUNCTION/ROLE OF PROPHETS AND SOME

UNIFYING MESSAGES IN THE PROPHETIC BOOKS OF
THE OLD TESTAMENT

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 I Function and Role of OT Prophets
Prophets played a major role throughout the whole of Scripture, but who they were and
what their role or function was many times escape people’s grasp. Many people connect the
prophets solely with foretelling the future. It is true that most of the prophecies recorded in
Scripture that deal with future events were written or spoken by the prophets. For example,
Daniel predicted the rise and fall of several empires in the ancient world, including the Medo-
Persian alliance, the Greeks led by Alexander the Great, and the Roman Empire (see Daniel
7:1-14). Isaiah predicted that Jesus would be born to a virgin (Isaiah 7:14), and Zechariah
predicted that Jewish people from around the world would return to Israel after its restoration
as a nation (Zechariah 8:7-8).
But a prophet is better defined as “one who speaks for another.” A true prophet, then, is
a person who speaks for God, delivering a message that God has ordained him to give,
regardless of whether he does any predicting of the future. He proclaims to the people the
words and will of God in their specific situations. The prophets thus served as God's
megaphones, declaring whatever God commanded them to say. In a word, they were God’s
“mouthpiece”. God Himself defined this role and function of the prophets at the beginning of
Israel's history as a nation:
I will raise up for them a prophet like you from among their fellow Israelites, and I will
put my words in his mouth. He will tell them everything I command him. I myself will
call to account anyone who does not listen to my words that the prophet speaks in my
name. (Deuteronomy 18:18-19)
That's the most important definition. A prophet in the Bible was someone who spoke the
words of God to people who needed to hear them.
By fulfilling this primary function, they formed the conscience of God’s people, in light
of the Sinai Covenant. They addressed everything: kings, priests, false prophets, the cult,
Israelites as a chosen people, pagan nations, and the fundamental elements of Israel’s
religion: eschatology (Messianism, Israel’s election, and Judgement), the social and moral
implications of this, and Ethical monotheism. Depending on circumstances and how a
prophet presented him/herself before the people, his/her role could further be defined as: one
called by God to proclaim, a visionary, a seer, a shepherd, a watchman, a mother or father, a
man of God, an angel of God, a servant of God. Prophets expressed the will of God in words,
and sometimes they used signs (symbolic acts) to back up what they said and to demonstrate
God’s power behind it.

II Some Unifying Prophetic Messages

The Prophetic Books include most of the OT’s greatest themes, preserving in written
form for future generations the reasons Israel’s history happened as it did. Though the authors
wrote in different times and under different circumstances, their messages are in theological
harmony with one another and with other types of biblical books. Several interrelated ideas
unify the prophetic message, among which are the following:

1. They emphasize Monotheism

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 The prophets not only uphold the oneness of God but also are conscious of having been
called and commissioned by that same God (Isaiah 6:8, Jer. 1:4-5, Ezek. 2:1-5, etc). The
Commandment of Exod.20:3 "You shall have no other god to rival me" became fundamental
in the teaching of the prophets. Only Yahweh is God, the idols of the pagans are sheer
"vanity".
Ethical Monotheism, the most important of all prophetic discoveries drawn out of the
sacred traditions of Israel, means that "the God of Israel had a moral will and only by moral
life could he be worshipped according to that will".

2. The prophets assert that God has spoken through them.

They clearly considered themselves God’s messengers and heralds, for they repeatedly
preface their messages with the phrase, “Thus says Yahweh.” In this way the prophets are
claiming that their books are the written word of God. Peter explains that the prophets “were
carried along by the Holy Spirit” (2 Pet. 1:21). Just as God used Moses to write and preach so
that Israel could know God’s will in his era, so God used the prophets in their generations.
The prophets declared God’s instructions in two basic ways: word and symbol. Usually
the prophets presented God’s word orally (e.g., Jer. 7:1-8:3) or in written form (e.g., Jer.
36:1-32) to varying types and sizes of audiences. Occasionally they performed symbolic acts
that demonstrated God’s purposes. For example, Isaiah went naked and barefoot for three
years to teach God’s people their future if they continued to seek help from other nations
rather than from God (Isa. 20:1-6). Perhaps the saddest case of symbolic prophecy was
Hosea’s marriage to unfaithful Gomer, which portrayed God’s relationship with unfaithful
Israel (Hosea 1-3).

3. The prophets affirm that God chose Israel for covenant relationship.

The Pentateuch (the first five books of the OT) teaches that God chose Abraham and
his family to bless all nations (Gen. 12:1-9), that he revealed salvation by grace to Abraham
(Gen. 15:6), and that he assigned Moses to write a record of this revelation (Ex. 24:4).
Furthermore, through Moses in Exodus-Deuteronomy he revealed the lifestyle that reflects
that relationship.
With these truths in mind, the prophets addressed Israel as a people with special
responsibilities based on this special relationship (Jeremiah 2-6; Hosea 1-3; Amos 2:6-3:8;
etc.). Through the prophets God revealed the success and failure of Israel’s attempts or lack
of attempts to fulfill their confession of faith in God and their God-given role as a kingdom of
priests charged with serving the nations (see Ex. 19:5-6).

4. The prophets most often report that the majority of Israel has sinned
against their God and his standards for their relationship.

They have failed to trust God (Isa. 7:1-14). Thus, they have broken the Ten
Commandments (cf. Ex. 20:1-17 and Jer. 7:1-15; Hos. 4:2). They have worshiped other gods
(Ezek. 8:1-18). They have mistreated one another and failed to preserve justice among God’s
people (Isa. 1:21-31). They have refused to repent (Amos 4:6-11).
Of course, in these times there was always a faithful minority, called the “remnant”
(see Isa. 4:3; 10:20-22; etc.), as the prophets themselves demonstrate (see Hebrews 11).

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 5. The call to repentance

Another common theme of the prophetic books, and related to the foregone one, is a
call to repentance in order to avoid impending judgment. The passionate message of Ezekiel
is representative in this regard: Say to them, `As surely as I live, declares the Sovereign
LORD, I take no pleasure in the death of the wicked, but rather that they turn from their ways
and live. Turn! Turn from your evil ways! Why will you die, O house of Israel? Therefore, son
of man, say to your countrymen, `The righteousness of the righteous man will not save him
when he disobeys, and the wickedness of the wicked man will not cause him to fall when he
turns from it (Ezekiel 33:11-12, see also Jer. 35:15, Hosea 14:1-3, Joel 2:12-13, Zech. 1:1-6).

6. The prophets warn that judgment will eradicate sin.

This judgment is often called the “day of the Lord” (Isa. 2:12-22; Joel 2:1-11; Zeph.
1:7-18; etc.; see note on Amos 5:18-20). This is a day in history, as when Jerusalem was
destroyed by Babylon (Jer. 42:18), but it is also a day to come, when God will judge all the
world’s inhabitants (Isa. 24:1-23). The prophets recorded these warnings in writing so readers
can do what the prophets’ original audience usually failed to do—turn from sin to God.

7. The prophets promise that renewal lies beyond the day of

punishment that has occurred already in history and beyond the
coming day that will bring history as we know it to a close.

The coming of the Savior lies beyond the destruction of Israel and other such events.
He will rule Israel and the nations, and he will bring peace and righteousness to the world
(Isa. 9:2-7; 11:1-16). This Savior must suffer, die, and rise from the dead (Isa. 52:13-53:12).
He will be “like a son of man,” and “the Ancient of Days” (God himself) will give him all the
kingdoms of the world (Dan. 7:9-14). He will be the catalyst for a new covenant with Israel
that will include all those, Jew or Gentile, whom God’s Spirit fills and changes (Jer. 31:31-
40; 32:14-26; Ezek. 34:25-31; 36:22-32). This new people will serve him faithfully.
Eventually he will cleanse the world of sin and recreate the earth (Isa. 65:17-25; 66:18-
24; Zeph. 3:8-20). The creation now spoiled by sin will be whole again.

J. WRITING PROPHETS
As regards the prophets, Hebrew tradition, followed by the Church, spoke of Earlier
Prophets and Later Prophets. The former are those whom we now call Oral Prophets and

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exercised their ministry before the 8 th Century within a national context. The latter instead are
those whom we now call Writing Prophets and these were in action from the 8 th century
onward, and were concerned with both internal and external affairs.
Writing prophets are 16 in number and their prophecies are found in the respective
books under their names. They are divided in two groups: Major Prophets and Minor
prophets, depending on the length of their writings. The Major Prophets are four: Isaiah,
Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel. The Minor Prophets instead are 12 (Sir. 49:10), considered by
Jewish and Christian tradition almost as one book: Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah,
Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi.

I. ISAIAH

INTRODUCTION

In the Assyrian military exploits that swept through Palestine during the last decades of
th
the 8 Century BC, the northern kingdom came to its end. The southern kingdom fared better;
it lost independence but escaped destruction. In both kingdoms the Spirit of God spoke
through the prophets: in the northern kingdom through Amos and Hosea, in the southern
through Isaiah and Micah.
The Book of Isaiah (Hebrew: ‫ )ספר ישעיה‬is a book of the Bible traditionally attributed
to the Prophet Isaiah, who lived in the second half of the 8 th century BC. Isaiah is the first and
longest book of the Major Prophets. Both Judaism and Christianity consider the Book part of
their canon; and Isaiah is the first listed (although not the earliest) of the neviim akharonim,
that is, the later prophets. Christianity regards Isaiah as a saint and as a prophet. The name
Isaiah signifies "Yahweh is salvation".
In the first 39 chapters, Isaiah prophesies doom for a sinful Judah and for all the
nations of the world that oppose God. The last 27 chapters prophesy the restoration of the
nation of Israel. This section includes the Songs of the Suffering Servant; four separate
passages that Christians believe prefigure the coming of Jesus Christ, and which are
otherwise traditionally thought to refer to the nation of Israel. This second of the book's two
major sections also includes prophecies of a new creation in God's glorious future kingdom.
There is considerable debate about the dating of the text of Isaiah; one widely accepted
critical hypothesis suggests that much, if not most, of the text was not written in the 8th
century BC. Tradition ascribes the Book of Isaiah to a single author, Isaiah himself. Modern
scholarship suggests the text has two or three or even more authors.

a. Isaiah’s Family and Prophetic Call

From the Prophet himself (1:1; 2:1) we learn that he was the son of Amos, not to be
confused with the prophet Amos, whose oracles do seem to have influenced Isaiah
considerably. Of Isaiah's ancestry we know nothing; but several passages of his prophecies

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(3:1-17.24; 4:1; 8:2; 31:16) lead us to believe that he belonged to one of the best families of
Jerusalem. A Jewish tradition recorded in the Talmud (Tr. Megilla, 10b.) held him to be a
nephew of King Amaziah. As to the exact time of the Prophet's birth we lack definite data;
some think of the year 765 BC. He is believed to have been about twenty years of age when
he began his public ministry. He was a citizen, perhaps a native, of Jerusalem. His writings
give unmistakable signs of high culture.
From his prophecies (chs 7 and 8) we learn that he married a woman whom he styles
"the prophetess" and that he had two sons with symbolic names : She'ar-Yashub ("Remnant
will return," 7:3) and Maher-shalal-hash-baz ("Destruction is imminent," 8:1-4). Nothing
whatever indicates that he was twice married as some fancy on the gratuitous and
indefensible supposition that the 'almah of 7:14, was his wife. His sons assisted him in his
ministry and may have carried on his tradition after his death.
All in him was prophetic, as he himself attests: “Look, I and the children whom
Yahweh has given me shall become signs and portents in Israel on behalf of Yahweh Sabaoth
who dwells on Mount Zion” (Is. 8:18).
-his very name is prophetic: Yeshá'yahu (Why"å[.v;(y>), or Yeshá'yah

(hy"[.v;y>), means “Yahweh is salvation” or “Yahweh saves”. This meaning

constituted the essence of the prophet’s message throughout his life; only Yahweh can
save, not alliances with human powers, for instance.
-his wife is called “prophetess” (8:3), because she cooperated with Isaiah as mother of
two children, who together with her husband were to become “signs” for Israel.
-the names of the children are prophetic too: the first, She'ar-Yashub ("a Remnant will
return," 7:3, 10:21) indicated that only a “remnant” would return to God after the
people have been scattered. The second, Maher-shalal-hash-baz ("Destruction is
imminent," 8:1-4), underlined the fate of the kingdoms of Damascus and Ephraim
(Samaria), whose wealth would be speedily plundered and would be turned into booty
by the victorious Assyrians (Isaiah 8:4).
Isaiah exercised the functions of his prophetic office during the reigns of Uzziah,
Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, kings of Judah. Uzziah reigned 52 years in the middle of the
eighth century B.C. Isaiah must have begun his career a few years before Uzziah's death,
probably in the 740s, and did his ministry for over 50 years. His mission was to proclaim the
fall of Israel and of Judah as punishment for the nation’s infidelity (6:1-13). He lived at least
until the fourteenth year of Hezekiah, who died in the 690s, and may have been contemporary
for some years with King Manasseh.
His original call to the prophetical office is not recorded. However, a powerful vision
came to him "in the year that King Uzziah died," in which he reports seeing God enthroned
among angelic beings (Isa. 6:1); here he receives his purification and prophetic
commissioning (6:5f):
Then I said, “Woe is me, I am doomed! For I am a man of unclean lips, living
among a people of unclean lips; yet my eyes have seen the King, the LORD of
hosts!” Then one of the seraphim flew to me, holding an ember which he had taken
with tongs from the altar. He touched my mouth with it. "See," he said, "now that
this has touched your lips, your wickedness is removed, your sin purged." I heard the

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 voice of the Lord saying, "Whom shall I send? And who will go for us?" And I said,
"Here am I. Send me!" He said, "Go and tell this people: 'Be ever hearing, but never
understanding; be ever seeing, but never perceiving.'"... Then I said, "For how long,
O Lord?" And he answered: "Until the cities lie ruined and without inhabitants...
until the Lord has sent everyone far away and the land is utterly forsaken."
Isaiah was called as prophet whose oracles were destined to fall on deaf ears: cfr He
said: 'Go, and say to this people, "Listen and listen, but never understand! Look and look, but
never perceive! (Is. 6:9)

b. Social – Religious Situation

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i. In the Northern Kingdom (Israel)

The wars of the ninth century and the peaceful security following them produced their
effects in the latter part of the next century. Cities sprang up; new pursuits, although
affording opportunities of easy wealth, brought about also an increase of poverty. The
contrast between class and class became daily more marked, and the poor were oppressed by
the rich with the connivance of the judges. A social state founded on iniquity is doomed. But
as Israel's social corruption was greater than Judah's, Israel was expected to succumb first.
Greater likewise was her religious corruption. Not only did idolatrous worship prevail there
to the end, but we know from Hosea what gross abuses and shameful practices obtained in
Samaria and throughout the kingdom, whereas the religion of the people of Judah on the
whole seems to have been a little better. We know, however, as regards these, that at the very
time of Isaiah certain forms of idolatrous worship were going on in the open or in secret.

ii. In the Southern Kingdom (Judah)

Isaiah's description of the religious condition of Judah in the latter part of the eighth
century is anything but flattering. Jerusalem is compared to Sodom and Gomorrah;
apparently the bulk of the people were superstitious rather than religious. Sacrifices were
offered out of routine; witchcraft and divination were the order of the day, foreign deities
were openly invoked side by side with the true God, and in secret the immoral worship of
some of these idols was widely indulged in, the higher-class and the Court itself giving in this
regard an abominable example. Throughout the kingdom there was corruption of higher
officials, ever-increasing luxury among the wealthy, wanton haughtiness of women,
ostentation among the middle-class people, shameful partiality of the judges, unscrupulous
greed of the owners of large estates, and oppression of the poor and lowly. The Assyrian
suzerainty did not change anything in this woeful state of affairs. In the eyes of Isaiah this
order of things was intolerable; and he never tired repeating it could not last. The first
condition of social reformation was the downfall of the unjust and corrupt rulers; the
Assyrians were the means appointed by God to level their pride and tyranny with the dust.
With their mistaken ideas about God, the nation imagined He did not concern Himself about
the dispositions of His worshippers. But God detests sacrifices offered by ". . . hands full of
blood. Wash yourselves, be clean, . . . relieve the oppressed, judge for the fatherless, defend
the widow. . . . But if you will not, . . . the sword shall devour you" (1:15-20). God here
appears as the avenger of disregarded human justice as much as of His Divine rights. He
cannot and will not let injustice, crime, and idolatry go unpunished. The destruction of
sinners will inaugurate an era of regeneration, and a little circle of men faithful to God will be
the first-fruits of a new Israel free from past defilements and ruled by a scion of David's
House. With the reign of Hezechiah began a period of religious revival. Just how far the
reform extended we are not able to state; local sanctuaries around which pagan abuses had
gathered were suppressed, and many alters and apostasy practices were destroyed. It is true
the times were not ripe for a radical change, and there was little response to the appeal of the
Prophet for moral amendment and remedy of social abuses.

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 c. The Book of Isaiah

i. Authorship

1. Traditional position
The canonical Book of Isaiah as we have it today comprises 66 chapters. Jews and Christians
have traditionally understood the book to have one author, Isaiah himself. This belief is
reinforced by the New Testament, which quotes passages from Is. 40-66, together with a
specific identification of Isaiah as their author, no fewer than seven times (Mat. 3:3, 8:17,
12:18; John 1:23, 12:38; Rom. 10:16, 10:26).

2. Mainstream scholarly understanding

One of the most critically debated issues in Isaiah is the proposition that it may have
been the work of more than a single author. Different proposals suggest that there have been
two or three main authors, while alternative views suggest an additional number of minor
authors or editors. It is a matter of common agreement among scholars that a division occurs
at the end of chapter 39 and that subsequent portions were written by one or more additional
authors. The typical objections to single authorship of the book of Isaiah are as follows:
 Supernaturalism or other author(s) after Isaiah→ Passages of Isaiah 40-66 contain
some events and details that did not occur in Isaiah's own lifetime, such as the rise of
Babylon as the world power, destruction of Jerusalem, and the rise of Cyrus the Great
and his destruction of Babylonian Empire. This is generally explained by either
considering Isaiah to have been given such information by divine means (i.e.
supernaturally), or by considering the later sections of the book to be, not written by
Isaiah, but written by those who lived later than Isaiah himself. Those that reject the
supernatural revelation of God's foreknowledge to Isaiah hold to the second
explanation and the mainstream scholarly understanding.
 Anonymity → That is to say that Isaiah’s name is suddenly not used from chapter 40-
66.
 Style → There is a sudden change after chapter 40 in the style and in the theology
presented. Numerous words and phrases found in one section are not found in the
other.
 Historical Situation → The first portion of the book of Isaiah speaks of an impending
judgement which will befall the wicked Israelites whereas the later portion of the
book discusses God's mercy and restoration as though the exile were already a present
reality. Isaiah 40-66 presupposes the destruction of Jerusalem and the Temple by the
Babylonians in 587 BCE as an accomplished fact (44:26,28, 49:19, 51:17-20, 52:9,
60:10, 63:18, 64:10-11), yet this catastrophe is merely anticipated in chapters 1-39.
Further, the fall of Babylon in 539 BCE is seen in the immediate future in chapters
40-55 and in the past in 56-66, yet Babylon was not even a threat much less an enemy
to Judah in the 8th century BCE.

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Through chapter 39 most of the material is Isaiah's and is an accurate account of the situation
in eighth-century Judah, even if chapters 13-14, 24-27, and 34-35 could be the work of his
disciples and near contemporaries.
ii. Division
Scholars are divided in two principle groups as far as the division of the book of Isaiah
is concerned:
1. Those who support two authors divide it in two parts
2. Those who support three authors divide it in three parts
1. The supporters of two authors divide Isaiah’s book as follows:
 Chapters 1-39 (First Isaiah or Proto-Isaiah or Original Isaiah)
 Chapters 40-66 (Second Isaiah or Deutero-Isaiah)
The noticeable break between the first part of Isaiah (Is. 1-39) versus the latter half of the
book (Is. 40-66) was first identified by eighteenth-century critical scholars Doderlein (1789)
and Eichhorn (1783). They noted that Is. 40-66 reflects an exilic timeframe, with direct
references to Cyrus, a lament for the ruined Temple, and expressions of Messianic hopes
uncharacteristic of the time of the historical Isaiah when a legitimate Davidic king still ruled.
The tone of the two halves of the book is strikingly different; the first mostly warns erring
Judah of impending divine judgment through foreign conquest, while the second provides
comfort to a broken people.
Supporters of two authors division use the term Deutero-Isaiah in reference to chapters 40-
66, but to the supporters of three divisions in authorship this term usually refers to chapters
40-55 only. The term they use for the remaining chapters (56-66) is Trito-Isaiah.
2. Supporters of the three authors proposal propose to divide the Book of Isaiah in three
parts, as follows:
 Chapters 1 to 39 (First Isaiah, Proto-Isaiah or Original Isaiah)
 Chapters 40 to 55 (Second Isaiah or Deutero-Isaiah)
 Chapters 56 to 66 (Third Isaiah or Trito-Isaiah)
Scholars who disagree with this three author hypothesis suggest that the last ten chapters of
the Book of Isaiah were written by Deutero-Isaiah at a later date.
It has been suggested that the authorship of Isaiah took place over the span of as much as four
centuries.
-Chapters 1 to 39 (First Isaiah, Proto-Isaiah or Original Isaiah):
This part was preached between 740 and 687 BC. Isaiah is here a city person who
insisted upon faith and was fearless in opposing leaders. Chapters 1-5 and 28-29 prophesy
judgment against Judah itself. Judah thinks itself safe because of its covenant relationship
with God. However, God tells Judah (through Isaiah) that the covenant cannot protect them
when they have broken it by idolatry, the worship of other gods, and by acts of injustice and
cruelty, which oppose God's law.
Some exceptions to this overall foretelling of doom do occur throughout the early chapters of
the book. Chapter 6 describes Isaiah's call to be a prophet of God. Chapters 35-39 provide
historical material about King Hezekiah and his triumph of faith in God.

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 Chapters 24-34, while too complex to characterize easily, are primarily concerned with
prophecies of a "Messiah," a person anointed or given power by God, and of the Messiah's
kingdom, where justice and righteousness will reign. This section is seen by Jews as
describing an actual king, a descendant of their great king, David, who will make Judah a
great kingdom and Jerusalem a truly holy city. It is traditionally seen by Christians as
describing Jesus.
-Chapters 40 to 55 (Second Isaiah or Deutero-Isaiah):
The prophecy continues with what some have called “The Book of Comfort or
Consolation” which begins in chapter 40. This was probably written by an anonymous poet
near the end of the Babylonian captivity. Isaiah is here a master of sound and music with
sweeping visions of mountains collapsing and valleys lifted up. It is thought to have been
written during the period of exile in Babylon in the sixth century B.C.E. In the first eight
chapters of this book of comfort, Isaiah prophesies the deliverance of the Jews from the hands
of the Babylonians and restoration of Israel as a unified nation in the land promised to them
by God. With words of comfort and hope addressed to the exiles in Babylon who despair of
ever returning to "Zion" - the prophet's favorite term for Jerusalem - it prophesies the coming
of Cyrus of Persia (44:28; 45:1, 13) who will overthrow Babylon and provide for the return
of Israel to their original land. Isaiah reaffirms that the Jews are indeed the chosen people of
God in chapter 44 and that Yahweh is the only God for the Jews (and the only God of the
universe) as he will show his power over the gods of Babylon in due time in chapter 46.
This part also includes the Servant Songs (42:1-4, 49:1-6, 50:4-9, and 52:13-53:12),
which are interpreted by Christians to refer to Jesus' suffering and crucifixion, although Jews
see the prophecies as about Israel's role in world redemption. The poetry of Second Isaiah is
regarded as the most sublime in all Hebrew literature.
-Chapters 56 to 66 (Third Isaiah or Trito-Isaiah):
This part contains prophecies of the future glory of Zion. It too was written by
anonymous disciples, committed to continuing Isaiah's work in the years immediately after
the return from Babylon. Isaiah dreamed of new heavens and new earth. Chapters 56-66, was
written in a style similar to Second Isaiah but reflects a post-exilic time frame; most likely its
author (or authors) were disciples of Second Isaiah. The setting of many of its prophesies
reflects bitter intra-community conflict between insiders—a priestly group that controlled the
Temple—and outsiders, the prophet among them. Scholars see the period of Third Isaiah,
520-490 B.C.E., as a time of turmoil and vying for power to shape the restoration community.
Although there is still the mention of judgment of false worshippers and idolaters (65 & 66),
the book ends with a message of hope of a righteous ruler who extends salvation to his
righteous subjects living in the Lord’s kingdom on earth.

iii. Some Important Themes

*The Messianic hope. Isaiah’s book is built around three Messianic portraits:
-the King (chapters 1–37: Immanuel, great light, Wonderful Counselor, God-Hero,
Father-Forever, Prince of Peace, Shoot from the Stump of Jesse filled with the spirit
of the Lord, etc.)

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 -the Servant (chapters 38–55, esp. 42, 49, 50).
-the Anointed Conqueror (chapters 56–66).
Standing back from the portraits, however, we discover the same features in each, indicative
of the fact that they are meant as facets of the one Messianic person.
*Isaiah is concerned with the connection between worship and ethical behavior. One of
his major themes is Yahweh's refusal to accept the ritual worship of those who are treating
others with cruelty and injustice. See: Isa 1:10–17; 43:22–28; and 58:1–14.
*Isaiah speaks also of idolatry (cf. 44:6-23, 57:1ff), which was common at the time.
The Canaanite worship, which involved fertility rites, including sexual practices forbidden by
Jewish law, had become popular among the Jewish people. Isaiah picks up on a theme used
by other prophets and tells Judah that the nation of Israel is like a wife who is committing
adultery, having run away from her true husband, Yahweh (e.g. 54:5-8).
*An important theme is that Yahweh is the God of the whole earth (e.g. 43:11, 44:24,
45:5ff.18.21.22, etc). Many gods of the time were believed to be local gods or national gods
who could participate in warfare and be defeated by each other. The concern of these gods
was the protection of their own particular nations. No one can defeat Yahweh; if Yahweh's
people suffer defeat in battle, it is only because he permits it to happen. Furthermore, Yahweh
is concerned with more than the Jewish people. He has called Judah and Israel his covenant
people for the specific purpose of teaching the world about him.
*A unifying theme found throughout the Book of Isaiah is the use of the expression of
"the Holy One of Israel" (e.g. 1:4, 5:19.24, 10:20, 30:15, 43:3.14, etc ). The expression
appears over 26 times. Some Christians interpret this as a title for Christ. It is found 12 times
in chapters 1-39 and 14 times in chapters 40-66. This expression appears only 6 times within
the Old Testament outside the book of Isaiah.
*A final thematic goal that Isaiah constantly leans toward throughout the writing is the
establishment of Yahweh's kingdom on earth (e.g. 11:1ff), with rulers and subjects who strive
to live by his will.
a. Isaiah in the New Testament and Christian Tradition
Isaiah plays a significant role in the NT and in Christian tradition. The writings attributed to
him clearly influenced both Jesus and John the Baptist, and Christian writers refer to his
prophecies frequently as having been fulfilled in Jesus' birth, ministry, and crucifixion.
 Matthew's Gospel sees Isaiah's prophecy of the child Immanuel as being fulfilled in
the Virgin Birth of Jesus. "The virgin will be with child and will give birth to a son,
and they will call him Immanuel"—which means, "God with us." (Matt. 1:23) Jews
are quick to point out the term translated as "virgin" in this passage actually means
"young woman," while Immanuel himself should have been born in Isaiah's own time
as a sign to King Ahaz of Judah that his military troubles would be ended: "Before the
boy knows enough to reject the wrong and choose the right, the land of the two kings
you dread will be laid waste." (Isa. 7:13-16)
 John the Baptist echoes one of Isaiah's prophecies (Isa. 40:3) in declaring his own
mission: this is he who was spoken of through the prophet Isaiah: "A voice of one
calling in the desert, 'Prepare the way for the Lord, make straight paths for him.'"
(Matt. 3:3)

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  Jesus himself begins his public ministry (according to Luke's account) by quoting a
passage from Isaiah 61. He went to Nazareth, where he had been brought up, and on
the Sabbath day he went into the synagogue, as was his custom. And he stood up to
read. The scroll of the prophet Isaiah was handed to him. Unrolling it, he found the
place where it is written: “The Spirit of the Lord is on me, because he has anointed
me to preach good news to the poor. He has sent me to proclaim freedom for the
prisoners and recovery of sight for the blind, to release the oppressed, to proclaim the
year of the Lord's favor.” Then he rolled up the scroll, gave it back to the attendant
and sat down. The eyes of everyone in the synagogue were fastened on him, and he
began by saying to them, “Today this scripture is fulfilled in your hearing.” (Luke
4:16-20).
 New Testament writers often refer to Isaiah to explain how Jesus fulfilled prophecy:
Matthew states no less that four times (4:14, 8:17, 12:17, 13:14) that a certain event in
Jesus' life happened in order: "to fulfill what was said through the prophet Isaiah."
The twelfth chapter of John's Gospel refers three times to the Book of Isaiah. In Acts
8, the Holy Spirit guides the Apostle Philip to witness about Jesus to an influential
Ethiopian eunuch who is reading Isaiah. And finally, St. Paul refers several times to
Isaiah's writings in his letter to the Romans. Romans 10:16 is particularly important,
for it constitutes the earliest mention in Christian sources of the Suffering Servant
prophecy interpreted as relating to Jesus: "Not all the Israelites accepted the good
news. For Isaiah says, 'Lord, who has believed our message?'"
Paul's quote is a paraphrase. A fuller quotation is:
Who has believed our message and to whom has the arm of the Lord been revealed?
He grew up before him like a tender shoot, and like a root out of dry ground. He had
no beauty or majesty to attract us to him, nothing in his appearance that we should
desire him. He was despised and rejected by men, a man of sorrows, and familiar with
suffering... Surely he took up our infirmities and carried our sorrows, yet we
considered him stricken by God, smitten by him, and afflicted. But he was pierced for
our transgressions, he was crushed for our iniquities; the punishment that brought us
peace was upon him, and by his wounds we are healed. (Isa. 53:1-5)
Christians interpret this and other passages from Isaiah 53 to be a clear reference to Jesus, as
if the prophet foresaw his crucifixion. Jews, on the other hand, see the Servant poems (which
constitute several chapters of Deutero-Isaiah) to refer to Israel itself. Rather than the Messiah,
Jews see these passages as speaking of Israel's suffering during her exile, during which time
she became a laughing stock. The passages, in context, gave hope to the Jews that one day
they would return to Jerusalem, rebuild their Temple, and eventually regain their political
independence through the Messiah—a literal king of Davidic lineage. For the disciples of
Jesus, the death of their hoped-for Messiah was strongly disillusioning. (Luke 24:21) Isaiah
53, interpreted as predicting Jesus' death, soon became a source of inspiration to these earliest
believers as they came to see the crucifixion as God's intended plan from the beginning.
b. Isaiah’s Theological Message
i. Proto-Isaiah or First Isaiah

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 In his inaugural vision Isaiah discovered fundamental truths:
-about God
-about sin
-about salvation
Isaiah preached these truths throughout his prophetic life.

1. About God: Isaiah’s Theodicy26

Isaiah contemplates the following about God: His transcendence, His absolute power,
and His universal kingship.
His Transcendence: In Is 6:3, the seraphs, who constitute the heavenly court, address
God as the “the Holy One”. Isaiah also goes ahead to present God in the same way (5:16),
and gives Him the title “The Holy One of Israel” (1:4, 5:19.24, 10:20, 12:6, 30:11.12.15,
31:1, 36:23). Isaiah employs the term “holy” for God to mean that God is transcendent, fount
of moral and ethical living. But for Isaiah this transcendence manifests itself to human beings
through the splendor of God’s “glory”: “They will see the glory of the LORD, the splendor of
our God.”(35:2).
His Absolute Power: Isaiah’s God usually manifests himself accomplishing his work
in nature and in history: as ’El, powerful (5:6, 8:8.10, 9:5, 10:21, 12:2, 13:19, 31:3,
37:4.16.17.19), and as Šadday, omnipotent (13:6). He manifests his power and omnipotence:
-in the şeba’ôt: which in Isaiah are not inferior gods forming the army of the
Canaanite war god, but angelic creatures, which are at the service of the God of armies (6:3).
-through national and international history: upon which God has his own plan which
must absolutely come to pass and in whose way no human power will be able to stand.
Nations, especially Assyria, are to be docile instruments of this plan (5:26, 7:18, 10:5-14, 13,
28:1-4), even against their will (10:15.16, 29:15.16), while Israel will be its favourite object.
His universal kingship (6:5, 33:21, 43:15, 44:6, 52:7): This God revealed to Isaiah as
transcendent and omnipotent is author of history and king of his people and of the whole
universe. He is not an abstract being, he is a person naturally presented via
anthropomorphisms27 and human language/words/expressions.

2. About Sin: Isaiah’s Consciousness of Human Misery and Sin

26
Broadly understood, Theodicy (from Greek theos = "god" and dike = "justice”) deals with the
defense of God’s goodness: it presents arguments in defense of God's goodness despite the existence of evil. It
is a theological or philosophical study which attempts to justify God’s (largely in the Monotheistic/Abrahamic
sense) intrinsic (or foundational) nature of omni-benevolence (all loving), omniscience (all knowing) and
omnipotence (all powerful), despite the existence of evil which would otherwise stand to refute God's
existence. The first and most important task of theodicy, therefore, is to prove the existence of God. Some
sources use the term as meaning explanation or justification of God's behavior in general.

27
The attribution of a human form, human characteristics, or human behavior to nonhuman things, e.g. deities in
mythology and animals in children's stories.

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 In his inaugural vision, Isaiah is confronted with an overwhelming contrast. Placed
before the holy and glorious God; before God’s infinite and uncontaminated purity, Isaiah
sees in clearest light the weakness, humbleness, sinfulness and misery of human beings and
creation in general (6:1-5): In the year King Uzziah died, I saw the Lord seated on a high and
lofty throne, with the train of his garment filling the temple. 2 Seraphim were stationed above;
each of them had six wings: with two they veiled their faces, with two they veiled their feet,
and with two they hovered aloft. 3 "Holy, holy, holy is the LORD of hosts!" they cried one to
the other. "All the earth is filled with his glory!" 4 At the sound of that cry, the frame of the
door shook and the house was filled with smoke. 5 Then I said, "Woe is me, I am doomed!
For I am a man of unclean lips, living among a people of unclean lips; yet my eyes have seen
the King, the LORD of hosts!" This experience troubled him throughout his apostolate.
For Isaiah man sins because of his pride; that is, because of his self-sufficiency 28; an
old problem which was also at the root of the sin of Adam and Eve (2:6-4:1, 5:8-24). Read Is
2:11-12.17, 3:16, 5:15. Naturally, divine punishment will consist in the following:
-men or the proud will be humbled (2:9.11.17, 5:15-16, cf. 1:28).
-men will be greatly terrified when faced with the glory of God’s majesty (2:10, cf.
Gen 3:8-10).
On the contrary Zion, having been humiliated, will be redeemed by fair judgment and
saving justice (1:27). She will become a faithful city (1:25-26), because her punishment,
humbly accepted, will purify her in the same way the angel purified Isaiah’s lips with fire
(6:6-7). She will convert and return as a remnant (cf. the symbolic name of Isaiah’s son in
7:3), to live humbly (29:4), obediently (1:18ff,), “in quiet and in trust” (30:15), in daily
submission to the will of God (1:16f). She will be saved ever by her God (1:27,29:22,35:10):
for she will reacquire the sense of her misery and trust again in her God (12:2f); her “wall

and rampart” (26:1), and draw water as at the time of the exodus “at the fountain of
salvation” (12:3).
Above all, Zion will have faith in the salvific plan of God. This in Isaiah means that
Zion:
-will achieve inner security which excludes any fear, hesitation, and distrust (7:9,
28:16)

28
Craving for autonomy / independence from God.

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-will put trust in God again (8:17), leaning on Him (10:20), confiding in him (12:2)
-will not rush or get agitated (28:16)
-will have calm and trust (30:15).

All this implies trustful surrender to God and confidence in His plans of salvation. This
means, as a consequence, faith in God’s power (7:9, 11:2, 28:16, 30:15), which operates
through his “Glory” and through historical events for the good of His chosen ones. The
chosen of God, therefore, are to abandon any politics of human alliances and syncretism in
order to follow the politics of sanctity and faith.
Finally, the faithful city will accept to liberate itself from empty and exterior rituals, to
embrace a cult founded on inner religion, so that there is no separation between life and the
practice of religion (1:10-17).

3. About Salvation: Royal Messianism and Holy Zion

This faithful city, saved and saving, will not be the whole nation of Israel as people
proudly thought, but only a very small part; a “holy stock/seed” (6:13). This “holy stock” will
be the fount of salvation. From this truncated stock a new tree will grow (cf. 4:2-3).
Hence, faithless Israel will be punished, but because God loves his people a small
“remnant” (also called “the holy stock/Zion/Seed”) will escape the invader’s sword (7:3,
10:19-21, 28:5-6, 37:4, cf. Amos 3:12, 5:15, 9:8-10). This purified and henceforth faithful
remnant left in Jerusalem will once again become a powerful nation. From this holy stock /
trunk or remnant will then spring up a shoot; the King/Messiah, who together with the
remnant will become a sign of salvation for all (11:1ff). Holy Zion/the remnant and the
shoot/Messiah are, therefore, the “deputies” of Yahweh the Saviour.
Holy Zion means that “holy seed” (cf. 4:3), that remnant: ie. the poor ones / ‘anawîm
who put their trust in the Lord (30:18; 33:2). It will be those to be honourably put on the holy
mountain of God as witnesses of divine mercy (30:19): they will be rich in “fair judgement
and saving justice” (33:5) and full of the fear of Yahweh (33:6). They will authentically
observe the divine cult (33:20). And they will become a fountain of peace for the whole
world.

ii. Deutero-Isaiah or Second Isaiah

Deutero-Isaiah is the first true “salvation-prophet”; he preaches salvation, not only for
the people of Israel, but for the whole world: he has a cosmic outlook on salvation. Hence,
Israel will be saved, but also the pagan nations if they want it. In this work of universal
salvation, Israel will serve as:
-a missionary to the nations (43:10, 44:8, 45:4),
-“Yahweh’s Servant” (41:8-9, 42:19, 44:1-2.21) to be witness for the whole world of
God’s plan of salvation.
-Mediator between God and the nations (45:14), to turn all pagans into participators in
God’s salvation (42:10ff, 45:6f.14.18-24)

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 The theological message of Second Isaiah, as A. Feuillet affirms it, is eschatological,
theocentric, nationalistic and earthly, though with a tendency to universalism.
The exile was viewed by prophet Isaiah as the end of one old history of salvation and
the beginning of a new one (43:18).
-The “new” history of salvation begins with the liberation/return of Israel, which will
be effected by Cyrus, a pagan prince.
-The return will be “new” because liberated Israel will speak of a “new” exodus (40:3-
5.10-11, 41:17-20, 42:16, 43:2.16-31, 44:27, 48:20-22, 49:8-13, 50:2-3, 51:9-11,
52:10-12,55:12-13). The exodus will be “new” because it will be superior to the first
one: it will be a triumphant one and led not by a man but by God himself.
-“New” also will be the restoration of Zion, which in the first place will receive the
“gospel” of salvation and which in turn will become the “evangeliser”. It will be rebuilt
with precious stones and will be inhabited by the community, which will be ideal,
numerous, rich, strong, obedient to the law, committed to a “new covenant”, vivified
by the spirit of God, protected by His blessing (40:28-31, 41:15ff, 44:3, 48:17ff, 51:3-
7, 54:1-17).
With the return and restoration Israel enters into an eschatological world; transformed,
ideal, the dawn of a definitive salvation: it is indeed a return not only from Babylon but from
all the Diaspora (43:5-6, 49:17-18.22.23). And the restoration leads to the observance of the
law written on the inside and to the enjoyment of a profound peace (48:17-18, 51:3.7, 54).
The rebuilt temple and city are ideal, and therein will be adored Yahweh; the only universal
God, for paganism will be definitively overcome (45:21f, 46:1f).
We see, therefore, a very strong theocentrism. With the inauguration of the
eschatological kingdom Yahweh also returns to rule (52:7):
“How beautiful on the mountains, are the feet of the messenger announcing
peace, of the messenger of good news, who proclaims salvation and says to
Zion, 'Your God is king!'”
All shall sing a new song in honour of him (42:10-17), for to all humanity will be
revealed his glory (40:5).
Like proto-Isaiah, deuteron-Isaiah too accepts as a fundamental doctrine that of the
transcendent holiness of God, whom he calls the “Holy one of Israel” (40:25, 41:14.16.20,
43:3, cf 1:4, 10:20), that is to say, incomparable, with no equals: -“ … for I am God, and
there is no other; I am God, and there is none like me.” (46:9). See also 40:18.25, 44:7, 46:5.
This is truer as far as His duration is concerned: He is the “the everlasting God”, that is, the
God of eternity (40:28). He is “the first and the last” (41:4, 44:6, 48:12), No god was before
him, nor will be after him (43:10). And this is true both in the cosmic order and in the
historical.
As God of the cosmos, Yahweh is the creator of the universe (40:18.25, 44:9-20, 46:5-
6): “I, Yahweh, have made all things, I alone spread out the heavens. When I hammered the
earth into shape, who was with me? (44:24). He indeed has created, founded, formed, made,
stabilized the whole universe, his dominion is therefore universal.
If God created and dominates the world, he can also recreate and save the world. For
deuteron-Isaiah creation and salvation go hand in hand. For him the word bārā (which he

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uses 16 times) means both creation and redemption: for if God is the master of the world and
the dominator over chaos he will also be the redeemer of Israel and the conqueror of
Babylon, if he is the God of the cosmos he is also the God of history. Indeed, for his very
plan of salvation in history he elected the ancestors Abraham, Jacob, Moses, David and the
people of Israel, and he continually revealed this plan through the prophets. Being a just God,
he remains always faithful to his promises of salvation, for he loves his chosen people,
forgives their sins and saves the sinners, and above all he gratuitously offers them his very
“splendor” (44:23, 49:3.6).
The exiles should feel consoled, therefore, they should expel every fear from their
hearts (41:10.13.14, 43:1-5, 44:2.8, 41:7.12), because the transcendent “Holy One” is also the
“Holy One of Israel”, the king of the universe and the king of Israel. The creator of the world
is in a special way the creator of the Israelites (43:1.15, 44:2, 45:11, 51:13), he is the saviour,
redeemer and liberator of Israel.
The “Strong One of Jacob” loves the exiles: he calls them “my people” (40:1, 41:16.22,
42:4.6.9), “my prisoners” (45:13), “my sons and my daughters” (43:6), “race of Abraham, my
friend” (41:8). He calls their city “my city” (45:13), “the holy city” (52:1): precious in his
eyes (43:4, 49:14f). Yahweh formed Israel for himself right from the womb (44:2.24, 46:3),
she is his spouse forever in spite of her infidelities (50:1, 54:5).
This strongly patriotic tone, however, did not prevent Deutero-Isaiah from including all
peoples in the salvation wrought by Yahweh (45:20f). Israel is to play a mediating role in
Yahweh’s work of salvation for all peoples (see first paragraph above).

iii. Trito-Isaiah or Third Isaiah

Introduction

The principle argument that has led several exegetes to take as a separate part the final
eleven chapters of the book of Isaiah is their setting, which is clearly post-exilic. People have
returned to their homeland (57:5.7) and have begun to live in Jerusalem again, while the
villages of Judah are still abandoned (64:9). The temple (66:1) and the city which had
remained in a state of ruin for a long time (64:9), are being rebuilt.

Theological Message

As far as the Divinity is concerned, Trito-Isaiah completes the theodicy already

formulated by Proto-Isaiah and Deutero-Isaiah. Like his predecessors, Trito-Isaiah too knows
the doctrine of divine transcendence, although instead of the word “sanctity’ he underlines
the words “the Most High” and “the Exalted One” (57:15, 63:15, 64:3, 66:1). As is the case
for Deutero-Isaiah, for Trito-Isaiah too this “Most High” is eternal (57:15), rich in
compassion and maternal (63:7-9) and paternal (63:16, 64:7) love, especially towards the just
(59:17-21), the miserable (57:15, 61:1, 66:2), the humble, the tormented and the repentant

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(57:18, 58:6f, 59:4.14, 61:1f, 66:2). At the same time, however, he is also severe (64:3f,
59:18), for he lifts his arm to punish (59:16-17) and upsets the world (64:1): when he
intervenes to punish on the day of his vengeance (63:4), nobody can dare to resist him
(63;1ff, 66:15f). He does tremendous things and at the same time acts in favour of those who
hope in him (64:3-4). In any case, His mercy triumphs always, because at the end he forgives
and forgets the sins of fragile and weak human beings (57:16-18). Even if he delays because
of man’s wickedness, he always fulfils his promises of salvation: he creates “new heavens
and a new earth” (65:17, 66:22), not only for his chosen people whom he has guided and
given new life to, but for all nations and languages gathered in the restored holy Zion; in the
temple “house of prayer for all peoples” (56:7). Even the eunuchs will form part of the new
community of the saved (56:3-7) and foreigners too will be able to serve as Levites and
priests (66:18-21.22-23).
This Most High God, holy, just and merciful acts in history and in the cosmos through
intermediaries: that is, his “glory” (58:8), his “word” (66:5), his “face / presence” (63:9), his
“glorious arm” (63:12), his “spirit” (61:1, 63:10-11) and above all his “splendour” (59:21).
The effect of God’s action is reflected:
-in the cult which is no longer external, superficial and superstitious, but “holy” (cf.
64:10, 66:20, 64:9).
-in the ‘anawim or “poor ones of Yahweh” who will be filled with the Holy Spirit
and will be ethically righteous (57:15, 61:1-3, 66:2, 56:1, 59:9.11.16ff, 63:1), truly
observing the Sabbath (56:2.4.6, 58:13), the perfect fasting (58:6f), the cult
pleasing to God (66:20.23), the acts of charity (57:15.18, 58:7.10, 61:1f, 66:2).
-in the work of salvation, which still has a national outlook (63:1-64:2, 65:17-25,
66:6.20) and is expressed as:
+the reconstruction of the temple (60:13.17),
+the restoration of the city walls (60:10) and of the villages (58:12, 61:4),
+the return of the Jews from the Diaspora (60:4.9),
+the flow of the wealth of the nations to holy Zion (60:5.7, 66:12)
+the advancement in age of the righteous (65:20f)
+paradise peace spread to all creation (60:18.21, 65:25)
+joy, prosperity, peace (65:18.23)
+the glory of God which illuminates the restored city (60:19f)
The only obstacle to the many benefits from God and to the realization of His many
promises is sin: the hardness of heart towards the afflicted (58:7.10), the non-observance of
the law (56:10, 57:1f, 58:2.4.6, 59:3f.7f), the transgression of God’s will (64:5f) and the
practice of idolatry (57:3ff, 65:3ff).

ISAIAH'S PROPHECIES OF THE MESSIAH

THE PROPHECY THE FULFILLMENT

The Messiah: Jesus of Nazareth:

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 Will be born of a virgin (Isaiah 7:14) Was born of a virgin named Mary (Luke
1:26-31)
Will have a Galilean ministry (Isaiah 9:1,2) Ministry began in Galilee of the Gentiles
(Matthew 4:13-16)
Will be an heir to the throne of David Was given the throne of His father David
(Isaiah 9:7; 11:1, 10) (Luke 1:32, 33)
Will have His way prepared (Isaiah 40:3-5) Was announced by John the Baptist (John
1:19-28)
Will be spat on and struck (Isaiah 50:6) Was spat on and beaten (Matthew 26:67)
Will be exalted (Isaiah 52:13) Was highly exalted by God and the People
(Philippians 2:9, 10)
Will be disfigured by suffering (Isaiah Was scourged by Roman soldiers who gave
52:14; 53:2) Him a crown of thorns (Mark 15L15-19)
Will make a blood atonement (Isaiah 53:5 Shed His blood to atone for our sins (1Peter
1:2)
Will be widely rejected (Isaiah 53:1,3) Was not accepted by many (John 12:37, 38)
Will bear our sins and sorrows (Isaiah 53:4, Died because of our sins (Romans 4L25;
5) 1Peter 2:24, 25)
Will be our substitute (Isaiah 53:6,8) Died in our place (Romans 5:6, 8; 2
Corinthians 5:21)
Will voluntarily accept our guilt and Jesus took on our sins (John 1:29; Romans
punishment for sin (Isaiah 53:7,8) 6:10; 2 Corinthians 5:21)
Gentiles will seek Him (Isaiah 11:10) Gentiles came to speak to Jesus (John
12:20,21)
Will be silent before His accusers (Isaiah Was silent before Herod and his court (Luke
53:7) 23:9)
Will save us who believe in Him (Isaiah Provided salvation for all who believe (John
53:12) 3:16; Acts 16:31)
Will die with transgressors (Isaiah 53:12) Was numbered with the transgressors (Mark
15:27, 28; Luke 22:37)
Will heal the brokenhearted (Isaiah 61:1,2) Healed the brokenhearted (Luke 4:18, 19)
God's Spirit will rest on Him (Isaiah 11:2) The Spirit of God descended on Jesus
(Matthew 3:16; Mark 1:10; Luke 3:22; 4:1)
Will be buried in a rich man's tomb (Isaiah Was buried in the tomb of Joseph, a rich
53:9 man from Arimathea (Matthew 27:57-60;
John 19:38-42)
He will judge the earth with righteousness Jesus was given authority to judge (John
(Isaiah 11:4,5) 5:27; Luke 19:22; 2 Timothy 4:1,8)
II. PROPHET JEREMIAH

Introduction

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 There are not many prophets of whom we have so much biographical information as we
have of Jeremiah. His disciple Baruch narrates us several aspects of the prophet’s life, but the
prophet himself also left us his “confessions”29 which help us to enter into his intimacy, his
struggles, and his reactions to his environment and to his mission.
We do not have the precise date of Jeremiah’s birth, but we know that he lived at the
close of the seventh and in the first part of the sixth century before Christ. In the year 627,
during the reign of Josiah, he was called at a youthful age to be a prophet, and for nearly half
a century, at least from 627 to 585, he bore the burden of the prophetic office. He belonged to
a priestly (not a high-priestly) family of Anathoth, a small country town northeast of
Jerusalem now called Anatâ; but he seems never to have performed priestly duties at the
temple.
For the first time, prophecy is not only a “message” but also a “life”. Jeremiah was
cursed by everybody, so much so that, humanly speaking, his life was a real disgrace (15:10).
The prophetic vocation reduced him to a sign of contradiction (20:8): in the same time, it
made him both a “tester” of his people (6:27) and a sign of the future hope for the entire
nation (32:15). His mission was to “to uproot and to knock down, to destroy and to
overthrow”, but also “to build and to plant”. He, a man of peace, was ever at war, with his
own people, with kings, priests, false prophets, the nation itself; “a man of strife and of
dissension for the whole country” (15:10).
The scenes of his prophetic activity were:
-for a short time, his native town,
-for the greater part of his life, the metropolis Jerusalem,
-and, for a time after the fall of Jerusalem, Masphath (Jeremiah 40:6) and the Jewish
colonies of the Dispersion in Egypt (Jeremiah 43:6 ff).
His name, Why"m.r>yI (Yirmeyāhû) - Jeremiah, has received varying
etymological interpretations ("Lofty is Jahweh" or "Jahweh founds" or “raised up or
appointed by Jahweh”); it appears also as the name of other persons in the Old Testament.
Sources for the history of his life and times are, first, the book of prophecies bearing his
name, and, second, the Books of Kings and of Paralipomenon (Chronicles).

a. Historical Setting of Jeremiah

The last years of the seventh century and the first decades of the sixth brought with
them a series of political catastrophes which completely changed national conditions in
Western Asia. The overthrow of the Assyrian Empire, which was completed in 606 by the
conquest of Ninive, induced Necho II of Egypt to attempt, with the aid of a large army, to
strike a crushing blow at the ancient enemy (Assyria) on the Euphrates. Palestine was in the
direct route between the great powers of the world of that era on the Euphrates and the Nile,
and the Jewish nation was roused to action by the march of the Egyptian army through its
territory. Josiah, the last descendent of David, was ruling in Jerusalem. The attempt of Josiah

29
27. Jeremiah 11:18-23,12:1-4,15:10-21,17:14-18, 18:19-23, 20:7-18.

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to check the advance of the Egyptians cost him his life at the battle of Mageddo, 608. Four
years later, Necho, the conqueror at Mageddo, was slain by Nebuchadnezzar at Carchemish
on the Euphrates. From that time Nebuchadnezzar's eyes were fixed on Jerusalem, he
imposed his will on Palestine, Judah rebelled encouraged by Egypt, and in 597
Nebuchadnezzar captured Jerusalem and deported part of the population. The last, shadowy
kings upon the throne of David, the three sons of Josiah–Joachaz, Joakim, and Sedecias–
hastened the destruction of the kingdom by their unsuccessful foreign policy and their anti-
religious or, at least, weak internal policy. Both Joakim and Sedecias, in spite of the warnings
of the prophet Jeremiah, allowed themselves to be misled by the war party in the nation into
refusing to pay the tribute to the King of Babylon. The king's revenge followed quickly upon
the rebellion. In the second great expedition Jerusalem was again conquered (587/6) and
destroyed after a siege of eighteen months, the temple was burnt and more of its inhabitants
deported.
This is the historical background to the lifework of the Prophet Jeremiah: in foreign
policy an era of lost battles and other events preparatory to the great catastrophe; in the inner
life of the people an era of unsuccessful attempts at reformation (cf. Josiah’s reforms in 2
Kings 22–23 and 2 Chronicles 34–35), and the appearance of fanatical parties such as
generally accompany the last days of a declining kingdom. While the kings from the Nile
(Egypt) and the Euphrates (Babylon) alternately laid the sword on the neck of the Daughter
of Sion, the leaders of the nation, the kings and priests, became more and more involved in
party schemes: 1. a Sion party, led by false prophets, deluded itself by the superstitious belief
that the temple of Yahweh was the unfailing security of the capital; 2. a fanatical war party
wanted to organize a resistance to the utmost against the great powers of the world; 3. a Nile
party looked to the Egyptians for the salvation of the country, and incited opposition to the
Babylonian lordship. Carried away by human politics, the people of Sion forgot its religion,
the national trust in God, and wished to fix the day and hour of its redemption according to its
own will. The ultimate consequence of the activities of all these factions was the Babylonian
Exile of the Jews.

b. Life of Jeremiah

Jeremiah was born about 646 BC, just over a century after Isaiah. A far more exact
picture of his life has been preserved than of the life of any other prophet. It was an unbroken
chain of steadily growing outward and inward difficulties. Biographical narratives about his
life are scattered throughout his book, their sequence is as follows: 19:1-20:6, 26, 36, 45, 28-
29, 51:59-64, 34:8-22, 37-44. The “Confessions of Jeremiah” (11:18-12:6, 15:10-21, 17:14-
18, 18:18-23, 20:7-18) come from the prophet himself, they are a moving witness to the inner
crisis which he experienced. On account of the prophecies, his life was no longer safe among
his fellow-citizens of Anathoth (11:21 sqq.), and of no teacher did the saying prove truer that
"a prophet hath no honour in his own country". When he transferred his residence from
Anathoth to Jerusalem his troubles increased, and in the capital of the kingdom he was
doomed to learn by corporal suffering that veritas parit odium (truth draws hatred upon
itself). King Joakim could never forgive the prophet for threatening him with punishment on

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account of his unscrupulous mania for building and for his judicial murders: "He shall be
buried with the burial of an ass" (22:13-19). When the prophecies of Jeremiah were read
before the king, he fell into such a rage that he threw the roll into the fire and commanded the
arrest of the prophet (36:21-26). Then the word of the Lord came to Jerermiah to let Baruch
the scribe write again his words (36:27-32). More than once the prophet was in prison and in
chains without the word of the Lord being silenced (36:5ff); more than once he seemed, in
human judgment, doomed to death, but the word of the Almighty was the protection of his
life: "Be not afraid . . . they shall not prevail: for I am with thee, says the Lord, to deliver
you" (1:17-19). The religious opinion he maintained, that only by a moral change could a
catastrophe in outward conditions prepare the way for improvement, brought him into bitter
conflict with the political parties of the nation. The Sion party, with its superstitious
confidence in the temple (7:4), incited the people to open revolt against Jeremiah, because, at
the gate and in the outer court of the temple, he prophesied the fate of the holy place in Silo
for the house of the Lord; and the prophet was in great danger of violent death at the hands of
the Sionists (cc 26, cf. 7). The party friendly to Egypt cursed him because he condemned the
coalition with Egypt, and presented to the King of Egypt also the cup of the wine of wrath
(25:17-19); they also hated him because, during the siege of Jerusalem, he declared, before
the event, that the hopes placed on an Egyptian army of relief were delusive (36:5-9). The
party of noisy patriots calumniated Jeremiah as a morose pessimist (cf. cc 27, 28), because
they had allowed themselves to be deceived as to the seriousness of the crisis by the flattering
words of Hananias of Gabaon and his companions, and dreamed of freedom and peace while
exile and war were already approaching the gates of the city. The exhortation of the prophet
to accept the inevitable, and to choose voluntary submission as a lesser evil than a hopeless
struggle, was interpreted by the war party as a lack of patriotism. Even at the present day,
some commentators wish to regard Jeremiah as a traitor to his country–Jeremiah, who was
the best friend of his brethren and of the people of Israel (II Macc. 15:14), so deeply did he
feel the wound and woe of his native land. Thus was Jeremiah loaded with the curses of all
parties as the scapegoat of the blinded nation. During the siege of Jerusalem he was once
more condemned to death and thrown into a miry dungeon; this time a foreigner rescued him
from certain death (37-39).
Still more violent than these outward battles were the conflicts in the soul of the
prophet. Being in full sympathy with the national sentiment, he felt that his own fate was
bound up with that of the nation; hence the hard mission of announcing to the people the
sentence of death affected him deeply; hence his opposition to accepting this commission
(1:6). With all the resources of prophetic rhetoric he sought to bring back the people to "the
old paths" (6:16), but in this endeavour he felt as though he were trying to effect that "the
Ethopian change his skin, or the leopard his spots" (13:23). He heard the sins of his people
crying to heaven for vengeance, and forcibly expresses his approval of the judgment
pronounced upon the blood-stained city (cf. 6). The next moment, however, he prays the Lord
to let the cup pass from Jerusalem, and wrestles like Jacob with God for a blessing upon Sion.
The grandeur of soul of the great sufferer appears most plainly in the fervid prayers for his
people (cf. especially 14:7-9, 19-22), which were often offered directly after a fiery
declaration of coming punishment. He knows that with the fall of Jerusalem the place that
was the scene of revelation and salvation will be destroyed. Nevertheless, at the grave of the

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religious hopes of Israel, he still has the expectation that the Lord, notwithstanding all that
has happened, will bring His promises to pass for the sake of His name. The Lord thinks
"thoughts of peace, and not of affliction", and will let Himself be found of those who seek
(29:10-14). As He watched to destroy, so will He likewise watch to build up (31:28). The
prophetic gift does not appear with equal clearness in the life of any other prophet as alike a
psychological problem and a personal task. His bitter outward and inward experiences give
the speeches of Jeremiah a strongly personal tone. More than once this man of iron seems in
danger of losing his spiritual balance. He calls down punishment from heaven upon his
enemies (cf. 12:3; 18:23). Like a Job among the prophets, he curses the day of his birth
(15:10; 20:14-18); he would like to arise, go hence, and preach instead to the stones in the
wilderness: "Who will give me in the wilderness a lodging place . . . and I will leave my
people, and depart from them?" (9:2; Heb. text, 9:1). It is not improbable that the mourning
prophet of Anathoth was the author of many of the Psalms that are full of bitter reproach.
After the destruction of Jerusalem, Jeremiah was not carried away into the Babylonian
exile. He remained behind in Chanaan, in the wasted vineyard of Jahweh, that he might
continue his prophetic office. It was indeed a life of martyrdom among the dregs of the nation
that had been left in the land. At a later date, he was dragged to Egypt by emigrating Jews (c.
44). According to a tradition first mentioned by Tertullian (Scorp., viii), Jeremiah was stoned
to death in Egypt by his own countrymen on account of his discourses threatening the coming
punishment of God (cf. Hebrews 11:37), thus crowning with martyrdom a life of steadily
increasing trials and sorrows. Jeremiah would not have died as Jeremiah had he not died a
martyr. The Roman Martyrology assigns his name to 1 May. Posterity sought to atone for the
sins his contemporaries had committed against him. Even during the Babylonian Captivity
his prophecies seem to have been the favourite reading of the exiles (2 Chronicles 36:21;
Ezra 1:1; Daniel 9:2). In the later books compare Ecclus., 49:8f; 2 Maccabees 2:1-8; 15:12-
16; Matthew 16:14.

c. Mission of Jeremiah

In the midst of the confusion of a godless policy of despair at the approach of

destruction, Jeremiah stood as "a pillar of iron, and a wall of brass". He had the hard mission,
on the eve of the great catastrophe of Sion, of proclaiming the decree of God that in the near
future the city and temple should be overthrown. From the time of his first calling in vision to
the prophetic office, he saw the rod of correction in the hand of God, he heard the word that
the Lord would watch over the execution of His decree (1:11f). That Jerusalem would be
destroyed was the constant assertion of Jeremiah. He appeared before the people with chains
about his neck (cf. cc 27 and 28) in order to give a drastic illustration of the captivity and
chains which he foretold. The false prophets, eg Hananiah, preached only of freedom and
victory, but the Lord said: "A liberty for you to the sword, to the pestilence, and to the
famine" (34:17). It was so clear to him that the next generation would be involved in the
overthrow of the kingdom that he renounced marriage and the founding of a family for
himself (16:104), because he did not wish to have children who would surely be the victims

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of the sword or become the slaves of the Babylonians. His celibacy was consequently a
declaration of his faith in the revelation granted him of the destruction of the city.
Along with this first task, to prove the certainty of the catastrophe of 586, Jeremiah had
the second commission to declare that this catastrophe was a moral necessity, to proclaim it
in the ears of the people as the inevitable result of the moral guilt since the days of Manasses
(2 Kings 21:10-15); in a word, to set forth the Babylonian Captivity as a moral, not merely a
historical, fact. It was only because the stubborn nation had thrown off the yoke of the Lord
(Jeremiah 2:20) that it must bow its neck under the yoke of the Babylonians. In order to
arouse the nation from its moral exhaustion, and to make moral preparation for the day of the
Lord, Jeremiah’s sermons emphasized this causal connection between punishment and guilt,
until it became monotonous. Although he failed to convert the people, and thus to turn aside
entirely the calamity from Jerusalem, nevertheless the word of the Lord in his mouth became,
for some, a hammer that broke their stony hearts to repentance (23:29). Thus, Jeremiah had
not only "to root up, and to pull down", he had also in the positive work of salvation "to
build, and to plant" (1:10). These latter aims of the penitential discourses of Jeremiah make
plain why the religious and moral conditions of the time are all painted in the same dark tone:
the priests do not inquire after Jahweh; the leaders of the people themselves wander in
strange paths; the prophets prophesy in the name of Baal; Judah has become the meeting-
place of strange gods; the people have forsaken the fountain of living water and have
provoked the Lord to anger by idolatry and the worship of high places, by the sacrifice of
children, desecration of the Sabbath, and by false weights. This severity in the discourses of
Jeremiah makes them the most striking type of prophetic declamation against sin. One well-
known hypothesis ascribes to Jeremiah also the authorship of the Books of Kings. In reality
the thought forming the philosophical basis of the Books of Kings and the conception
underlying the speeches of Jeremiah complement each other, inasmuch as the fall of the
kingdom is traced back in the one to the guilt of the kings, and in the other to the people's
participation in this guilt.

d. Characteristic Qualities of Jeremiah

The delineation, in II and III, of the life and mission of Jeremiah has already made plain
the peculiarity of his character. Jeremiah is the prophet of mourning and of symbolical
suffering. This distinguishes his personality from that of Isaiah, the prophet of ecstasy and the
Messianic future, of Ezekiel, the prophet of mystical (not typical) suffering, and of Daniel,
the cosmopolitan revealer of apocalyptic visions of the Old Covenant. No prophet belonged
so entirely to his age and his immediate surroundings, and no prophet was so seldom
transported by the Spirit of God from a dull present into a brighter future than the mourning
prophet of Anathoth. Consequently, the life of no other prophet reflects the history of his
times so vividly as the life of Jeremiah reflects the time immediately preceding the
Babylonian Captivity. A sad, depressed spirit overshadows his life, just as a gloomy light
overhangs the grotto of Jeremiah in the northern part of Jerusalem. In Michelangelo's
frescoes on the ceilings of the Sistine chapel there is a masterly delineation of Jeremiah as the
prophet of myrrh, perhaps the most expressive and eloquent figure among the prophets

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depicted by the great master. He is represented bent over like a tottering pillar of the temple,
the head supported by the right hand, the disordered beard expressive of a time of intense
sorrow, and the forehead scored with wrinkles, the entire exterior a contrast to the pure soul
within. His eyes seem to see blood and ruins, and his lips appear to murmur a lament. The
whole picture strikingly portrays a man who never in his life laughed, and who turned aside
from scenes of joy, because the Spirit told him that soon the voice of mirth should be silenced
(16:8f).
Equally characteristic and idiosyncratic is the literary style of Jeremiah. He does not use
the classically elegant language of a Deutero-Isaiah or an Amos, nor does he possess the
imagination shown in the symbolism and elaborate detail of Ezechiel, neither does he follow
the lofty thought of a Daniel in his apocalyptic vision of the history of the world. The style of
Jeremiah is simple, without ornament and but little polished. Jerome speaks of him as "in
verbis simplex et facilis, in majestate sensuum profundissimus" (simple and easy in words,
most profound in majesty of thought). Jeremiah often speaks in jerky, disjointed sentences, as
if grief and excitement of spirit had stifled his voice. Nor did he follow strictly the laws of
poetic rhythm in the use of the Kînah, or elegiac, verse, which had, moreover, an anacoluthic
measure of its own. Like these anacoluthæ so are also the many, at times even monotonous,
repetitions for which he has been blamed, the only individual expressions of the mournful
feeling of his soul that are correct in style. Sorrow inclines to repetition, in the manner of the
prayers on the Mount of Olives. Just as grief in the East is expressed in the neglect of the
outward appearance, so the great representative of elegiac verse of the Bible had neither time
nor desire to adorn his thoughts with a carefully chosen diction.
Jeremiah also stands by himself among the prophets by his manner of carrying on and
developing the Messianic idea. He was far from attaining the fullness and clearness of the
Messianic gospel of the Book of Isaiah; he does not contribute as much as the Book of Daniel
to the terminology of the gospel. Above all the other great prophets, Jeremiah was sent to his
age, and only in very isolated instances does he throw a prophetic light in verbal prophecy on
the fullness of time, as in his celebrated discourse of the Good Shepherd of the House of
David (23:1-5), or when he most beautifully, in chapters 30-33, proclaims the deliverance
from the Babylonian Captivity as the type and pledge of the Messianic deliverance. This lack
of actual Messianic prophecies by Jeremiah has its compensation; for his entire life became a
living personal prophecy of the suffering Messiah, a living illustration of the predictions of
suffering made by the other prophets. The suffering Lamb of God in the Book of Isaiah
(53:7) becomes in Jeremiah a human being: "I was as a meek lamb, that is carried to be a
victim" (Jeremiah 11:19). The other seers were Messianic prophets; Jeremiah was a
Messianic prophecy embodied in flesh and blood. It is, therefore, fortunate that the story of
his life has been more exactly preserved than that of the other prophets, because his life had a
prophetic significance. The various parallels between the life of Jeremiah and of the Messiah
are known: both one and the other had at the eleventh hour to proclaim the overthrow of
Jerusalem and its temple by the Babylonians or Romans; both wept over the city which
stoned the prophets and did not recognize what was for its peace; the love of both was repaid
with hatred and ingratitude. Jeremiah deepened the conception of the Messiah in another
regard. From the time the prophet of Anathoth, a man beloved of God, was obliged to live a
life of suffering in spite of his guiltlessness and holiness from birth, Israel was no longer

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justified in judging its Messiah by a mechanical theory of retribution and doubting his
sinlessness and acceptableness to God because of his outward sorrows. Thus the life of
Jeremiah, a life as bitter as myrrh, was gradually to accustom the eye of the people to the
suffering figure of Christ, and to make clear in advance the bitterness of the Cross. Therefore
it is with a profound right that the Offices of the Passion in the Liturgy of the Church often
use the language of Jeremiah in an applied sense.

e. The Book of Jeremiah

The book in its present form has two main divisions: chapters 1-45, discourses
threatening punishment which are aimed directly against Judah and are intermingled with
narratives of personal and national events, and chapters 46-51, discourses containing threats
against nine heathen nations and intended to warn Judah indirectly against the polytheism and
policy of these peoples.
In chapter 1 is related the calling of the prophet, in order to prove to his suspicious
countrymen that he was the ambassador of God. Not he himself had assumed the office of
prophet, but Yahweh had conferred it upon him notwithstanding his reluctance. Chapters 2-6
contain rhetorical and weighty complaints and threats of judgment on account of the nation's
idolatry and foreign policy. The very first speech in 2-3 may be said to present the scheme of
the Jeremianic discourse. Here also appears at once the conception of Hosea which is typical
as well of Jeremiah: Israel, the bride of the Lord, has degraded herself into becoming the
paramour of strange nations. Even the temple and sacrifice (7-10), without inward conversion
on the part of the people, cannot bring salvation; while other warnings are united like mosaics
with the main ones. The "words of the covenant" in the Torah recently found under Josiah
contain threats of judgment; the enmity of the citizens of Anathoth against the herald of this
Torah reveals the infatuation of the nation (11-12). Jeremiah is commanded to hide a linen
girdle, a symbol of the priestly nation of Sion, by the Euphrates and to let it rot there, to
typify the downfall of the nation in exile on the Euphrates (13). The same stern symbolism is
expressed later by the earthen bottle which is broken on the rocks before the Earthen Gate
(19:1-11). According to the custom of the prophets (1 Kings 11:29-31; Isaiah 8:1-4; Ezekiel
5:1-12), his warnings are accompanied by forcible pantomimic action. Prayers at the time of a
great drought, statements which are of much value for the understanding of the psychological
condition of the prophet in his spiritual struggles, follow (14-15). The troubles of the times
demand from the prophet an unmarried and joyless life (16-17). The creator can treat those he
has created with the same supreme authority that the potter has over clay and earthen vessels.
Jeremiah is ill-treated (18-20). A condemnation of the political and ecclesiastical leaders of
the people and, in connection with this, the promise of a better shepherd are uttered (21-23).
The vision of the two baskets of figs is narrated in chapter 24. The repeated declaration that
the land will become a desolation follows (25). Struggles with the false prophets, who take
wooden chains off the people and lead them instead with iron ones, are detailed. Both in a
letter to the exiles in Babylon, and by word of mouth, Jeremiah exhorts the captives to
conform to the decrees of Jahweh (26-29). Compare with this letter the "epistle of Jeremiah"
in Baruch, 6. A prophecy of consolation and salvation in the style of a Deutero-Isaiah,

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concerning the return of God's favour to Israel and of the new, eternal covenant, is then given
(30-33). The chapters following are taken up largely with narratives of the last days of the
siege of Jerusalem and of the period after the conquest with numerous biographical details
concerning Jeremiah (34-45).

f. Theological Message of Jeremiah

Quantitatively, Jeremiah has few things for theologians, but those few that he said are
qualitatively very inspiring and revolutionary: for instance the law written, not on stone but,
on the hearts of men. Even his religious method is particular: he does not dwell on dogmas
and reasoning, he is concerned with mystical union with his God and with religious life
practically lived. Let us see his characteristic themes.

i. Man before God

Jeremiah’s concern is the relationship between God and each and every man: hence he
begins a mystical, interior dialogue with God (15:16). One result of this are those inspiring
“confessions” of Jeremiah where two “persons” communicate between themselves and speak
to each other “heart to heart”. Jeremiah’s God is the God of history who loves man to the
point of falling in love with him (2:1ff, 3:1ff, 31:20ff), who binds himself with man with a
covenant not written on stones any more but on the heart (31:31-34), who uses any
individual, even Nebuchadnezzar, to accomplish his plans of salvation (25:9, 27:6, 43:10).
Hence, man can turn to God as to a “father” of love and mercy (3:4.19, 31:9.20), as to a
protector and saviour (14:8, 17:13, 30:11). And he can open to Him all the corners of his
heart: narrate to Him his crises, his internal and external sufferings. He can complain to Him
for the hard destiny to which He condemned him when He called him to this difficult
prophetic mission. He can even give Him “offensive” titles: seducer (20:7), “a deceptive
stream with uncertain waters” (15:18).
From Jeremiah’s understanding of God are born his prayers too: for himself (18:19), for
the good people who surround him and for the punishment of the wicked (15:15, 18:21ff,
20:12), for the tottering nation (7:16, 11:14, 28:6, 32:16.24ff), to the point of tiring God out
who prohibits his to pray again (7:16, 11:14, 14:11, 15:1). No wonder therefore, those who
followed him found in him a “teacher of dialogue with God” and imitated his prayer in the
psalter.

ii. Hardness of Heart and Sin

There were good will and good intentions in the reformer Josiah and in his court. But
the reform, for which Jeremiah himself had given a hand in the first period of his apostolate,
became a sad failure. Jeremiah then wondered whether a sincere return to God was really
impossible for man! He gave himself a disheartening response: “Can the Ethiopian change

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his skin, or the leopard his spots? And you, can you do right, being so accustomed to
wrong?”(13:23).
He made his own theory of sin: due to the hardness of their heart (serîrût, 3:17, 7:24,
9:13, etc…), all men distanced themselves from God (1:16, 2:13-19, 16:11,etc…), they
abandoned the fountain of living water and dug for themselves cracked cisterns which do not
hold water (2:13). They then wandered here and there, to the point of forgetting the voice of
the Lord (3:13, 4:1, etc…). They thus made choices of their own and fell into sin: that is,
error (ḥāṭā’), wickedness (rā‛āh), iniquity (āwôn), rebellion (paša‛), impiety (’ewîl), crime
(to‛ēbāh), moral corruption which is universal (1:18, 2:8.26.29, 5:1.4-5, 6:11-13, 10:21,
14:14, 23:11ff), age-old (2:5, 7:25-26, 15:4, 16:11-12), stubborn (2:20, 2:22.31, 3:3, 4:3-4,
5:3.20-24, 6:10.15-17, 8:4-7, 13:10.23, 17:1-2.9), a sort of incorrigible fatality finally making
part of human nature, something similar to original sin (4:22, 5:3, 6:15, 13:23).

iii. Profound Re-creation of Man

Jeremiah reacts to the situation described in 2 above by inviting the sinner to “return”
(cc 1-6, 8:4ff), and by giving him the hope and certainty of a radical conversion, because it is
God himself who will change the sinner’s heart (24:7), He will “re-create” him and “renew”
him: “I shall give them a heart to acknowledge that I am Yahweh. They will be my people
and I shall be their God, for they will return to me with all their heart.”

iv. Gratuitous Nature of the Return

The return for Jeremiah does not consist in an ethical effort of conversion on the part of
the human will, but in a free gift of God. Theologians today would call this “grace”.
This gift of God does two things for man:
i. it makes man aware of his sin:
-perhaps through God’s punishment and correction (2:19)
-through the collapse of all the past: “why has Jerusalem, the temple, the house of
David, all collapsed?”
People become aware that they have done all things the wrong way hitherto.
ii. it puts God in the depth of man’s heart, eliminates sin from him, gives him a new
orientation, not as a member of a group any more but as an individual (31:31-34).

v. Actors of the Liberation

The actors of God’s liberation of his people are no longer the old shepherds, priests, or
kings: all that was valid in the past (kingship, the temple, and the nation) had definitely
collapsed; new shepherds and “an upright Branch for David” would come from God.
The religion Jeremiah has in mind, therefore, is a religion liberated from all nationalistic
institutions and implanted in the heart of all men (3:17, 12:14ff, 16:19ff, cf Jn 4:23): Jeremiah
thus made an opening towards Christianity which was to come several centuries in the future.

vi. The word of God

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 The theology of the word reaches its peak in Jeremiah.
-He knows that his life’s destiny is to proclaim Yahweh’s rb'D', word
(hw"hy>û-rb;d>), and the moment of his calling is a moment of the arrival of
God’s word to him (1:9).
-Yahweh’s word carries his intention and will in it, with overwhelming consequences
(cf 1:10).
-False prophets too speak in the name of Yahweh but they have not been sent (23:21),
have not stood in divine council (23:18.22), have not been addressed (23:21), their dreams
are their own (23:25-28), they have no knowledge (14:18), they are propagators of lies (5:31,
14:14, 23:26-27, 32).
-man has no disposal over the word of God (23:18); he cannot induce it at will.
-Yahweh’s word is given even against one’s own wishes (28:6-7). To it the true prophet
must subject himself in obedience, listening, waiting (15:10-21, 42:1-7).
-It is like a blazing fire, a hammer crushing the rocks in pieces, a reproach, and a cause
of insult and derision (20:7-9, 23:29).
-Its source is to be discovered in the purpose and activity of God (29:26), not in the
pressures of contemporary politics or the charismatic seizures of ecstatics.

vii. Knowledge of God

-Jeremiah reports Yahweh’s assertion about himself: “I am the knowing One” (29:23).
-he is aware of Yahweh’s foreknowledge of him (1:5), and more than once he appeals
to God’s knowing of him in earnest cries (12:3, cf 11:18, 15:15, 17:16).
-Yahweh knows the plans and devices of men (18:23, 29:11).
-But man too is expected to have knowledge of God. Hence, Jeremiah reproaches the
priests because they have no knowledge of God (2:8), the poor because “they do not know
the way of Yahweh” (5:4), the foolish people who do not know Him (4:22). They turn to
other gods whom they do not know (7:9).
-Even the stork in the heavens knows her times, but Israel does not know Yahweh’s
‫משפט‬, laws (8:7).
-But in the time of the new covenant Israel will no longer be admonished “Know
Yahweh”, for they shall know him, both small and great, through Yahweh’s forgiveness of
their sins.

viii. God’s Activity

1. In Jeremiah’s Life

What God’s presence and activity meant in the life of Jeremiah is to be seen in the
following divine first-person verbs: “I knew you”, “I consecrated you” (‫)הקדשתיך‬, “I
appointed you”, “I send you”, “I command you”, “I am with you”, “I have put my words in
your mouth”, “I have set you over nations”, etc… (1:5-10).

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 2. In the life of the people

Whatever Jeremiah had to say to Israel, in whatever form (judgment, exhortation,

promise, etc…), has one foundation: Israel’s election to be the people of Yahweh. This
defines Israel’s uniqueness, existence, and divine purpose within its life. Israel is set aside for
Yahweh as holy (‫)קדוש‬:
-the first fruits of his harvest (2:3),
-a choice vine of pure seed (2:21)
-his beloved (11:15, 12:7)
-his heritage (12:7-9)
-his vineyard (12:10)
-his flock (13:17)
-his first born (31:9).
Yahweh has always been involved with Israel, and remembers the devotion (‫ )חםד‬of
her youth, her love (‫ )אהבה‬as a bride, following him in the wilderness (2:2).
Specific references to the covenant are rare (14:21, 31:32), but the terminology
associated with it is present (7:23, 11:3-8, 24:7): the requirements and laws frequently
appealed to by Jeremiah have their source in the covenant. Jeremiah realizes that Israel
belongs to Yahweh and that her existence is ultimately founded on obedience and service to
Yahweh. Two most intimate bonds in the life of the Middle East are used to describe this
relationship between Yahweh and Israel (2:2, 3:4.19. 22, 31:9.18-20, cf. Hosea):
-the bond of the father to his son
-the bond of the bride to her husband
In 18:1-11, Yahweh is portrayed as a Potter and Israel the clay in his hands: Yahweh is
sovereign over Israel’s life.

3. In the history of foreign Nations

Yahweh created the universe; foreign nations therefore are also under his sovereignty
(cf. prophecies against foreign nations in cc 46-51). Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon is his
servant (27:6), an instrument of his purpose (27:6-9) and the divine judgment against Israel.
After the fall of Judah Yahweh assures the remnant that they need not fear Babylon, for he is
able to deliver and save them (42:11-12).

4. In the Universe

Yahweh created the earth and all living creatures (27:5), it is for him to govern them as
he wills (27:4-11, cf. 18:1-11, 31:35-37). He determines the seasons and decides when rains
should come (5:24, 14:22), determines the times for the stork, turtledove, swallow, and crane
(8:7). He is, hence, the Lord of “times” and of space, demonstrates his sovereignty over all,
both in the affairs of nations (c.27) and in the lives of men, as Jeremiah can witness from his
own experience.

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 ix. Sin and Judgement, Repentance and forgiveness

Yahweh has revealed his holy will through his Torah and in the ministry of priests and
prophets. Israel is required to conduct itself in a way that reveals Yahweh’s rule over the
earth: ie. they have to imitate Yahweh’s steadfast love, justice, and righteousness (9:23-24).
These are ways of divine action revealed to Israel in their call, consecration, election, and
covenant with God. These latter events (call, consecration, election, and covenant) then
determine the true nature of God’s people.
Sin therefore is unnatural to Israel, Jeremiah views it as a violation of all that Israel was
destined to be through her commitment to Yahweh (2:11.21), a perversion of her true self /
nature. Hence, for Israel, sin is:
-a stubborn refusal to know God (2:8, 5:4, 4:22, 7:9, 8:7)
- going away from him (2:5)
-going after worthlessness / futility (2:5)
-refusal to revisit the revelatory events of their sacred history, Heilsgeschichte (2:6-8)
-rejection of their glory and apostasy to other gods (2:11-12)
-forsaking Yahweh, the fountain of living waters, for “no-gods” (vs 11)
-a gross forgetting (2:32, 3:21)
-perverting of their ways (3:21)
-disloyalty (3:22)
- the forsaking and abandoning of God (2:17.19)
-the breaking of a bond between servant and master (2:20)
-harlotry (2:20.25, 3:1)
-incorrigibility (2:30.35)
-lack of steadfastness (2:36)
-disobedience (3:13)
-rebellion (2:29)
-marital infidelity (3:3)
-sickness (3:22)
-lack of a sense of shame (3:3)
-degeneration (2:21)
Israel’s sin is deep-rooted (2:22), compelling (2:24), ineradicable (13:23). The
consequence of it is judgement involving punishment and discipline, where Babylon serves
as Yahweh’s instrument. Yahweh’s desire in all this, as Jeremiah repeats again and again, is
that his people turn from their past ways and return to him (3:1-4:4): to repent. He is eager
and determined to forgive (3:12b-14, 19-22b) and not to remember any more the iniquities of
his people (31:31-34, cf. 2:2).

x. Jeremiah’s Messianic Ideals (23:1-6[7-8], 31:21-22.31-34)

Although there is doubt on the authenticity of some of the messianic texts in his book,
Jeremiah, like other prophets before him, speaks of a “return” after the catastrophe, but he

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gives a new meaning to the term. He uses the term to refer to future times, with at least three
different meanings:
 The material component of the return of the exiles from the land of slavery to the
land of freedom (31:2-17.27f, 3:18, 24:6).
 The spiritual component of a “return” from a state of sin to that of friendship with
God (2:19, 3:12ff).
 The religious component of a “passage” from the religion of ritual and of the Sinai
covenant to the religion of the heart and of the new covenant (31:31-34).

For Jeremiah, this return is to be followed by the institution of new shepherds and an
upright Branch for David by Yahweh (23:1-6), it is situated in the new paradise (31:21-22),
and consists in the creation of a new covenant (31:31-34). It is a real revolution: without
denying the past, Jeremiah points to the future benefits of the messianic era, which are to be
attained through a purifying present, involving the fall of Jerusalem, the suffering and the
exile.

1. New Shepherds and the Upright Branch (23:1-6)

Speaking to the last kings of Judah, Jeremiah reproaches them of being bad shepherds,
who have scattered, driven away and destroyed the flock, for they have not taken care of it
(vv 1-2). Hence, he prophesies to them in the name of Yahweh, that in the future God will
substitute them with new shepherds, who will feed the sheep after Yahweh has gathered them
from the countries of their exile and has made them graze in peace, fertile and numerous (vv
3-4). Under the new shepherds the sheep will experience peace and care: “No fear, no terror
for them any more; not one shall be lost” (vs 4). Yahweh will then raise an upright Branch
for David, a messianic king, who “will reign as king and be wise, doing what is just and
upright in the country. In his days Judah will be saved, and Israel will dwell securely. And
this is the name by which he will be called: `The LORD is our righteousness.” (vss.5-6, cf.
Mal 3:20, Rm 10:4, I Cor 1:30). From the NT point of view, this messianic king alone shall
be the saviour of God’s people who will give back to Israel its lost royalty (Mt 2:2), the
throne of David his father which has for long remained empty (Lk 1:32). Then, the crowds
will acclaim him king who comes in the name of the Lord to bring messianic peace and
tranquility (32:37b, cf. Ezek 28:26, Zach 14:11, Lk 19:38).

2. New Exodus and Restoration (23:7-8, 31:1ff).

Jeremiah, or his disciple, foresees a future, salvific exodus to mark the beginning of the
messianic reign: “So, look, the days are coming, Yahweh declares, when people will no
longer say, ‘As Yahweh lives who brought the Israelites out of Egypt,’ but, ‘As Yahweh lives
who led back and brought home the offspring of the House of Israel from the land of the
north and all the countries to which he had driven them, to live on their own soil’.” (23:7-8)
Hence, people will no longer think of the exodus from Egypt, which led to the Sinai economy
failed by the unworthy shepherds, but they will think of the one from the north (3:12.18,

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16:15, 31:8) and from all countries where they had been scattered (8:3, 23:3.8, 29:14.18,
32:37). This second exodus will lead to the blessed times of the Branch of David, who will
assemble all the holy flock to make of them the people of God (32:38), to dwell in the
promised land.
As in the time of the first exodus in the Sinai desert, during the new exodus too God
maintains his everlasting love for Israel; those who have survived the sword. Israel will again
experience the joy of life, Samaria will flourish again with vineyards, from Ephraim people
will once again go up to Zion (ie. religious unity between north and south will be recovered
around the sanctuary of Zion). Let the people exult, for the remnant of Israel, under their own
divine shepherd, will return to graze on their own soil: “the blind and the lame, women with
child, women in labour” (31:1-14).
Rachel, the ancestress of the central northern tribes (cf. Gen 29:6ff), is invited to stop
her bitter weeping, for her children are not lost for good, “they will return from the enemy's
country” (31:15-16). In exile Ephraim has converted, has done penance and God, loving him
again as a precious and favourite son (31:20), is inviting him to return to his cities.
In view of this return, Jeremiah exhorts the “Virgin of Israel”: “Set up your signposts,
raise yourself landmarks, fix your mind on the road, the way by which you went”. That is,
they are to have clearly in their mind the road they followed when going in exile so that by
the same route they return to their cities.
In the cities, however, God himself has created something new and extraordinary: “A
woman shall encompass a man”(31:21-22); that is, the woman who in ancient times was a
cause of evil for her husband (Eve for Adam) will surround her husband with affection to
protect him. The post-exilic Palestine, by implication, will be the “new garden of Eden”, “the
heavenly garden”, in which the woman is no longer cause of evil but cause of salvation for
her husband. Palestine would, therefore, be transformed by God into a new paradise, oasis of
salvation (cf. Is 42:9, 43:19).
Jeremiah thus sees the new exodus from the north as the restoration of the paradise plan
of God, with a new garden, with a new Eve: a true helper of Adam, the strong one, a true
virgin who has become mother of all the living, “Zion our mother” (cf. Is 54:1, 62:1ff, Jer.
32:36-33:26, Gal. 4:26ff).
Some critics translate this verse, “A woman shall encompass a man”(vs 22), as “the
Woman sets out to find her Husband again”, and hence take it to mean that the return or
exodus from the north would mean a resumption of the loving relationship between Israel
and her husband Yahweh (see Hos 1:2b, cf. Is 54:5ff).

3. New Covenant (31:31-34)

In the new heavenly Zion, a new covenant will be stipulated between the divine Spouse and
His purified spouse. This covenant is to be founded on a more intimate and lasting base:
unlike the Sinai covenant which was a law imposed from outside, the new covenant is to be
felt as an act of personal love for Yahweh, a law written on the heart of every individual,
originating from personal consciousness, decision and choice, giving orientation to the life of
every individual according to God’s plan.

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“Look, the days are coming, Yahweh declares, when I shall make a new covenant with the
House of Israel (and the House of Judah), but not like the covenant I made with their
ancestors the day I took them by the hand to bring them out of Egypt, a covenant which they
broke, even though I was their Master, Yahweh declares. No, this is the covenant I shall make
with the House of Israel when those days have come, Yahweh declares. Within them I shall
plant my Law, writing it on their hearts. Then I shall be their God and they will be my people.
There will be no further need for everyone to teach neighbour or brother, saying, "Learn to
know Yahweh!" No, they will all know me, from the least to the greatest, Yahweh declares,
since I shall forgive their guilt and never more call their sin to mind.”

Among the characteristics of the new covenant we have the following:

-different from the old covenant the new one will be unilateral; it is a fruit of the omnipotent
action of Yahweh.
- different from the old covenant which was written on stone and therefore external to man,
the new one will be intimate, written in their heart; the seat of consciousness and decision
making. Hence it is going to be natural and spontaneous to man, though it is always God’s
and not human law.
-Unlike the old covenant the new one will not be a code of laws common to a whole people,
but an intimate manifestation of the divine plan to each individual.
-It is to fulfill in a perfect way what failed in the first covenant (Ex. 19:5): that is, it is to
effect an intimate union between God and his chosen people: one will be necessarily for the
other; there will be no more divorces and idolatries: “I will be their God, and they shall be
my people”.

III. PROPHET EZEKIEL

a. Historical Situation (2kgs 24:10-17)

Ezekiel was a contemporary of Jeremiah but his prophetic ministry was carried out
about 1300 kilometers away from Judah, in surroundings very different from those of
Jeremiah. It is not certain whether he knew Jeremiah.
Ezekiel was one of the exiles who were carried to Babylonia in the first captivity
(Ezekiel 1:1-2). The date of his going into exile seems to be 598/7 BC. This is a period
before the fall of Jerusalem.
Among the deported people of 597 B.C were the most educated and skilled men of
Jerusalem. They were probably used by the Babylonians in work which enabled them to keep
their knowledge and skills. More to that, they settled in communities in which they were able
to marry, have families and maintain their own customs. Further more, these people were not
treated with harsh cruelty despite the fact that their status was that of slave workers. They had
a firm hope that they would soon return to Judah which later was not possible. In fact many
people (Jews) who had been born in Babylonia as children of the original exiles, did not

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return. They became part of the increasing number of Jewish communities living outside
Palestine.
After the destruction of Jerusalem in 587 B.C and the second deportation which took
away a great number of the people to Babylonia, Judah was left in a very bad state. Only the
poorest people of the land were left. However, some Jews who escaped from the Babylonians
fled to Egypt. Jeremiah was also forced to go to Egypt with them.

b. Ezekiel's Personal Life

The name Ezekiel (1Ch 24:16, "Jehezekel.") means "God is strong" or "God fortifies /
makes strong / strengthens". Ezekiel is one of the great prophets, the son of Buzi the priest
(Ezek 1:3). He was a member of the powerful priesthood that claimed descent from Zadok,
the high priest installed by Solomon. Both the priestly and the prophetic characters are clear
in his personality.
He was one of the Jewish exiles who settled at Tel-Abib, on the banks of the Chebar,
"in the land of the Chaldeans." He was probably carried away captive with Jehoiachin (Ezek
1:2; 2Ki 24:14-16) about B.C. 598/7. His prophetic call came to him "in the fifth year of
Jehoiachin's captivity" (B.C. 594). He had a house in the place of his exile, where he lost his
wife, in the ninth year of his exile, by some sudden and unforeseen stroke (Ezek 8:1; 24:18).
He held a prominent place among the exiles, and was frequently consulted by the elders
(Ezek 8:1; 11:25; 14:1; 20:1). His ministry extended over twenty-three years (Ezek 29:17),
B.C. 595-573, during part of which he was contemporary with Daniel (Ezek 14:14; 28:3) and
Jeremiah, and probably also with Obadiah. The time and manner of his death are unknown.
His reputed tomb is pointed out in the neighbourhood of Bagdad, at a place called Keffil.
He was a man who was very familiar with Jerusalem, where he had been before his
exile. It is also clear that the centre of his life in Jerusalem had been the temple and its
worship. It seems that after his exile he continued to be concerned with what was happening
in Jerusalem. He was particularly concerned with what was happening to the temple and he
never forgot that he belonged to the priesthood. Ezekiel manifests a strong feeling for the
priestly office, in the last part of his mission he is taken up with the restoration of the temple
and the priesthood. Jerusalem turned away from the old temple because of its misuse, but
Ezekiel saw in it a more glorious temple in which a purified people would glorify God.
At the beginning of his ministry he was not given attention but with the fall of
Jerusalem (587 BC) he became popular. He sees himself as "the prophet of the spirit". His
predecessors preferred the term "the word of Yahweh" in describing their prophetic
inspiration, but he uses "the activity of the spirit". Thus, the spirit
a) gives him visions
b) sets him above the valley of dry bones (Ez 37:1)
c) transfers him in trance to Jerusalem, that he may better exercise his ministry of judgment
(Ez. 11:1, 24)
d) transports him in vision to the inner court of the new temple (Ez. 43:4-5). See also Ez.
3:12&14,
e) speaks to him (3:24).

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 c. Ezekiel's Mission

Ezekiels ministry consisted of several tasks but he had to answer two basic questions:
1. Judah's defeat by the Babylonians came with the conviction that the Babylonian gods had
proved themselves stronger than Yahweh. A god was believed to be as powerful as the people
who worshipped him. Defeat of a people meant defeat of their god. Now Ezekiel had the task
to show that Yahweh is not weak, but indeed the master of history.
2. All along, before the exile, people had worshipped Yahweh in Jerusalem. Now, the
question arose as to whether it was permissible or even possible to worship Yahweh in
Babylon (cf. ps 137:1f); the unclean land of their exile. Ezekiel has the task of showing that
Yahweh is not confined in Jerusalem. He, unlike the gods of pagan nations, is not fixed to
any place; he is everywhere/omnipresent. He is mobile and he is with them in Babylon, so he
is to be worshipped even there.

d. Book of Ezekiel

It consists mainly of three groups of prophecies. After an account of his call to the
prophetical office (Eze 1:1-3:21), Ezekiel utters:
i. words of denunciation against the Jews (Ezek 3:22-24), warning them of the certain
destruction of Jerusalem, in opposition to the words of the false prophets (Ezek 4:1-
3). The symbolical acts, by which the extremities to which Jerusalem would be
reduced are described in ch. 4,5, show his intimate acquaintance with the Levitical
legislation. (See Ex 22:30; Deut 14:21; Lev 5:2; L">7:18,R">24; 17:15; 19:7; 22:8,
etc.)
ii. Prophecies against various surrounding nations: against the Ammonites (Ezek 25:1-
7), the Moabites (Ezek 25:8-11), the Edomites (Ezek 25:12-14), the Philistines (Ezek
25:15-17), Tyre and Sidon (Ezek 26-28), and against Egypt (Ezek 29-32).
iii. Prophecies delivered after the destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar: the
triumphs of Israel and of the kingdom of God on earth (Ezekk 33-48); Messianic
times, and the establishment and prosperity of the kingdom of God (40;48).
The closing visions of this book are referred to in the book of Revelation (Ezek 38:1-23 =
Rev 20:8; Ezek 47:1-8 = Rev 22:1-2). Other references to this book are also found in the New
Testament. (Comp. Rom 2:24 with Ezek 36:2; Rom 10:5, Gal 3:12 with Ezek 20:11; 2Pet 3:4
with Ezek 12:22.)
It may be noted that Daniel, fourteen years after his deportation from Jerusalem, is mentioned
by Ezekiel (Dan 12:13) along with Noah and Job as distinguished for his righteousness, and
some five years later he is spoken of as pre-eminent for his wisdom (Dan 12:13).
Ezekiel's prophecies are characterized by symbolical and allegorical representations,
"unfolding a rich series of majestic visions and of colossal symbols." There are a great many
also of "symbolical actions embodying vivid conceptions on the part of the prophet" (Ezek
4:1-4; 5:1-4; 12:3-6; 24:3-5; 37:16, etc.) "The mode of representation, in which symbols and

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allegories occupy a prominent place, gives a dark, mysterious character to the prophecies of
Ezekiel. They are obscure and enigmatical. A cloudy mystery overhangs them which it is
almost impossible to penetrate. Jerome calls the book 'a labyrinth of the mysteries of God.' It
was because of this obscurity that the Jews forbade any one to read it till he had attained the
age of thirty."
Ezekiel is singular in the frequency with which he refers to the Pentateuch (e.g., Ezek 27:1-
36; 28:13; 31:8; 36:11,34; 47:13, etc.). He shows also an acquaintance with the writings of
Hosea (Ezek 37:22), Isaiah (Ezek 8:12; 29:6), and especially with those of Jeremiah, his older
contemporary (Jer 24:7,9; 48:37).

e. The Prophetic Call of Ezekiel

i. Ezekiel's Vision of Yahweh's Chariot (Read Ez. 1:4-26)

Ezekiel's call to be a prophet came as a result of an extraordinary vision in the fifth year
of the exile of king Jehoiachin (Ez 1:1). He says "the heavens were opened and I saw visions
of God". This overpowering experience convinced him that, the hand of Yahweh was upon
him there.
It seems the prophet was called at the time when he was thirty years old (cf. “in the
thirtieth year”). Ezekiel's call, like Isaiah's, came in connection with a vision of Yahweh
seated upon his throne in ineffable glory and transcendent majesty. Ezekiel as a priest uses
Israel's priestly tradition. According to Jerusalem theology, Yahweh was enthroned within the
Holy of Holies of the temple. According to the narrative, he saw Yahweh's heavenly chariot
approaching him from the north in the storm cloud flashing with lightening (vs 4). This is
significant in the following ways:
- First, the "cosmic vision of Yahweh" resembles that of Mt Sinai. The cloud is a pledge of
God's presence among his people; it permits the dialogue between man and God.
- Second, the Babylonians believed that their gods lived in the far North. So, God's glorious
manifestation of his presence from the direction indicated that his power was greater than any
power which might be attributed to the gods of Babylonia.
- Third, the North was the direction from which the exiles had entered Babylon. God's
presence came into Babylonia along this route to show that God followed his disgraced
people; he was with them in their disgrace and exile.
The great significance of the manifestation of God's presence to his prophet in
Babylonia was to reveal to the exiles that there is no place where God is not, He was no
longer to be associated only with the temple of Jerusalem. Thus, the Holy God, whom Israel
had once worshiped in the Temple at Jerusalem, had come to his people in exile, they can
worship him there. This was to clear the doubt of the exiles as to whether they could worship
their God in a foreign land.
In Ezekiel chapter 10, another vision is described which complements the vision of
chapter 1. The prophet sees the same chariot-throne flying up from the entrance of the temple
in Jerusalem, leaving what Ezekiel had previously known as the house of God. Thus, God's
presence left the temple and came to Babylon to be with his people.
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-The chariot throne would go in any direction, symbolising that God is not limited to any
place but can move anywhere and may be experienced anywhere.
-The wheels were full of eyes; symbolising God is all-seeing, nothing is hidden from his
knowledge and power.
-The extra-ordinary living creatures which supported the chariot-throne represented the major
areas of created life. Each had for faces: a human face, a lion’s face (representing wild life) to
the right, a bull’s face (representing domestic animals) to the left, eagles’ face (representing
winged creatures). The chariot throne was, therefore, carried by what represented God's
creation and these creatures witnessed to God as the sole creator of the world and the sole
Lord of all that has been created.
-The four-winged animals mentioned in Ez. 1:5-14 represented secondary gods who
protected cities and places and so were found at city gates and near thrones. Ezekiel's vision
shows that God is superior to all the Babylonian gods, and they are at his service: they are
carrying his throne on which he is seated.
-Because of the Glory of God Ezekiel was totally overwhelmed and fell on the ground. This
reminds us the experience of Isaiah when he saw vision of God's glory in the temple.
The whole vision of chapter 1, refers to the omnipotence (power), omniscience and
omnipresence of God. God is all powerful, all knowing, and his presence has no limitations.
His glory and transcendence are too overwhelming for any human being to understand. The
message of this vision is that God is the God of all life, the one God, the sole creator, beyond
any limitations. Ezekiel had to take this message to the people whose lives had become
meaningless to them in their disgrace and exile. He had to communicate to them that this God
was their God, the only powerful one, incomparable to the Babylonian gods, he had come to
them and he would restore them. Thus, in the symbolism of the vision, there is marvelous
hope.

ii. Ezekiel's vision of the scroll (Ez. 2)

- Ezekiel was lying down on the ground like a dead man and God called him to stand. In this
action we see God's desire that man should enjoy his relationship with God and find the
meaning of his life in this relationship.
- Ezekiel is addressed as "mortal man" or as "son of man" meaning representative man or
human being contrasted with God, essentially immortal spirit, different in substance though
alike in form. Man's nature is weak, God's nature is mighty (ps 8;4; fb 16:21).
- God's spirit entered Ezekiel. This was to bridge the gap between God and man. It entered in
order to strengthen him and to make him attentive to the message of God. The prophet's
consciousness of being moved by the spirit of God in his prophetic task will be constantly
referred to (3:12, 14:24, 8:3, 11:1.5.25, 37:1, 43:5).
- He is told his audience will be stubborn, defiant and rebellious when they hear his message.
It will be like living among scorpions but God will make him strong (Ez. 3:4-11).
- His word is Yahweh's word (2:7): "And you shall speak my words to them". That rebellious
people, converted or not, will be forced to recognise the authenticity of the prophet's message
(2:5): they “will know there is a prophet among them”: this will guarantee their chance to

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repent and justify God’s judgment upon the unrepentant. The prophetic message is a kind of
God’s judgment; he who does not adhere to it subjects himself to condemnation.
- He is given a scroll; the massage which he was to deliver to the people. He was told to eat
and digest the scroll, meaning that he was the first to be nourished on God's message before
passing it on to others. He had to digest it; that is, to understand God's message before
preaching it. He ate the scroll and it "tasted as sweet as honey" (2:9-3:1-3) meaning that he
not only appreciated the message but was in full agreement with it.
- In Ez. 3:16-21 the prophet is proclaimed as a "watchman". Therefore, his personal
responsibility is not only to preach the word of God but also to watch and to warn the people
of imminent danger. If he warns them he will not be held responsible by God if people fail to
convert and perish. They will be responsible for their action. But if he fails to warn them he
will be held responsible if they sin and die because they were not warned and given an
opportunity to repent and live.

f. Some Aspects Of Ezekiel’s Prophetic Message

i. Prophetic Signs in Ezekiel

Ezekiel shows particular interest in prophetic symbolisism; he likes to act his message, as the
following examples reveal:

1. Yahweh's chariot throne (Read Ez.1:4-26) and the scroll Read Ez.2) already explained
above in the call of Ezekiel.
2. While in Babylon he drew a sketch of the map of Jerusalem under siege as a sign that the
city would be attacked and destroyed because of the sin of its people (4:1-3).
3. Lying on his side (4:4-11).
- he lay on his left side for 390 days to show that the people of the northern kingdom would
suffer exile for 390 years.
- then he lay on his right side for 40 days to indicate that the people of Judah would remain in
exile for 40 years.
-While he was on his right side, he was to weight out small rations of food and water for
himself to show that the besieged people of Jerusalem would suffer from shortages of food
and water, which will eventually bring people to starvation (4:9-11).
4. In 4:12-13 Ez. is told to eat unclean food; something that is really horrible for a priest who
was supposed to be free from any impurity. This meant that in exile the Israelites might be
made unclean people by being forced to eat such unclean things to keep alive (against Lev.
11).
5. He was told to cut off his hair with a sword and to destroy it in 3 parts: (5:1-4 & 11-12).
- cutting the hair was a sign of mourning, and this time for destroyed Jerusalem and her
people.
-the sword represented war which would destroy the city.
-the hair destroyed in three parts portrayed the way the city would be burnt and the people
killed and scattered.

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6. He packed his baggage and at night dug through the wall to declare the imminent
deportation- a person trying to flee from the city under cover of darkness (12:16-20).
7. He ate his bread with quaking and drank his water with trembling to symbolise the nervous
fear people would experience during the coming siege (12:17-20).
8. In 24:15-27, when his wife - "the delight of his eyes" - died he refrained from mourning as
a sign to the exiles that the news of the fall of Jerusalem (which they so loved) would feel
them with sorrow too deep to tears.
9. In 37:15, Ezekiel puts together two sticks to prophesy reunion of north and south.

In addition to the signs above Ezekiel also uses some allegories to bring out Israel's situation:
-a worthless vine in Ez. 15,
-a faithless wife in Ez. 16:1-43

ii. Transcendence of God

Transcendence means passing beyond limitations, surpassing or being superior to, wholly
other. For Ezek. God is "wholly other", beyond all limitations of time and space, beyond
human language (cf. the bewildering description in Ezek.1:1). The transcendence of God in
Isaiah and Ezek. complements the immanence of God in e.g. Hosea and Jeremiah, where He
is closely known as a loving father or husband.

iii. Honour of God

86 times (e.g Ez .36:21-23) Ez. refers to God as acting so that his holy name may be
honoured (4:13-16, 6:10, 7:8f, 11:10, 12:15f, 13:23, 14:8.15, 17:21.24, 20:9.14.22.39.44,
28:25, 36:2.21-23.36, 37:2839:7.25.27f, 43:7.8). Israel has sinned and deserves to be
punished, but it will be saved so that other nations do not see Yahweh as failing to honour the
promises made to his people. God's restoration of Israel is purely God's act of grace
unmerited in any way by Israel. God takes initiative to approach his people and offer love.
Nothing man does would make him fit to expect anything from the Transcendent God. God
restores his people while they are still sinners.
When nations mock Israel in exile they are still mocking the God of Israel though
they do not recognise this, yet God is also the God of all nations. Therefore, mocking is
intolerable; God will act to make the nations honour him. Out of his honour he will
demonstrate his steadfast love and patience by liberating the Israelites through the servant
(Is,52-53) and restoring them to the promised land.

iv. Personal Responsibility for Sin (Ez. 14:12ff, 18:1ff, 33:10-20)

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 Ezekiel was appointed to be a 'watchman ' (i.e to worn of impending danger) not simply
to the community in general but for individuals making it up.
Yahweh's point of departure 'through Ezek ' is the popular proverb in Ez .18:1-2 which
means the parents have sinned and their children suffer the negative consequences. Many
exiles especially those born there, despairingly thought they were being punished for their
ancestors’ crimes, and there was nothing they could do about it. They had a sense of inherited
guilt and corporate guilt i.e. guilt stemming from the community as a whole. Ez. calls people
to their senses with the words: "The one who has sinned is the one to die" (Ez-18). An
upright man even if he has a sinful son, will live because of his own uprightness. A sinful
man, even if he has an upright son, will die because of his own sinfulness. An upright son,
even if he has a sinful father, will live because of his own uprightness. A sinful son, even if
he has an upright father, will die because of his own sinfulness. An upright man, though in a
sinful community will live because of his own uprightness (Ezek. 14;12). A sinful man,
though in an upright community will die because of his own sinfulness.
In summary, the upright will be credited with his uprightness and the wicked with his
wickedness irrespective of the situation of his parents or the community where he lives.
Assurance: God takes no pleasure in the death of a sinner, he would prefer to see the
sinner renounce his wickedness and live. If the wicked renounces his sins and becomes law-
abiding and upright “he will most certainly live” (Ezek 18).
Warning: But if the upright abandons his uprightness and copies all the dirty ways of
the wicked "he will most certainly die”.
With this message Ezekiel intends to call his people to change their thoughts and
attitudes (18:31-32):
-To repent so that they can live, and not die.
-To renounce and shake off all the crimes they have committed
-To avoid all occasions of guilt.
-To make themselves a new heart and new spirit.
Therefore, God is just in his doing, but Israel is unjust in their dealings with God. Their
suffering in exile should provide an occasion for repentance and faith (Lk 13:1-5). If they
turned sincerely to God all and individually, leaving their previous evil ways, they would be
forgiven by God and would live a good life. In the one covenant community each individual
is called upon to personally experience a relationship of love with God and with his fellow
men.

v. Restoration of Israel

Ezekiel's message of restoration can be discussed under the following headings:

a- The shepherds of Israel (Ez.34, cfr. Jn .10)
b- New life for Israel (Ez.36)
c- The vision of dry bones (Ez . 37)

1. The Shepherds of Israel (Ezek 34)

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In this prophecy we have a general denunciation of the kings who were descended from
David the last of whom was Zedekiah. Kings were commonly referred to as shepherds in
Israelite tradition.
Like Jeremiah, Ez. denounces the kings of Israel for the following reasons;
-They only care about themselves; 34;2 instead of the sheep
-They thought of only their position and power
-They were the source of syncretism instead of championing Yahwism.
-Never identified themselves with their people in joys and sufferings
Because of this great abuse of authority, God's people lack leadership and have been led
astray, so the leaders are to be rejected like Saul, Ahab etc… before them.

Therefore: (ps 23, 100:3, Is 40:11, Lk 15;3-7, Jn 10;10)

- Yahweh will remove his flock from the shepherds so that they do not exploit the sheep any
more, he will ask them to account for every single sheep (Jer. 22:13-17, Hos 1:4, 7:7, I Sam
8:1-22). Then Yahweh himself will take over the care of the flock, as a good shepherd (Jn
10:10).
-he will search everywhere and bring together the scattered people as a shepherd collects his
sheep and leads them back to the streams and pastures of Israel; i.e. back to Israel from exile.
He will make the weak strong, he will kindly handle the sick and injured, he will be a sure
guide for the lost ones.
-He will know them individually, separating the good from the bad (cfr. Mt. 25:31-32).
-He will make a covenant with them to ensure their security.
-He will appoint a ruler like David to look after them. He will be their shepherd and prince;
author of the covenant of peace of the messianic times (34:23-31).

1. The Davidic Messiah

It is debatable among exegetes whether or not Ezekiel, in his ideal restoration of the
new Israel, had a place for the Davidic monarchy and for the traditional royal Mesianism.
No doubt, the prophet uses the term mèlèk (%l,m, = king) with little enthusiasm
and his attitude towards the monarchy is strongly critical (21:30f, 22:25, 34:2-12, 45:8,
46:16ff). Indeed, he clearly accuses the institution of the monarchy of having been one of the
principle causes of the crimes against divine “sanctity” and of the profanations committed
against the glory of God (34:10, 43:7). We have to admit therefore that for Ezekiel the
monarchy, as historically experienced hitherto, has been more damaging than useful, for this
it too must undergo a process of renewal under the powerful hand of the Lord (17:22ff). In
fact, Ezekiel no longer sees the mèlèk (king) as head of the new people, but the nāśî’
(ayfin"), i.e. a charismatic “prince” (21:17, 22:6, 26:16, 27:21, 45:46.48); a title used for
tribal heads during the pre-monarchical period (cfr. Ex. 16:22, 22:27, 34:31, 35:37, Lev. 4:22,
Num. 1:16, 2:3-29, Joshua 9:15). The task of this new head is essentially sacred, preoccupied
not with politics and military conquests any more, but with the cult, sanctity, purity, and
being, like Yahweh, the good shepherd of the people of God (34:1-24, cfr Jn 18:36).

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 At the same time, Ezekiel, in line with the prophetic tradition that preceded him, puts as
candidate to this office of charismatic “prince” a descendant of David, a royal Messiah
(17:22-24, 21:30-32, 34:23-24, 37:24-28).
Yahweh will re-establish the order disturbed by the bad shepherds of Israel: he will
appoint one ideal shepherd (Hos. 1:11) for his docile sheep. Under the good reign of this
shepherd, Yahweh will be their God, and the covenant of peace promised many times by the
prophets (Is 54:10, cfr. Is 11:7-8, Hos. 2:18) will finally be made. Then the sheep will not
have anything to fear from evil beasts, they will sleep in peace, and they will have blessings
and abundance, no enemy nation will disturb them, no slave chains (Hos. 2:22, Joel 3:18, Am
9:13-14, Zech. 8:12). Yahweh will live with them and they will be his people.
There will be one flock and one shepherd. As in the Davidic time, in the messianic
period the two kingdoms of the north (= Joseph) and the south (= Judah) will rediscover their
ideal unity under one shepherd for good (cfr. Amos 9:11, Hos. 2:2, 3:5, Is 11:13, Mic. 2:12).
This shepherd will be the new David, servant of God, charismatic king and “prince” (cfr. Is
9:6, 11:1, Jer 23:5, 33:15), the only king of Israel; the holy people of God.
This new people, contrary to the old stiff-necked people, will not involve in idolatry to
profane the holiness of God, will not make themselves unclean with impure cults, but will be
faithful to Yahweh and to sacred purity. Governed by the new David, this new people will be
obedient to the new order, and will thus be worthy to live in the holy land, promised to the
patriarchs and to the first David as a perpetual kingdom (Lk 1:33, Jn 12:34).
Then Yahweh will make a new covenant with this new people, not like the covenant at
Sinai of threats and conditions, but one of peace (34:25, Is 54:10).
All this will happen because Yahweh, “Israel’s sanctifier”, wishes that all the nations,
seeing his miraculous deeds, acknowledge his name and his holiness: “The Lord Yahweh says
this: I am acting not for your sake, House of Israel, but for the sake of my holy name, which
you have profaned among the nations where you have gone. I am going to display the
holiness of my great name, which has been profaned among the nations, which you have
profaned among them. And the nations will know that I am Yahweh -- declares the Lord
Yahweh -- when in you I display my holiness before their eyes.”
For his name, therefore, God has punished Israel and for his name he has saved it.

2. Jesus the Good Shepherd foretold by Ezekiel

Jn 10:10-16 presents Jesus’ role of preaching the kingdom as fulfillment of the prophecy of
Ez .in the following ways;
-Jesus as the good shepherd came so that we may have life and have it abundantly 'Jn.10; 10'
-He never used his authority for his own personal ambition (Lk 4) but for the benefit of his
followers (Jn 10;11)
-He related with men not as a master but as a servant of all (cf. washing of the feet).
- called his followers to a personal relationship with himself and through him with the father
(Jn 10:16)
-His attitude towards men, the 'flock', is that of love and tells men to do the same with each
other 'Jn 13;34'

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 2. New Life for Israel (Ez.36)

Ezekiel promises restoration and renewal to Israel and Judah, which had been ruled by the
enemy.
-God himself will intervene to counter the enemy and will bring back the people, scattered in
exile, to a restored land. The land will be prosperous again.
-the mountains of Israel will be tilled and sown; they will bear fruit for God's people on their
return from exile.
-God is going to increase the population, both human and animal; they will be fertile and
reproduce. They will be populous as they were before.
-The cities now in ruins will be inhabited again and the ruins will be rebuilt.
Yahweh will never again let his people bear the insults and taunts of the nations.
-The house of Israel lived in their own territory but they defiled it with their conduct and
actions. But Yahweh, for the sake of the holiness of his great name which Israel has defiled
before the nations, will bring his people back to their own country, from among the nations
where they have been scattered (11:17, 17:22ff, 20:34.40.41, 28:25, 34:13ff, 36:8.24, .
-Yahweh will cleanse his people of their idol worship. He will put a new heart of flesh
(remove the one of stone) and a new spirit in them so they can respect and practice his laws
(11:19, 18:31, 36:26, 39:29). He will be their God and they will be his people; he will let
himself be consulted again by his people.
-Food will be in plenty; no more famine. Desolate, waste land will be farmed again.

3. The vision of dry bones (Ez . 37:1-14)

Ezekiel was irresistibly transported in ecstasy to the same valley of the vision in 3:22. The
valley was full of bones; the bones were fleshless and completely dry, that is, in a situation of
impossibility to live again. All the same the Lord asks the prophet: “Son of man, can these
bones live?” To which the prophet responds: “You know, Lord Yahweh.”. The prophet is
asked to transmit to the bones the life-giving will of God who wills that they have the vital
breath in them again (Gen. 6:17, 7:22), with the rûah (breath, spirit) and the bāšār (flesh).
Yahweh himself explains the meaning of the vision to Ezekiel. The vision is about the house
of Israel, which like a field of dry bones languishes in exile, without any hope of restoration,
as if Yahweh has abandoned them (cf. 8:12, 33:10ff). On the contrary, Yahweh is there to
open their graves and to lead them triumphantly back to their own country. Then they will
experience God’s omnipotence!

xi. The Theology of Ezekiel

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Ezekiel can be considered as the first dogmatic theologian of the Old Testament. In his book,
in fact, we have an attempt to systematize within the concept of the “holiness of God”, truths
that would seem contradictory among themselves: eg.
-the transcendence and immanency of God
-human will as cause for conversion on the one hand and divine grace on the other
-the principle of solidarity in sin and that of personal responsibility and retribution.
Ezekiel was the first to see in God the harmony of opposites.

1. His vision of God

On the day of his prophetic vocation Ezekiel receives a vision of the Divine. As he turned his
eyes to the highest northern regions, the Sāfôn, ordinary residence of the Babylonian gods,
the heavens opened and he saw “visions from God” (1:1b). In the verses that follow, Ezekiel
narrates the mystical images he saw. But as he tells us in vs 28b, what he saw was not yet
Yahweh himself, but only the image of his Glory (Kebod - dAbK').
For Ezekiel, as for the whole Bible, Yahweh is the Invisible who is behind all these
images, appearances and figures (cf. the prophet’s words: “like”, “what looked like”). He is
completely other from us. In line with Isaiah for Ezekiel too God should be defined as the
Holy One, or absolute Transcendence, which cannot be completely grasped and is distinct
from all its external manifestations, although it is the unique and exclusive source of these.
Even the Glory, therefore, cannot be identified with the nature of God, it being only a dim
image of him reflected on things and men.
God’s light/Glory radiates in the cosmos and in men’s history.
1. In the cosmos: God’s glory is seen in Ezekiel’s description of the splendid
celestial appearances (1:4) and the four fantastic living creatures ( hayyôt
1:5ff). For the Babylonians, the four creatures represented the four principle
constellations, which according to the astronomers of the time supported the
firmament and governed the rotation of the celestial hemisphere. These
constellations are concretized in a human being, a lion, a bull, and an eagle.
2. In human history: especially the history of the people of God. From God’s
Glory, as seen by Ezekiel in the vision, came out the hand of Yahweh which
gave to the prophet the book of destinies, on which were written:
“lamentations, dirges and cries of grief” against Israel, hardened by sin. The
prophet has to devour it so as to be able “to accuse Jacob of his crime and
Israel of his sin” (Mic 3:8).

2. Sins against divine Sanctity

For Ezekiel all the sins of Israel are offences against the “sanctity of God” and against
his Glory, which was manifested in the cosmos and actualized in history. Israel has
committed two types of sins, therefore:
Sins against the sacredness of God’s creatures became concrete in idolatry, with which
Israel profaned them, thus depriving them of divine splendor and making of them work of

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their own hands. They then knelt before them in worship, and thus separated themselves from
God (Ez. 14).
Sins against history, or against Israel’s election became concrete in Israel’s profanation
of the cult and the sanctuary (5:11) and in their turning a deaf ear to the lessons of sacred
history (Ez. 16, 20, 23: how God has taken close care of them from the beginning).
Ezekiel (37 times in his book) called the first sins of idolatry gillulîm or sacred
adulteries. He called the second sins against history or election tam’ah and halalah or filth
and prostitution (20:30ff.43, 23:7.13.30, 22:26, 23:39; 36:22f).
These were the two groups of sins condemned by Ezekiel’s “rule of sanctity” (Ez. 24:12
- 31:18).

3. History of the Rebellious House

In order to demonstrate Israel’s guilt, Ezekiel makes three historiographical

compositions, depicting in ugly colors all the history of Israel:
1. An allegory of the unfaithful spouse (Ez. 16)
2. An account of Israel’s apostasy (Ez. 20), and
3. An allegory of the shameless sisters: Jerusalem and Samaria (Ez. 23).

Contrary to the other prophets (eg. Amos) who had spoken with nostalgia about the
time of the desert as the ideal time, Ezekiel sees only infidelity, from beginning to end,
without a period of goodness: all was idolatry and adultery.
1. The unfaithful spouse (Israel) is so shameless that she makes appeal to the
merits of fathers (14:12-23); let her turn the pages of her history and she will
discover only demerits therein (16:1-63): she is a useless vine that is only
good for fire (15:1-8). The merits of the fathers (eg. Noah, Daniel, Job) can
only save their owners; that is, the fathers themselves and nobody else.
2. In the past all the history of Israel has been marred with infidelity: in Egypt
(20:5-9), in the desert (20:10-16.17-27), in Canaan (20:28-29), during the
monarchy (20:30ff). During every phase of their history Israel has been
idolatrous (20:7f), they scorned God’s laws and judgments, they followed
idolatrous Canaanite cults and practices (20:30). In spite of this God swears
(20:33) to bring to fulfillment his plans of restoration for Israel (20:30-44). He
will bring to pass the ideal of the desert with a new exodus (Is 11:15-16, Hos.
2:14-16), he will purify every exile with a personal contact (20:35 “face to
face”), with a rigorous judgment (Is 1:25, Mal 3:2), as a shepherd does with
the sheep singly as they come out of the sheepfold (Jer. 33:13, Lev. 27:32).
And this way, having eliminated the rebels and apostates, he will bind the
elect who will be remaining with an eternal pact.
3. This restoration will involve both Jerusalem and Samaria, since both of them
have, in the past, been shameless sisters (Ez. 23), stubborn allies of false gods.

4. Purifying Punishment

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 It was necessary, therefore, for Israel to receive purifying judgment from Yahweh
before the eyes of the nations with which they had sinned: “I shall lead you into the desert of
the nations and there I shall judge you face to face. As I judged your ancestors in the desert
of Egypt, so will I judge you -- declares the Lord Yahweh. I shall make you pass under the
crook, bring you to respect the covenant” (20:35-37). He will purify them like metal in the
fire (22:17ff), like an impure pot on blazing coals (24:10ff).
In order to do this, the Glory of God has to abandon the temple and the bloody city
(10:18f, 11:22ff), so that the sword of divine anger and the fire of God’s fury may
exterminate all the guilty (Ez.21) and purify every filth.
The work of the prophet in all this is (3:16b-21, 33:1-9)
-to be a sign of this “death and resurrection (cfr. Ez. 4)
-to be a vigilant watchman (3:17ff)
-to announce death for the guilty and the nearing sword
-to be a possible instrument of salvation for the converted who listen to him.
In fact, the punishment came, as Ezekiel had prophesied: Jerusalem was taken (33:21),
those who remained in the ruins became victims of the sword, beasts and plague because of
their idolatries and abominations (33:23-29), others were scattered among the nations, they
became object of scorn before their enemies (11:16, 28:25, 34:12.29, 36:7.13-15.30, 37:21).
But salvation also started.

5. Conversion

Talk about conversion began both among those who remained and those who were in
exile. Ezekiel was the main preacher of this (18:32, 33:1-20, 36:31f). Prophets who came
before had also preached conversion, but Ezekiel’s preaching on the subject was new and
original: he no longer addresses his message to an abstract collectivity but to single
individuals with warm exhortations.
He calls his contemporaries to turn their backs to whatever has been evil in their past
history: above all:
-to idolatry, which had profaned God’s sanctity in the cosmos/universe (11:18, 36:29-
32.33-36, 37:23)
-to impurity (36:25.29a.33, 37:23) and wickedness (18:27, 33:14) with which they have
contaminated the same sanctity of God in the history of salvation and in the cult.
-to the perverse ways they have always followed (18:23, 33:9ff, 13:22)
-to the sins and transgressions they have committed (18:20.21.30).

6. Solidarity and Conversion

Ezekiel was the first among the prophets to address the problem of the relation between
the principle of collective solidarity, based on tribal justice, and that religious one of
individualism, based on a personal relationship between God and man. Ezekiel does not
eliminate the first principle, but he harmonises the two: the unjust is punished and the
converted is saved.

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 The principle of solidarity was rooted:
 in nature (vertical solidarity): the Jews felt they were naturally in union as members of
one (natural) society: family, clan, tribe, people.
 in history (horizontal solidarity): the Jews felt united as people of the Covenant
ratified at Sinai.

-Solidarity Rooted in nature:

The Jews believed they have been generated through a line of ancestors (Gen. 5:1.3b,
Heb. 7:10). Affirmations like “We are descended from Abraham”, “Our father is Abraham”
(Jn 8:33.39) are a witness to this belief. Hence, in the whole history of the Jews, genealogy
plays a very important place; it entails a whole (theological) understanding of fatherhood
which leads back to God, the universal Father (Gen. 1:26, 5:1.3, cfr. Lk 3:38). The
genealogical bond, however, is concretised in the patriarch, in the tribal head, in the judge, in
the king: all of whom are considered the chosen ones, the vicars of God (cfr "the God of
Abraham, Isaac, Jacob” – Ex. 3:6, “through David your servant” – 2Kg 8:19). The Jews
therefore believed themselves bound together in a family solidarity (Amos 3:1-2), cemented
by blood ties, such that the nation became a “house” (cfr “house of Israel” in Ez. 11:5 and
elsewhere). Of this house/family past members are a part, not only physically but also as far
as their merits or demerits are concerned. From this understanding emerged the fundamental
dogma of the “merits of the fathers” ( zekōt-‫ۥ‬abōt) and the “merits of the mothers”, which
often turned into magical certainty or presumptuous confidence or false security: God will
under all circumstances spare the nation because of the merits of the fathers/mothers. This
solidarity, however, was also extended to demerits. Hence, God will punish the iniquity of
fathers in their sons (Ex 20:5, Num 14:19, 34:7, Dt 5:9, Jer. 36:31, Ez.16, 21:8) and the
iniquity of leaders in their subjects (Num. 16:27-30, 1 Sam 2:31, 12:10).

-Solidarity Rooted in History

Their gratuitous election by God was another cause of solidarity for the Jews. (Gen
18:19, Wisdom 10:5, cfr. Acts 9:15, Rm 9:11,11:5.7.28). They felt chosen as a people
through their ancestors (Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and Judah) right from the land of Egypt (Ex.
3:15.16, 4:5, etc…, Ex. 2:24.25, 6:5, Lev 26:41ff, Dt 4:31, etc…), in the desert where they
were assisted and instructed (Dt 1:31, 8:5), and above all at Sinai where God offered himself
in a covenant to them: “I am Yahweh your God and you are my people” (Ex. 20:2, cfr. Dt
26:17-19). In this covenant of love Israel rooted her national history, her holy king David and
the eternity of his house (2Sam 7:11.13, 1 Chr 17:10), and her hope in a Messiah (Is 7:14, Lk
1:33). The covenant became foundation for Israel’s feeling of solidarity as:
-special people of God (ie. le’am segullāh Dt 7:6),
-holy (Ex. 19:6, Dt 14:2.21, 26:19, 28:9),
-chosen (Dt4:37, 7:7, etc…),
-a royal priesthood (Ex. 19:6, Is 43:20),
-dwelling and sanctuary of God (Lv. 26:11-13, Ex. 37:26),
-separated from all other peoples (Lv. 20:26)

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 -heirs of the promised land of the holy mountain of Zion (Is 65:9.15.23, 43:20,
pss 105:43, 106:5, Sir 46:1).

According to some critics, only Ezekiel reacted to this Israel’s fundamental dogma of
“national solidarity” by formulating a new and revolutionary principle of individual
responsibility. Before the exile the principle of individual responsibility was never talked of.
Contrary to these affirmations, however, evidence from the Bible itself shows that even
before the exile the Jews, to some degree, knew the principle of individual responsibility.
They had precise awareness of personal guilt (Mic 3:1-4, Amos 8:4-7) and retribution (ps
6:11, 1 Sam 26:23, Ex. 32:33, 2 Sam 3:39, Dt 24:16), with purely personal punishments (1
Sam 2:25, Ex.21:14, 22:18, Num 15:35, Lev 20:9, Gen 4:10-11, 20:3, 38:10) and with
individual rewards (1 Sam 2:30, 26:29, Ex 1:21, Num 14:38, 25:11). With this awareness
spontaneously emerged also the need to confess one’s own personal sins (Num 5:5-7, Gen
42:21, 44:16, Num 22:34, Ex. 10:16, 2 Sam 12:13), according to a personal ethic (Ex
20:12.17, Mic 6:8), and the need for intimate dialogue with God, which expressed itself in:
-faith in God’s providence (1 Sam 25:29, 2Sam 16:10)
-the use of divine names (1 Sam 8:2, etc)
-personal oaths and blessings (1 Sam 1:11.17)
-private spirituality (fasting 2 Sam 12:16f, prayers, sacrifices)
Hence, when Ezekiel pronounces the prophecy on individual responsibility in Ez 18, he
neither creates something new nor eliminates anything of the old. For him too indeed God
was to apply the principle of solidarity, according to Ex. 20:5, to punish Israel (Ez. 16:20,
22:23, 36:16-18, 37:15-28, 43:7-10). The prophet, however, eliminated exaggerated
interpretations of the principle of solidarity, both in good and in evil, and harmonized such
interpretations with the principle of individual responsibility. Collective punishment was to
take place both for the sins of the fathers and, equally, for people’s own sins (Ez. 14:14-23,
Jer. 15:1, 32:17ff, 16:10-23, Lam 5:7.16). In any case, if the people personally convert, upon
the principle of individual responsibility, like all the righteous, they would save themselves
(14:14.20) and would enter to make part of the “remnant of Israel” (Ez. 11:14-21), and
having expiated the past with the exile, would be part of a future covenant with God, rooted
not in the solidarity of the nation any more but in the heart of each individual (Jer 31:29ff).

Emmanuel Musinya Maloba 69

Desterious Augustomay Shikoli 70
Chrysgonius Shinaka 62

*********

Bro. Bruno Wekesa 64

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