electronics

Article
Safe Control of an Autonomous Ship in a Port Based on Ant
Colony Optimization and Linear Matrix Inequalities
Monika Rybczak *,† and Agnieszka Lazarowska *,†

Department of Ship Automation, Gdynia Maritime University, 81-87 Morska St., 81-225 Gdynia, Poland
* Correspondence: m.rybczak@we.umg.edu.pl (M.R.); a.lazarowska@we.umg.edu.pl (A.L.)
† These authors contributed equally to this work.

Abstract: The autonomous operation of a device or a system is one of the many vital tasks that
need to be achieved in many areas of industry. This is also true for maritime transport. This paper
introduces an approach developed in order to achieve the autonomous operation of a ship in a port.
A safe trajectory was calculated with the use of the Ant Colony Optimization (ACO) algorithm. The
ship motion control was based on two controllers: the master overriding trajectory controller (OTC)
and the slave low speed controller based on the Linear Matrix Inequalities (LMI) method. The control
object was the model of a Very Large Crude Carrier Blue Lady. The results of our simulation tests,
which show the safe trajectories calculated by the ACO algorithm and executed by the ship using
the designed controllers (OTC and LMI), are presented in this paper. The results present maneuvers
executed by the Blue Lady ship when at port. The area where the tests were conducted is located
in the Ship Handling, Research and Training Center of the Foundation for Shipping Safety and
Environmental Protection on the Lake Silm in Kamionka, Poland.

Keywords: autonomous ship; ant colony optimization; linear matrix inequalities; ship motion control;
safe navigation

Citation: Rybczak, M.; Lazarowska, A. 1. Introduction

Safe Control of an Autonomous Ship
A device or a system is characterized by its autonomy when it is able to make deci-
in a Port Based on Ant Colony
sions and take actions independently without any external control. Recent advances in the
Optimization and Linear Matrix
Inequalities. Electronics 2024, 13, 3525.
development of methods and algorithms for the autonomous operation of a ship include a
https://doi.org/10.3390/
proposal for a visual–acoustic navigation system for Unmanned Surface Vehicles (USVs)
electronics13173525
maneuvering in port and waterway areas [1] as well as a solution for creating a map of
open water areas using electro-optical sensors and a convolutional neural network [2].
Academic Editors: Luis Pires, Ricardo
Other recent approaches include the development of a navigation system within the AN-
Santos and Joaquim Monteiro
CHOR project. The system proposes routes. It is also equipped with a collision warning
Received: 2 August 2024 system [3]. In [4], the authors introduced Denmark’s first autonomous harbor bus, called
Revised: 26 August 2024 the Greenhoper, by applying the collision and grounding avoidance scheme, which they
Accepted: 28 August 2024 named the Short Horizon Planner (SHP). In [5], a path planning method for a ship called
Published: 5 September 2024 an elastic force contraction algorithm (EFCA) was proposed. The researchers also used
the minimum set method (MSM) in order to remove redundant nodes in the initial path
planned by the EFCA and further optimize the solution.
Other recent path planning methods for ships include a virtual potential field (VPF)-
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors. based method [6,7] and a method based on dynamic time–space network trees for solving
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
encounters with multiple ships [8]. In [9], the authors introduced a dynamic adaptive
This article is an open access article
decision-making method for application in traffic separation scheme (TSS) waters. The
distributed under the terms and
researchers in [10] present a survey of recent path planning methods for Maritime Au-
conditions of the Creative Commons
tonomous Surface Ships (MASS). The above work presents a number of solutions proposed
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
in the literature related to autonomous ship control. The following papers address the
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
autonomous trajectory planning of maritime objects, including a review of various such

Electronics 2024, 13, 3525. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics13173525 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/electronics

Electronics 2024, 13, 3525 2 of 19

methods [11–15]. The reviews presented are broadly developed in terms of research areas,
such as simulations or experiments. They concern a breakdown of autonomous trajectory
methods or calculations related to precision ship control, but also present review research
based on swarm behaviour, among other things.
LMI techniques were applied for solving a large number of control problems like
estimation or stability analysis, formulated as convex problems [16]. In [17] the authors
stated that an LMI solution of the gain assignment for feedback linear time-invariant
systems is well-suited in the design of PID controllers for autopilot functions. Similarly,
the solution was used in the research presented in [18]. The authors of this paper solved
the yaw control problem in a ship’s steering capacity by using a complex fourth-order
Nomoto model. Linear matrix inequality-based robust control was also applied in this
study. The authors improved the tracking ability and robust stability of H∞ control with the
use of an LMI. They proved the robust performance of the control system in the presence
of disturbances and measurement noise. This type of control was also justified for use in
controlling a multidimensional maritime object in [19,20].
In the area of designing controllers for autonomous ships, recent works also include a
human-like constraint–adaptive model predictive control (MPC), with risk-tunable con-
trol barrier functions (CBF), proposed in [21], and a sliding mode control, which was
applied to control the movement at low speeds of a Very Large Crude Carriage (VLCC) in
port maneuvers [22].
This paper introduces an approach applied in order to achieve the autonomous op-
eration of a ship in a port. A safe trajectory is planned with the use of the Ant Colony
Optimization algorithm, considering static navigational obstacles such as the quay, shal-
lows, and buoys. The ship’s movement along the calculated trajectory is carried out with
the use of a master overriding trajectory controller (OTC) and a slave low speed controller,
designed using the Linear Matrix Inequalities (LMI) method.
The main contributions of this paper include:
• The development of a control system for the autonomous operation of a ship in a port,
composed of two controllers: the master overriding trajectory controller and the slave
low speed controller based on Linear Matrix Inequalities;
• The development of a method for safe trajectory planning in a port based on the Ant
Colony Optimization;
• Simulation tests carried out using a model of a Very Large Crude Carrier Blue Lady,
covering maneuvers in the port, located in the Ship Handling, Research and Training
Center of the Foundation for Shipping Safety and Environmental Protection on Lake
Silm in Kamionka, Poland.
The rest of this paper is organized as follows. In Section 2, the control object—the
model of the Blue Lady ship—is described in details. In Section 3, the safe trajectory
planning algorithm based on the Ant Colony Optimization is introduced. The pseudocodes
of different procedures applied in the algorithm are also presented in this section. Section 4
describes the developed multi-dimensional ship control system, composed of the master
overriding trajectory controller (OTC) and the slave low speed controller, designed using
the Linear Matrix Inequalities (LMI). The results of our simulation tests are presented and
discussed in detail in Section 5. The summary of the research and future research directions
are given in the Conclusions Section 6.

2. The Control Object—Ship Blue Lady

This work focuses on trajectories made in a computer simulation. The ship itself is
a simulated model of a training ship called the Blue Lady. Studies of its dynamics and
a lot of research was carried out by several researchers from the Maritime University in
Gdynia. Most importantly, works concerning parameters of the ship [23], kinematics of the
ship [24,25], and the inclusion of the effects of wind on the ship [26,27] were carried out.
The ship model is located in Poland, specifically in Iława Kamionka, where the Foun-
dation for Shipping Safety and Environmental Protection is based. The Foundation is
Electronics 2024, 13, 3525 3 of 19

recommended by IMO as a center that provides training for navigators to improve the
safety of ship navigation in various maneuvering conditions, including in ports. The
training center has seven different ship models at its disposal, including the VLCC-type
tanker training vessel shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Silhouette of the actual training ship in the harbor of Lake Silm in Iława Kamionka.

The research presented in this article is based on simulations and focuses on a control
object, a model of the ship the Blue Lady made at a scale of 1:24 against a real VLCC
(Very Large Crude Carrier) class tanker. The computer simulations of its kinematics and
dynamics were built and presented in [23,28–30]. Parameters of the object, i.e., the training
model of the Blue Lady ship are as follows:
• Length—13.75 m;
• Width—2.38 m;
• Speed—3.1 kn;
The ship’s propulsion system, also called the ship’s control system, is composed of the
following elements:
• The main drive, marked as ng, operating within the range of (−200; +480) rpm;
• The fin rudder, operating in the range of (−35; +35) deg;
• Four thrusters to simulate the operation of the tugs; these are written below:
- Two tunnel thrusters (bow, stern), designated as sstd, sstr, operating in the range
of (−1; +1);
- Two rotary thrusters (bow, stern), designated as ssod, ssor, operating in the ranges of
(0; +1), where the swing angle is in the range of (−120; +120) deg for the bow and
(+60; +300) deg for the stern.
The simulation model of the training vessel the Blue Lady, presented in the works
of [24,31], is based on a 3DOF model. This model allows for the presentation of motion in
three areas without taking into account lateral heel, longitudinal heel, and nuisance when
performing tests on the lake. The dynamic assumptions are of the form

m(u̇ − rv) = XD , (1)

m(v̇ − ru) = YD , (2)
Iz ṙ = ND . (3)
where m represents ship mass, u̇ represents the longitudinal component of velocity, r
represents the rotational component of velocity, v represents the lateral component of
velocity, Iz represents the mass moment of inertia, and the forces XD , YD and moments ND
represent the hydrodynamics and the main propulsion system, the rudder blade, and the
individual propellers of the vessel. With the above assumptions, a block diagram of the
mathematical simulation model of the training vessel the Blue Lady was determined and is
shown in Figure 2.
Electronics 2024, 13, 3525 4 of 19

Figure 2. A general block diagram of the mathematical simulation model of the ship Blue Lady.

According to the principle presented in [23], the set signals on the rudder devices,
such as main propulsion or thrusters, are fed into the block modeling the dynamics of
the individual devices, i.e., the rudder blade, main propulsion, and thrusters, hereinafter
referred to as the allocation system. It should be noted that the reference signals are
components of the input signal vectors for the blocks where the forces and moments
occurring on the right-hand side of the Equations (1)–(3) are calculated. In the presented
scheme, the components of the output vectors from the hull dynamic block and the ship
kinematics model are the values of the three ship velocities, such as:
- Longitudinal velocity: u;
- Lateral velocity: v;
- Rotational velocity: r.
On the other hand, when modeling the ship dynamics, the object had to be linearized
around the operating point for controller synthesis. For the power distribution system, a
conversion had to be made for the three components of the vector:

u = [τx , τy , τp ], (4)

into a vector T of eight propulsion equipment command signals for the main propulsion,
thrusters, and rudder blade. With τx being the desired force in the longitudinal axis of
the vessel, τy being the force in the transverse axis of the vessel, and τp the desired torque.
Once the object identification was performed, the object model was placed in the state
space. Therefore, the state equations of the model together with the output equations are
presented below:
         
x˙1 auu 0 0 x1 buu 0 0 τx
 x˙2  =  0 avv avr  ·  x2  +  0 bvv bvr  ·  τy  (5)
x˙3 aru arv arr x3 bru brv brr τp
     
u 1 0 0 x1
 v  = 0 1 0 · x2 
  (6)
r 0 0 1 x3
Electronics 2024, 13, 3525 5 of 19

where auu to brr is the averaged numerical values of the Blue Lady ship model coefficients
obtained during object identification, which are shown below and recorded in matrices A,
B, C and D:
−3.36 · 10−5
 
0 0
A= 0 −9.0 · 10−3 −2.0 · 10−4  (7)
−3.0 · 10 − 3 −1.0 · 10−2 −7.75 · 10−3 ,

3.62 · 10−3
 
0 0
B= 0 2.06 · 10−3 −1.28 · 10−5  (8)
3.00 · 10 − 5 1.15 · 10 − 5 −
8.00 · 10 , 3

   
1 0 0 0 0 0
C = 0 1 0, D = 0 0 0. (9)
0 0 1 0 0 0
These were presented in papers describing the object Blue Lady [24,31]. The non-linear
control object finally has a form represented in terms of the state variables proposed in
Equations (5) and (6), where the simulation model was created in a Matlab and Simulink
environment based on, among other things, the s-function. On the other hand, the ship’s
hull model was created in the Simulink environment in a library called ‘Simulink 3D
Animation/Virtual Reality’, as presented in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Simplified hull model of the training ship Blue Lady made in the Simulink environment
based on the Simulink 3D Animation/Virtual Reality library.

3. Safe Trajectory Planning Based on Ant Colony Optimization Algorithm

A pseudocode of an algorithm used for calculating the ship’s safe trajectory in the
port, based on the Ant Colony Optimization (ACO), is shown as Algorithm 1.
ACO is one of the most popular Swarm Intelligence (SI) methods. The term Swarm
Intelligence was introduced by Beni and Wang [32] in relation to cellular robotic systems.
Bonabeau, Dorigo, and Theraulaz defined SI as any attempt to build an algorithm inspired
by the collective behavior of insect colonies or other animal communities [33].
The insect colony, e.g., an ant colony, can be regarded as a decentralized problem-
solving system, composed of many relatively simple individuals interacting with each other,
characterized by self-organization, flexibility, and robustness. The flexibility of a colony
allows it to adapt to changing environments. The robustness means that a colony continues
to function even if some individuals do not fulfill their tasks. Insect colonies can solve
problems such as finding food or building or expanding the nest by effectively dividing the
work between individuals. Many of these problems have their equivalents in engineering
and computer science.Observations of insect colony behavior and the discovery of factors
influencing their functioning have enabled the application of this knowledge in the field of
intelligent system design.
Electronics 2024, 13, 3525 6 of 19

Algorithm 1 A pseudocode of the ACO-based algorithm for ship’s safe trajectory

planning in the port
1: DO:
2: Receive data concerning static navigational constraints.
3: Build a graph of possible ship’s waypoints.
4: Receive data concerning current ship’s position and course.
5: Initialize ACO parameters.
6: for it = 1; it <= max_it; it++ do
7: Build solution by artificial ants.
8: Update pheromone trail.
9: Trajectory smoothing procedure.
10: end for
11: Present the shortest safe trajectory path_best in a graphical and numerical form.

Observation of ant colonies allowed us to find out that ants communicate with each
other and with their surroundings using a chemical substance they secrete. This chemi-
cal substance is called a pheromone. Ants transmit information to other ants using the
pheromone trail they leave on the ground. Ants leave pheromone trails along the path they
travel between the nest and the food source. In this way the ants show others individuals
in the colony a way to the food source. This kind of indirect communication, in which an
individual’s behavior modifies the environment, which is what influences the behavior of
another individual in the colony, is called stigmergy.
ACO uses a positive feedback mechanism based on ant colonies’ behavior of leaving
and following pheromone trails.. This mechanism is based on strengthening parts of good
solutions or strengthening good solutions as a whole. For this purpose, the so-called virtual
pheromone trail is applied. With the use of this mechanism good solutions are stored in the
memory, so they can be used to obtain better solutions in the future.
However, reinforcing good but not optimal solutions can lead to premature conver-
gence of the algorithm to a local minimum, resulting in what is known as stagnation.
To prevent this, a negative feedback mechanism also needs to be applied, known as
pheromone evaporation.
The first proposed ACO algorithm was the Ant System (AS). Initially, three versions
of AS were proposed: the ant-density algorithm, the ant-quantity algorithm, and the ant-
cycle algorithm. In the first two versions, ants update their pheromone trail directly after
movement. In the ant-cycle algorithm the pheromone trail is updated after all ants in a
given iteration have finished their movement. This version of AS was the inspiration for the
development of the algorithm presented in this work for a ship’s safe trajectory calculation.
More information concerning ACO can be found in [34,35].
In the process of planning a ship’s safe trajectory, an optimization algorithm calculates
the safe trajectory P from the current position of the ship (wp0 ) to the defined final position
(wpe ), as defined by Equation (10). Every waypoint is defined using the coordinates of the
ship’s position (x and y) and the ship’s course ψ. Algorithm 2 shows a pseudocode for the
procedure applied to the algorithm for building a graph representing possible waypoints
of the ship’s path.

P = {wp0 = [ x0 , y0 , ψ0 ], wp1 = [...], ..., wpe = [ xe , ye , ψe ]} (10)

In calculating a safe trajectory for a ship in the port, static navigational constraints
such as waterfront areas, shallows, and buoys must be considered. These restrictions are
modeled in the form of polygons.
Electronics 2024, 13, 3525 7 of 19

Algorithm 2 A pseudocode of an algorithm for building a graph of possible waypoints

of the ship’s path
1: DO:
2: Create a graph of possible waypoints of the ship’s path with assumed step size.
3: Place static navigational constrains on the graph.
4: for j = 1; j <= number_o f _obstacles; j++ do
5: for n = 1; n <= number_o f _possible_waypoints; n++ do
6: if Waypoint n exceeds the constraints (is placed inside or on an edge of an obstacle)
then
7: Save waypoint n on the list of waypoints exceeding the constraints.
8: end if
9: end for
10: end for
11: Remove waypoints exceeding the constraints from the graph.

3.1. ACO Data Initialization

The following ACO algorithm parameters are defined in the data initialization procedure:
• Initial value of the pheromone trail τ0 on all possible waypoints (vertices) on
the graph;
• α and β, applied in the formula for calculating the probability of the next ant’s move;
• The pheromone evaporation rate (0 < ρ <= 1);
• Maximum number of ants—max_ants;
• Maximum number of ant’s steps—max_steps;
• Number of iterations—max_it.

3.2. ACO Algorithm Procedure

Every ant starts constructing its path from the starting waypoint (vertex) wp0 with
coordinates (x0 , y0 ), which is the current position of the ship.
Then, every ant constructs its path until it reaches the final waypoint wpe with coordi-
nates (xe , ye ) or reaches a specified maximum number of steps max_steps. At every step,
the ant chooses an action using the action choice rule. It probabilistically selects the next
waypoint (vertex of the graph) among neighboring waypoints (vertices). The choice of the
next waypoint (vertex) depends on the amount of the pheromone trail τj (t) on vertex j
adjacent to the current vertex i and on some heuristic information ηij . In the developed al-
gorithm visibility was applied as an inverse of the distance between the current vertex i and
the neighboring vertex j. The probabilistic selection of the next vertex works analogously
to the roulette wheel selection procedure used in evolutionary algorithms [36].
This process is composed of the following stages:
1. Summing the probabilities of selecting neighboring waypoints (vertices) sum p ;
2. Drawing a random number r from the range [0; sum p ];
3. Traversing subsequent adjacent vertices until the sum of probabilities of selecting the
vertices visited so far will be greater than or equal to r; meeting this condition means
selecting a given vertex.
In the formula for calculating the next vertex selection probability (Equation (11)) there
are two coefficients. If coefficient α = 0, it is most likely to select the nearest neighboring
vertex, if β = 0, only pheromone reinforcement effects are seen, which results in rather
unsatisfactory solutions.

ant
[τwp j (t)]α · [ηwpij ] β
Pwp (t) = (11)
ij
∑l ∈wpant [τwpl (t)]α · [ηwpil ] β
i
Electronics 2024, 13, 3525 8 of 19

Algorithm 3 shows a pseudocode for the solution construction procedure, and

Algorithm 4 shows a pseudocode for the action choice rule procedure.

Algorithm 3 A pseudocode of an algorithm implementing the solution

construction procedure
1: for ant = 1; ant <= max_ants; ant++ do
2: for step = 1; step <= max_steps; step++ do
3: if wpi is not equal to wpe then
4: Execute the action choice rule.
5: end if
6: end for
7: if wpi is equal to wpe then
8: Save the ant’s path.
9: Calculate the ant’s path length.
10: if Ant’s path length is shorter than the shortest path then
11: Save ant’s path length as the shortest path length.
12: end if
13: end if
14: end for

Algorithm 4 A pseudocode of an algorithm implementing the action choice rule procedure

1: DO:
2: Initialize sum_p = 0.
3: for j = 1; j <= number_o f _neighboring_vertices; j++ do
4: Sum the probabilities of selecting neighboring waypoints (vertices).
5: end for
6: Draw a random number r from the range [0; sum_p].
7: for j = 1; j <= number_o f _neighboring_vertices; j++ do
8: Calculate the probability of visiting the next neighboring vertex.
9: if The sum the probabilities of selecting the vertices visited so far >= r then
10: Choose the currently considered vertex and end the action choice rule.
11: end if
12: end for

max_ants
τwp j (t + 1) = (1 − ρ) · τwp j (t) + ∑ ant
∆τwp j
(t) (12)
ant=1

3.3. Updating of the Pheromone Trail

When all of the ants in a given iteration of the algorithm have finished constructing
theirs paths, the process of updating the pheromone trail is carried out, which is composed
of two stages, defined by Equation (12).
1. In the first stage, the pheromone evaporation procedure is implemented. It involves
reducing the pheromone trail amount on all vertices of the graph by a certain constant
value. The pheromone evaporation is a mechanism that allows the ants to “forget”
their bad decisions.
2. In the second stage, the pheromone deposit is carried out, during which a certain
value of the pheromone trail is added to all vertices belonging to the paths constructed
by ants in a given iteration. Thanks to this mechanism, vertices that constitute parts of
the paths chosen by many ants, and which are part of the shortest paths, receive more
pheromone trails and thus the probability of their selection by ants in subsequent
iterations increases.
Algorithm 5 shows a pseudocode for the pheromone trail update procedure, composed
of the pheromone trail evaporation (the first part of Equation (12)) and the pheromone trail
deposit (the second part of Equation (12)).
Electronics 2024, 13, 3525 9 of 19

Algorithm 5 A pseudocode of an algorithm implementing the pheromone trail

update procedure
1: for j = 1; j <= number_o f _vertices; j++ do
2: Reduce the pheromone trail amount on all vertices of the graph by a certain constant
value.
3: end for
4: for ant = 1; ant <= max_ants; ant++ do
5: for j = 1; j <= number_o f _vertices; j++ do
6: if j is a part of the path of the currently considered ant then
7: Add a certain value of the pheromone trail to vertex j.
8: end if
9: end for
10: end for

Before starting the next iteration of calculations, the shortest path found so far is saved.
Afterwards, the process of smoothing out the best path determined in a given iteration is
carried out. The trajectory smoothing procedure removes unnecessary vertices, further
optimizing the path found by the ants. The details of this procedure are presented in
Algorithm 6. It is based on evaluating the possibility of connecting two waypoints of the
path, marked as p1 and p2 , omitting that an intermediate waypoints exists when it does
not cause a collision with any of the line segments, marked as (p3 ,p4 ), constituting edges of
obstacles occurring in the navigational environment. When the currently considered line
segment (p1 ,p2 ) of an optimized path does not intersect with any edge of any navigational
obstacle, then the possible path is saved. Such a procedure is repeated until no more
reductions are possible in the safe path.

Algorithm 6 A pseudocode of an algorithm implementing the trajectory

smoothing procedure
1: for i = 1; i <= number_o f _waypoints; i++ do
2: if The number of waypoints is greater than 3 then
3: Assign point p1 as the waypoint i and point p2 as the waypoint i+2.
4: for obs = 1; obs <= number_o f _obstacles; obs++ do
5: for j = 1; j <= number_o f _obstacle_vertices; j++ do
6: Assign point p3 as the obstacle vertex i and point p4 as the obstacle vertex i+1.
7: if The line segment (p1 , p2 ) intersect the line segment (p3 , p4 ) then
8: Stop checking the possibility of connecting the points p1 and p2 .
9: Do not connect the points p1 and p2 .
10: else
11: Continue checking the possible intersection between the line segment
(p1 , p2 ) and another line segment constituting an edge of the currently
considered obstacle.
12: end if
13: end for
14: end for
15: Connect the points p1 and p2 , and save new optimized trajectory.
16: end if
17: end for

The termination condition of the algorithm is the maximum number of iterations and
the best solution is the shortest trajectory.
Electronics 2024, 13, 3525 10 of 19

4. Multivariable Ship Control

4.1. Slave Controller—LMI
Multidimensional ship control is complicated insofar as it concerns the control of
several channels simultaneously. It must be assumed that the object matrix A satisfies the
derivative relation of the state variable as written below:
dx (t)
= Ax (t) = ẋ = Ax (13)
dt
When considering the ship model object described earlier, the first step is to verify
that the system is stable. It is necessary to find a matrix Xx that is symmetric and positively
defined for the inequality shown below:

AT Xx + Xx A < 0 (14)

whereby matrix A is the main matrix of the linear system under study (linearized ship
model) and matrix Xx is the search matrix and positively defined, which means that:

X x = X Tx , X x ≻ 0 (15)

The search for the X x matrix is called the existence problem [16,37]. The multidimensional
LMI controller is described in [29,38]. In a simplified manner, the condition for the search
for the stability of the system considering the pole position areas in the left half-plane of
the composite variables will be presented below. During the synthesis of the controller,
pi
the area of the vertical chord and the cone of the dilation angle 4 were chosen, where the
vertical chords were placed on the axis of the composite variables a1 = −0.6, a2 = −4.5.
This is how the region of the sector with a dilation angle of ψ was obtained, assuming that
Re(s) = x, Im(s) = y, then the condition is:
n o
Z1 = s; y2 < x2 tg(ψ), xtg(ψ) < 0 , (16)

The vertical strip is defined as follows:

 
1
Z2 = s; a1 < (s + s̄) < a2 , (17)
2

After taking into account the constraints in the drawing (Figure 4):

pi
Figure 4. Zone is a sector with an angle of ϕ = 4 and two vertical strips a1 = −0.6 and a2 = −4.5.
Electronics 2024, 13, 3525 11 of 19

The author has assumed that L = 0,

 
sin(ψ) cos(ψ)
M= ≺0 (18)
−cos(ψ) sin(ψ)

Finally, a symmetric and positively defined matrix Xxzone is sought, in which case the first
condition of the LMI has the following form:

Zzone (A,Xxzone ) = L ⊗ Xxzone + M ⊗ (AXxzone ) + MT ⊗ (AXxzone ) T ≺ 0 (19)

is satisfied if and only if there is a symmetric and positively defined matrix Xxzone , where
A is the matrix of the ship the Blue Lady; Xxzone is the symmetric and positively defined
matrix that is the sought after Laypunov; and L,M is the corresponding matrices, which
have been defined by the user. Assuming that matrices A and B are the matrices of a closed
system search for a system of equations, the state space has the following form:

ẋ = (A + BK) x (20)

is sought for the controller matrix K, computed after transforming [29,31] as follows:

Kzone = Yzone · Xx− 1

zone (21)
In the further synthesis of the controller, the norm H∞ needed to determine the control
criterion in the case of overshooting is taken into account. It relates to minimizing the scalar
value of γ∞ , i.e., finding the smallest scalar value, and estimates the norm from above.
Based on the Ricatti equation (algebraic inequality proof in [16,37]):

(Xx∞ A + AT Xx∞ + CT C) + (Xx∞ B + CT D)(γ∞

2
I − DT D)−1 (BT Xx∞ + DT C) ≺ 0 (22)

using the correlation 5.18 in [16]:

2
γ∞ I − DT D ≺ 0 (23)

In the literature, there are three possible conditions for the H∞ norm in this example study
based on Theorem 5.4 according to [37]

AXx∞ + Xx∞ AT XCT

 
B
 BT 2 I
− γ∞ DT  ≺ 0, (24)
CXx D −I

For the condition for the norm of H∞ presented in this way, the synthesis problem of
the regulator K∞ is defined as follows.

K∞ = Y∞ · Xx−
∞
1
(25)
where Matrix X∞ is symmetric and positively defined, see relation (15). Finally, it is assumed
according to statement [37]:
Xx = Xxzone = Xx∞ (26)
assuming that all Lyapunov matrices are equal in all variants and that both conditions
are treated as a single constraint allows the state regulator to be synthesized. Algorithm 7
presents a pseudocode for the determination of the matrix K using the LMI method. In this
case, the state regulator matrix K is described according to the assumption:

K = Xx−1 · Y (27)
Electronics 2024, 13, 3525 12 of 19

After the above steps, finally, the content of the state regulator matrix is as follows:
 
1812.7 0.1000 0.1000 −840.500 −0.000 0.100
K = −0.100
 1981.7 −0.430 0.000 −979.8 0.210  (28)
−7.000 −0.330 518.300 0.360 0.170 −255.7

Algorithm 7 A pseudocode of an algorithm implementing the LMI control

1: DO:
2: Input the ship model Blue Lady matrix A,B,C,D.
3: The first condition of the LMI is satisfied only if there is a symmetric and positively
defined matrix Xxzone .
4: for gam = 1; gam <= max_gamma[0......1]; gam++ do
5: Solutions give Pareto resolution.
6: F = [ Fzone, kron( L, Xxzone) + kron( M, AXxzone) + kron( M′ , AXxzone′ ) <= 0].
7: F = [ F, [ AXxin f + Xxin f A′ BXxC ′ ; B′ − gam2 ∗ 1D ′ ; CXD − gam ∗ 1] <= 0].
8: end for
9: The second condition of the LMI is satisfied only if there is a symmetric and positively
defined matrix Xin f .
10: Compare Kzone =Kin f .
11: Solution K matrix is: K = ( Xx )−1 ∗ Y.

4.2. Master Controller—Overriding Trajectory

Another multidimensional controller is the ship trajectory controller. The general
concept is given in [38]. The general scheme of the controllers is shown below in Figure 5.

Figure 5. A concept of operation for two OTC controllers—the overriding trajectory and the LMI
controller. In addition, the diagram includes system components such as the power distribution
system, electric propulsion systems, and KF Kalmann filter system.

The trajectory coordinates X0 , Y0 , ψ0 are calculated as functions of s on the setpoints for

longitudinal velocity u, transverse velocity v, and angular velocity r. Due to the extensive
nature of the issues not covered in this work, detailed information on this subject can be
found in [23,29].

5. Results
This work involved the synthesis of an LMI controller for the non-linear ship model
Blue Lady and the verification of the ACO algorithm. In order to verify the results, three
different scenarios for the ship’s trajectory were presented and tests were carried out at
low speeds in the port. The computer simulations were performed in Matlab and Simulink
2023b environments. The Yalmip [39] and SeDuMi [40] libraries were used during the state
controller synthesis.
The following values for the ACO algorithm’s parameters were applied in the simulation
tests: α = 0.5, β = 0.5, τ0 = 0.001, ρ = 0.5, max_ants = 300, max_steps = 500 and max_it = 20.
Figures 6–8 present a comparison of trajectories calculated using the ACO-based
algorithm with trajectories executed by the Blue Lady ship model using the developed
Electronics 2024, 13, 3525 13 of 19

controllers. The areas filled with black represent the static navigational obstacles, such as
the quay of the port on Lake Silm and the buoys, which are modeled as rectangles. The area
marked using white is the lake area, where the ship model can realize its movement.
The executed trajectory also relates to the verification of the LMI controller’s operation;
hence, the graph below presents three values in Figure 9 of the set and regulated resting
velocities for longitudinal u, lateral v, and rotational velocity r.

Figure 6. Scenario I—blue represents the trajectory set by the ACO, green represents the trajectory
made by the vessel based on LMI control. In addition, start points wp0 and end points wpe are marked
by six points.

Figure 7. Scenario II—blue represents the trajectory set by the ACO, green represents the trajectory
made by the ship model based on LMI control. In addition, start points wp0 and end points wpe are
marked by four points.
Electronics 2024, 13, 3525 14 of 19

Figure 8. Scenario III—blue represents the trajectory set by the ACO, green represents the trajectory
made by the ship model based on LMI control. In addition, start points wp0 and end points wpe are
marked by five points.

Figure 9. Scenario I—the blue colour represents the values of the velocity targets (output signals of
the trajectory controller) and the black colour represents the values of the LMI control signal.

As can be seen in Figures 6–8, the three scenarios differ in the initial waypoint of the
path, marked as wpe . Every scenario also differs in the details concerning the navigational
environment. The difference lies in the placement of small rectangular obstacles, which
model buoys. For every scenario they are placed differently in order to ensure a proper safe
distance of the vessel from the quay during maneuvering. The assumed initial and final
waypoints and the placement of the buoys influence the complexity and effectiveness of
the algorithm. In all scenarios, the algorithm was able to calculate a safe, optimized path.
The direction along the vertical axis towards the top of the figure is assumed to be
0 degrees. The value of the ship’s course at the consecutive line segments composing the
safe path were calculated regarding the above-mentioned assumption and the positions of
the consecutive waypoints of the safe path calculated by the ACO algorithm.
Electronics 2024, 13, 3525 15 of 19

The trajectory calculated in the first test case, presented in Figure 6, is composed of
seven waypoints. The solution had to consider a part of the quay area and two buoys. The
following course values were determined for the ship in this situation: 127, 135, 180, 256,
297, and 34 degrees. Figure 9 shows the control signals during the execution of the planned
maneuvers for this test case. The blue dashed lines represent the outputs of the Overriding
Trajectory Controller and the black lines represent the control signal determined by the
LMI controller.
The trajectory calculated in the second test case, presented in Figure 7, is composed of
four waypoints. The solution also had to consider a part of the quay area and two buoys,
but in a different location than in the first test case. The following course values were
determined for the ship in this situation: 217, 151, and 37 degrees. Figure 10 shows the
control signals achieved during the execution of the planned maneuvers for this test case.

Figure 10. Scenario II—the blue colour represents the values of the velocity targets (output signals of
the trajectory controller) and the black colour represents the values of the LMI control signal.

Figure 8 shows the trajectory calculated by the ACO-based algorithm for the third test
case. This solution is composed of five waypoints. The safe trajectory also had to consider a
part of the quay area and two buoys. The following course values were determined for the
ship in this situation: 304, 288, 338, and 45 degrees. Figure 11 presents the control signals
reached during the execution of the planned maneuvers for this test case.
The ship effectively executed the determined trajectories using the designed con-
trollers, what can be observed in Figures 6–8. These figures present comparisons between
calculated and executed trajectories, which confirm the successful implementation of the
developed methods.
Research on the LMI controller, conducted over several years, focuses on the parameter
settings of both the pole position on the left half-plane of the s-combined variable and
the influence of the parameters calculated for the optimization of the H2 and H∞ norms
responsible for the energy of the control signal and the deviation of the regulated signal in
relation to the set values.
The synthesis of the controller with the support of LMI tools proves that it is possible
to operate a multidimensional controller for several reference signals without taking into
account cross-coupling, which was proven by presenting the values of the signals of
individual ship speeds. As can be seen in Figures 9–11 in the simulations, a small deviation
from the setpoint has no effect on the maneuver being performed, which is a promising
assumption for carrying out the same simulations in real conditions on Lake Silm in Ilawa.
In none of these examples is there any cross-coupling, and the controller is able to cope
Electronics 2024, 13, 3525 16 of 19

even with changes in trajectory points. For example, in Figure 9, three velocity values had
to be set between 1800 and 2100 s, which did not interfere with the controller and the final
maneuver. A similar property can be observed in Figure 10 in the interval between seconds
(1300 to 1600) and in Figure 11 in the interval between seconds (1000 to 1500).

Figure 11. Scenario III—the blue colour represents the values of the velocity targets (output signals of
the trajectory controller) and the black colour represents the values of the LMI control signal.

The results of the simulations tests presented in Section 5 allow us to state that the
developed ACO-based algorithm calculated a safe trajectory between different waypoints
considering static navigational obstacles. The successful operation of the ACO-based
algorithm does not depend on the placement of the initial (wp0 ) and final waypoints (wpe ).
According to the authors, the use of an LMI controller is justified, especially when
testing maneuvers when in the port, i.e., when steering the vessel at low speeds. Multi-
dimensional control for this type of task, where three setpoints are set, must be precise
and there must be no cross-coupling. Furthermore, the proposed optimization in the LMI
concerns both the control to minimize the deviation of the speed setpoint and the energy
loss needed to perform the maneuver.
In the present study, it was decided to take the research a step further by taking
into account the ant algorithm that predicts the optimal routes for a maneuvering vessel.
This interpretation of the research proved that it is possible to steer a ship autonomously
with respect to the IMO directive described in relation to the Maritime Autonomous
Surface Ship [41].

6. Conclusions
This paper proposed a system for the autonomous operation of MASS or USVs in
a port. It utilized the Ant Colony Optimization algorithm for path planning and Linear
Matrix Inequalities for low speed controller design. An Overriding Trajectory Controller
was also applied in order to achieve the task. The developed concept was confirmed by
simulation tests with the use of a model of a VLCC, the Blue Lady. The results of a few test
cases were presented and discussed.
This paper demonstrates that several design steps are necessary for building au-
tonomous models. Experimental trajectories were created based on the real dimensions of
the Iława Kamionka harbour at the Foundation for Navigation Safety and Environmental
Protection. What is more, the proposed ACO algorithm made it possible to test vessel con-
trol in restricted waters where obstacles are static. Optimization of this trajectory affected
the ability to further control a multidimensional, non-linear object. The master controller
Electronics 2024, 13, 3525 17 of 19

included in the calculation was responsible for converting the trajectory into velocity com-
ponent values. Then, by means of an LMI controller that did not exhibit cross-coupling,
it was possible to control the forces that were applied to the allocation system needed to
control the individual propellers of the ship in order to perform the maneuver.
The proposed approach makes it possible to consider autonomous ship control using
a multi-stage approach consisting of a controller synthesis and autonomously determined
trajectory, which is in line with IMO assumptions, i.e., no human intervention in the
realized ship trajectory (including control of the ship). The ACO, OTC, and LMI algorithms
proposed by the authors have shown that safe autonomous trajectory and autonomous
control of an object in a port is possible.
Future research directions might include real-life experiments on Lake Silm and the
application of other optimization methods in the development of a safe trajectory planning
algorithm and the design of controllers. This phase could be followed by a comparative
analysis of results using different algorithms.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.R. and A.L.; methodology, M.R. and A.L.; software,
M.R. and A.L.; validation, M.R. and A.L.; formal analysis, M.R. and A.L.; investigation, M.R. and
A.L.; resources, M.R. and A.L.; data curation, M.R. and A.L.; writing—original draft preparation, M.R.
and A.L.; writing—review and editing, M.R. and A.L.; visualization, M.R. and A.L.; supervision, M.R.
and A.L.; project administration, M.R. and A.L.; funding acquisition, M.R. and A.L.; All authors have
read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the research projects no. WE/2024/PZ/02 and WE/2024/PZ/03,
of the Electrical Engineering Faculty, Gdynia Maritime University, Poland.
Data Availability Statement: The original contributions presented in the study are included in the
article, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding authors.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Abbreviations
The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:

ACO Ant Colony Optimization

CBF Control Barrier Functions
EFCA Elastic Force Contraction Algorithm
LMI Linear Matrix Inequalities
MASS Maritime Autonomous Surface Ship
MPC Model Predictive Control
MSM Minimum Set Method
OTC Overriding Trajectory Controller
SHP Short Horizon Planner
TSS Traffic Separation Scheme
USV Unmanned Surface Vehicle
VLCC Very Large Crude Carrier
VPF Virtual Potential Field

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