INTRODUCTION TO CONTROL

SYSTEMS
(20A04508)
 UNIT-I
MATHEMATICAL MODELS
OF PHYSICALSYSTEMS
Definition & classification of system
Terminology & structure of feedback
control theory
Analogous systems and Physical system
representation by Differential equations
Block diagram reduction
Signal flow graphs
DEFINITIONS:
To understand the meaning of the control system, first we will
define the system and then we will try to define the control system.
SYSTEM:
A System is a combination of an arrangement of different
physical components which act together as an entire unit to achieve
certain object.
(or)
A system consists of a number of components connected together
to perform a specific function.

Examples:
Every physical object is actually a system. A class room is a
good example of physical system. A room along with the combination of
benches, black board, fans, lighting arrangement etc. Can be called a
class room which act as an elementary system.
CLASSIFICATION OF SYSTEMS:

1. Physical System

2. Ecological System

3. Biological System
CONTROL :
Control means to regulate, to direct or to command.

CONTROL SYSTEM:
An arrangement of different physical elements connected
in such a manner so to regulate, direct or command itself or some other
system is known as Control system.
(or)
In a system when the output quantity is controlled by
varying the input quantity, Then the system is called control system. The
output quantity is called controlled variable or response and input
quantity is called command signal or excitation.

Example:
If Lamp is Switched ON or OFF using a switch, the entire
system can be called a Control system
Fig for Physical system:

Fig for Control system:

TERMINOLOGY :
The additional terms that are necessary to describe the control
system are

Plant or process

Controller
Input

Output

Disturbances
Plant or Process:
The portion of the system which is to be controlled or
regulated is called the plant or process.

Controller:
The element of the system itself or external to the
system which controls the plant or process is called
controller.
Input:
It is an applied signal or external signal applied to a
control system from an external energy source in order to
produce a specified output.
Output:
It is the particular signal of interest or the actual
response obtained from a control system when input is
applied to it.
Disturbances:
Disturbance is a signal which tends to adversely
affect the value of the output of the system.
These are Two types

Internal Disturbance

External Disturbance
Internal Disturbance:
The disturbance is generated with in the system itself
is called Internal Disturbance

External Disturbance:
The disturbance is generated outside the System is
called External Disturbance
CLASSIFICATION OF CONTROL SYSTEMS:
1.Natural Control System:
The biological Systems, Systems inside the human beings are of
natural type.

Examples:
The perspiration system inside the human being is a good ex.
2.Manmade Control System:
The control systems which are designed by the human beings are
called Manmade control systems.

Examples:
Accelerator, braking system.
3.Combinational Control System:
It is the combination of Natural &Manmade control systems
together.
Examples:
Driver driving a vehicle.
4.Time varying and Time In varying Control System:
Time varying control systems are those in which parameters of
the systems are varying with time. It is not depends on whether input and
output are functions of time or not.

Time In varying control systems are those in which parameters of

the systems are not varying with time. Even though the input and
outputs are functions of time.
5.Linear and Non linear Control System:

The control system which satisfies the Superposition principal is

called linear control system. Which does not satisfies the Superposition
principal is called Non linear Control system.
y=-2*u(t)+1
Adhesion Characteristics of Road
5

y(t )  2u(t )  1
0.4
0

Adhesion Coefficient
0.3
-5
y(t)

-10 0.2

-15 0.1

-20
0 2 4 6 8 10 0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
u(t)
Creep

Nonlinear
Linear
6.Continuous Time and Discrete Time Control systems System:
In a continuous time control system all system variables are the
functions of a continuous time variable ‘t’.

x(t)

In discrete time control systems one are more system variables

are known only at certain discrete intervals of time.

X[n]

n
7.Deterministic and Stochastic Control Systems:

The control system is said to be deterministic when its response

to input as well as behaviour to external disturbances is predictable and
repeatable. If such a response is unpredictable system is said to be
Stochastic in nature.
x(t) y(t)

t t

Deterministic
z(t)

t
Stochastic
8.Lumped parameters and Distributed parameter control systems:

The control system that can be described by original differential

equation is called lumped parameter Control system.

d 2x dx
M C  kx
dt 2 dt

The control system that can be described by partial differential

equation is called Distributed parameter Control system.
2
x x  x
f1  f2 g 2
dy dz dz
9.Single input single output(SISO) and Multiple input Multiple
output(MIMO):

The control system having only one input and one output is called
SISO Control system.

The control system have multiple inputs and multiple outputs is

called MIMO Control system.

MIMO Example:

Temp Outputs
Humidity Comparator
Controller Process
Pressure

Measurements
10.Open loop and closed loop system:
Open loop system:
Any physical system which does not automatically correct
the variations in its output is called Open loop system.
Advantages of Open loop control system:
1. Such systems are simple in construction.

2. Such systems are easy from maintenance point of view.

3. Generally these are not troubled with the problems of

stability.

4. Such systems are simple to design and economical.

Disadvantages of Open loop control system:

1. The open loop systems are inaccurate and unreliable.

2. The changes in the output due to external disturbances are not

corrected automatically.
Closed loop system:
Any physical system in which the input is some how
depends on the output or changes in output is called closed loop
control system.
Advantages of Closed loop control system:

1). The closed loop systems are accurate.

2). The closed loop systems are accurate even in the presence of
non-linearities.

3). The sensitivity of the system may be made small to make the
system more stable.

4). The closed loop systems are less affected by noise.

Disadvantages of Closed loop control system:

1). The closed loop systems are complex and costlier.

2). The feedback reduce the overall gain of the system.

3). Stability is a major problem in closed loop system and more

case is need to design a stable closed loop system.
Comparison B/W Open loop and Closed loop control system:

Open Loop Closed Loop

Any change in output has no Change in the output affects the
effect on the input i.e, feedback input which is possible by use of
does not exists. feedback.
Output measurement is not Output measurement is
required for operation of necessary.
system.
Feedback element is absent. Feedback element is present.
Error detection is absent. Error detection is necessary.

It is inaccurate and unreliable. High accurate and reliable.

Comparison B/W Open loop and Closed loop control system:
Open Loop Closed Loop
High sensitive to the Less sensitive to the
Disturbances. Disturbances.

High sensitive to the Less sensitive to the

environmental changes. environmental changes.

Bandwidth is small Bandwidth is large.

Simple to construct and cheap. Complicate to design and hence
costly.

Generally are stable in nature. Stable is the major

consideration while designing.

Highly affected by Reduced effect of

nonlinearities. nonlinearities.
Examples of control system:
Open loop control system:

Traffic Light Controller:

Examples of control system:
Closed loop control system:

Home Heating System:

STRUCTURE OF FEEDBACK CONTROL THEORY:
Essentially the feedback is used to reduce the differences between
reference input r(t)and the controlled output c(t). This difference is called
an error in control systems analysis.

The feedback in control system, not only reduce the error but also
reduces the sensitivity of the system to parameters variations and
unwanted internal and external disturbances.
The parameters variations may varying due to the different
conditions. Such parameter variations affect the system performance.

Hence it is necessary to make the system insensitive to such

parameter variations, as far as possible.
The effect of the parameter variations on the system performance
can be analysed by defining the term sensitivity for the system.
ANALOGOUS SYSTEMS:
Electrical and mechanical systems possess fixed
analogy and there exist similarity between the equilibrium
equations of the two. This allows forming such electrical
systems whose behavioral characteristics are similar to the
given mechanical system. Such systems are known
as Analogous Systems.
PHYSICAL SYSTEM REPRESENTATION BY
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
The set of mathematical equations, describing the
dynamic characteristics of a system is called mathematical model of the
system.

Mechanical Systems

Electrical Systems
MECHANICAL SYSTEMS:
Mechanical Systems are two types

Mechanical Translational Systems

Mechanical Rotational Systems

MECHANICAL TRANSLATIONAL SYSTEMS:
I/P is Force(f) & O/P is Displacement(x)

Mechanical Translational Systems can be obtained by

using three basic elements.

Mass(M)

Dash-pot(B)

Spring(K)
LIST OF SYMBOLS USED IN MECHANICAL
TRANSLATION SYSTEM:
Mass(M):
Dash-pot(B):
Spring(K):
LAPLACE TRANSFORMS FORMULAS:
PROBLEMS ON MATHEMATICAL MODEL:
MECHANICAL ROTATIONAL SYSTEMS:

I/P is Torque(T) & O/P is Angular displacement(θ)

Mechanical Rotational Systems can be obtained by

using three basic elements.

Ideal Rotational Mass(J)

Ideal Dash-pot(B)

Ideal Spring(K)
LIST OF SYMBOLS USED IN MECHANICAL
ROTATIONAL SYSTEM:
Ideal rotational Mass(J):
Ideal Dash-pot(B):
Ideal Spring(K):
PROBLEMS ON MATHEMATICAL MODEL:
BLOCK DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION:
Block diagram:
Pictorial representation of the given system is called Block
diagram.
Block diagram consists of the following elements:

1).Blocks

2).Transfer function of elements shown in side the block.

3).Summing points.

4).Arrows
Advantages of Block diagram:

1).Very simple to construct the block diagram for complicated

systems.

2).The function of individual elements can be visualised from block

diagram.

3).Individual as well as overall performance of the system can be

studied by using transfer function shown in block diagram.

4).Overall closed loop T.F can be easily calculated by using Block

diagram reduction.
Disadvantages of Block diagram:

1).Block diagram does not include any information about the

physical construction of the system.

2).Source of energy is generally not shown in the block diagram. So

number of different block diagrams can be drawn depending upon the
point of view of analysis. So block diagram for given system is not
unique.
Simple or Canonical form of Closed Loop System:
A block diagram in which forward path contains only one block,
feedback path contains only one block, one summing point and one take
off point represents Simple or Canonical form of the Closed Loop
System.

R(s):Laplace of reference input r(t)

C(s):Laplace of controlled output c(t).
E(s):Laplace of error signal e(t).
B(s):Laplace of feedback signal b(t).
G(s):Equivalent forward path transfer function.
H(s): Equivalent feedback path transfer function.
Derivation of T.F of simple or Canonical form of
Closed Loop System:
From the above fig
Derivation of T.F of simple or Canonical form of Closed Loop System:
RULES FOR BLOCK DIAGRAM REDUCTION:
1).Combining the blocks in cascade.

2).Combining the blocks in parallel(or combining feed forward paths)

Rules for Block Diagram Reduction:

3).Moving the branch point ahead of the block.

4).Moving the branch point before the block.

Rules for Block Diagram Reduction:

5).Moving the Summing point ahead of the block.

6).Moving the Summing point before the block.

Rules for Block Diagram Reduction:

7).Interchanging Summing point.

8).Splitting summing point.

Rules for Block Diagram Reduction:

9).Combining summing points.

10).Elimination of feedback loop.

This is for +ve feedback

Problems on Block diagram Reduction:
Reduce the Block diagram shown in below and find the overall
transfer function(C/R).
Problems on Block diagram Reduction:

Step:1 Move the branch point after the block.

Problems on Block diagram Reduction:

Step:2 Eliminating the feedback path. combining blocks in cascade

Step:3 Combining parallel blocks.

Problems on Block diagram Reduction:

Step:4 Combining blocks in cascade.

Problems on Block diagram Reduction:

Using the Block diagram reduction technique find the closed loop
transfer function of the system whose block diagram shown in below.
Problems on Block diagram Reduction:

Step:1Moving the branch point before the block.

Problems on Block diagram Reduction:

Step:2 Combining the blocks in cascade, eliminating parallel blocks and

Moving summing point before the block.
Problems on Block diagram Reduction:

Step:3 Interchanging summing points and modifying branch points.

Problems on Block diagram Reduction:

Step:4 Eliminating the feedback path and combining blocks in cascade.

Step:5 Eliminating the feedback path.

Problems on Block diagram Reduction:

Step:5 Eliminating the feedback path.

Problems on Block diagram Reduction:
Problems on Block diagram Reduction:

Using the Block diagram reduction technique find the transfer

function from each input to the output C for the system shown below.

Step:1 With X(s)=0 And Eliminating the feedback path.

Problems on Block diagram Reduction:

Step:2 Eliminate feedback paths.

Step:3 Cascade serial blocks.

Problems on Block diagram Reduction:

Step:4 Eliminate feedback paths..

Step:5 Cascade serial blocks.

Problems on Block diagram Reduction:

Step:6 With R(s)=0 G1vanishes but minus sign at summing point must
be considered by introducing block of -1.

Step:7 Reduce feedback(minor loops) paths.

Problems on Block diagram Reduction:

Step:8 Cascade series blocks.

Step:9 Reduce the feedback path.

Problems on Block diagram Reduction:

Step:10 Cascade series blocks.

Reduce the following figure using block
diagram reduction technique?
Problems on Block diagram Reduction:
Problems on Block diagram Reduction:
Find the transfer function for the block diagram given below using
block diagram reduction technique. JNTU,April-2004,Set-4
SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH REPRESENTATION:
The graphical representation of the variables of a set of linear
algebraic equations representing the system is called signal flow graph
representation.

Example consider a equation,

V=IR
Where V=Voltage, I= Current & R= Resistance which is parameter of
the system.

This equation Can be representing by signal flow graph is

Properties of Signal flow graph:
1). The signal flow graph is applicable only to linear time invariant
systems.
2). The signal in the system flows along the branches and along the
arrowheads associated with the branches.
3).The signal gets multiplied by the branch gain or branch
transmittance when it travels along it.
Example:
Consider signal flow graph shown

The signal x1 gets multiplied by 4 when it travels along the branch

joining x1 to x2. So that x2=4x1
Properties of Signal flow graph:
4). The values of variable represented by any node is an algebraic
sum of all the signals entering at the node.

Example:
Consider signal flow graph shown

x2=4x1-2x3+3x4
Properties of Signal flow graph:

5). The values of variable represented by any node depends on

signals entering and this value is available to all the branches leaving
from that node as it is.
Example:
Consider signal flow graph shown

x2=5x1-2x3 And

x4=x2, x5=2x2 & x6=3x2.

Terminology used in Signal flow graph:
Consider signal flow graph shown

1).Source Node:
The node having only outgoing branches is known as source or
input node.
Example:
x0 is source node
Terminology used in Signal flow graph:

2).Sink Node:
The node having only incoming branches is known as sink node or
output node.
Example:
x5 is sink node.
3).Chain Node:
A node having incoming and outgoing branches is known as chain
node.
Example:

x1, x2,x3 and x4 are called chain nodes.

Terminology used in Signal flow graph:

4). Self loop:

A feedback loop consisting of only one node is called self loop.
Example:
t33 at x3 is self loop.

5). Path Gain:

The product of branch gains while going through a forward path is
known as path gain.
Example:
Path gain for the path x0 – x1 – x2 – x3 – x4 – x5 is.

1*t12*t23*t34*t45. This can also called Forward path gain.

Terminology used in Signal flow graph:

6). Dummy Node:

If there existing in coming and outgoing branches both at first and
last node representing input and output variables, then as per
definition these can not called source and sink nodes. In such a
cases separate input and output nodes can be created by adding
branches with gain 1.Such nodes are called Dummy nodes.
Example:
Terminology used in Signal flow graph:

7).Non-touching loops:
If there is no node common in between the two or more loops, such
loops are said to be Non-touching loops.

Example:

Two non-touching loops. Three non-touching loops.

Terminology used in Signal flow graph:

Similarly if there is no node common in between a forward path

and a feedback loop, a loop is said to be non-touching to the
forward path.
Example:
Terminology used in Signal flow graph:

8). Loop Gain:

The product of all the gains of the branches forming a loop is called
loop gain. For self loop gain indicated along it is its gain. Generally
such loop gains are denoted by ’L’.
Example:

L1= G2*-H1. L1= 4*-2= -8 & L2= -5.

Methods to Obtain Signal Flow Graph:
 From the System Equations:

1). Represent each variable by a separate node.

2). Use the property that value of the variable
represented by a node is an algebraic sum of all the
signals entering at that node, to simulate the node.
3). Coefficients of the variables in the equations are
to be represented as the branch gain, joining the
nodes in signal flow graph.
4). Show the input and output variables separately
to complete signal flow graph.
Methods to Obtain Signal Flow Graph:

 From the System Equations:

Consider the system equations as say
V1=2Vi+3V2 --------(1)

V2=4V1+5V3+2V2 ---------(2)

V3=5V2+V0 ----------(3)

V0=6V3 ----------(4)

Let output be V0 and input be Vi where V1,V2,V3

are the system variables.
 From the Given Block diagram.
1). Name all the summing points and take off points
in the block diagram.
2). Represent each summing point and take off point
by a separate node in signal flow graph.
3).Connect them by the branches instead of blocks ,
indicating block transfer functions as the gain of the
corresponding branches.

4). Show the input & output nodes separately if

required, to complete signal flow graph.
Example
Mason’s Gain Formula:
In block diagram reduction we are always draw the
reduced blocks for the overall T.F.
But it is time taken process , it required more time to
find out the overall T.F.

In signal flow graph , once S.F.G is obtained, direct

use of one formula leads to the overall system T.F.
This formula is stated by Mason and hence referred
as Mason’s Gain formula.
Mason’s Gain Formula:
This formula can be stated as:

Δ=1-(Sum of individual loop gains)

+(Sum of gain products of all possible combinations of
two non-touching loops)
-(Sum of gains products of all possible combinations of
three non-touching loops)+............
Δk= Δ for that part of the graph which is not touching
kTh forward path.
Examples on Mason’s Gain Formula :
Examples on Mason’s Gain Formula :
Examples on Mason’s Gain Formula :