Electrical Power 3 (EPM 430)

Lecture No.9
12/5/2025

By:
Dr. Naema Mansour
Electrical engineering department, faculty of
engineering, Suez Canal university.

Academic year 2024/2025

Second semester
❖The closed-loop transfer function relating the load change ∆𝑃𝐿 to the frequency
deviation ∆𝝎 is
∆𝝎(𝒔) (𝟏 + 𝝉𝒈 𝒔)(𝟏 + 𝝉𝑻 𝒔)
=
−∆𝑷𝑳 (𝒔) 𝟐𝑯𝒔 + 𝑫 𝟏 + 𝝉𝒈 𝒔 𝟏 + 𝝉𝑻 𝒔 + 𝟏ൗ𝑹
❖The load change is a step input, i.e., −∆𝑃𝐿 𝑠 = ∆𝑃𝐿Τ𝑠 Utilizing the final value theorem,
the steady-state value of ∆𝜔 is
𝟏
∆𝝎𝒔𝒔 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒔∆𝝎 𝒔 = − ∆𝑷𝑳
𝒔→𝟎 𝟏
𝑫+
𝑹

LFC block diagram with input −∆𝑷𝑳 (𝒔) and

output ∆𝝎 𝒔
Example
An isolated power station has the following parameters
▪ Turbine time constant 𝜏 𝑇 = 0.5 sec
▪ Governor time constant 𝜏𝑔 = 0.2 sec
▪ Generator inertia constant H = 5 sec
▪ Governor speed regulation R =0.05 per unit
▪ Nominal frequency of 60 Hz
The load varies by 0.8 percent for a 1 percent change in frequency, i.e., 𝐷 = 0.8.
A sudden load change of 50 MW (∆𝑃𝐿 = 0.2 per unit) occurs. Find the steady-state frequency deviation in Hz.

Solution:-
➢ The closed-loop transfer function of the system
∆𝝎(𝒔) (𝟏 + 𝝉𝒈 𝒔)(𝟏 + 𝝉𝑻 𝒔)
=
−∆𝑷𝑳 (𝒔) 𝟐𝑯𝒔 + 𝑫 𝟏 + 𝝉𝒈 𝒔 𝟏 + 𝝉𝑻 𝒔 + 𝟏ൗ𝑹
∆𝝎(𝒔) (𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟐𝒔)(𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟓𝒔)
=
−∆𝑷𝑳 (𝒔) 𝟏𝟎𝒔 + 𝟎. 𝟖 𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟐𝒔 𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟓𝒔 + 𝟏ൗ𝟎. 𝟎𝟓
➢ The steady-state frequency deviation due to a step input is:
𝟏 𝟏 −𝟎. 𝟐
∆𝝎𝒔𝒔 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒔∆𝝎 𝒔 = − ∆𝑷𝑳 = −𝟎. 𝟐 = = −𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟗𝟔𝒑𝒖
𝒔→𝟎 𝟏 𝟏
𝟎. 𝟖 + ൗ𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 𝟐𝟎. 𝟖
𝑫+
𝑹
➢ Thus, the steady-state frequency deviation in hertz due to the sudden load increase of a 𝟓𝟎𝑴𝑾 load is ∆𝑓 = −0.0096 ∗ 60 = −0.576𝐻𝑧.
➢ The new frequency is equal 𝑓 = 𝑓0 + ∆𝑓 = 60 − 0.576 = 59.424𝐻𝑧
❖The closed-loop transfer function relating the load change ∆𝑷𝑳 to the frequency
deviation ∆𝝎 is
∆𝝎(𝒔) (𝟏 + 𝝉𝒈 𝒔)(𝟏 + 𝝉𝑻 𝒔)
=
−∆𝑷𝑳 (𝒔) 𝟐𝑯𝒔 + 𝑫 𝟏 + 𝝉𝒈 𝒔 𝟏 + 𝝉𝑻 𝒔 + 𝟏ൗ𝑹
❖The load change is a step input, i.e., −∆𝑃𝐿 𝑠 = ∆𝑃𝐿Τ𝑠 Utilizing the final value
theorem, the steady-state value of ∆𝜔 is
𝟏
∆𝝎𝒔𝒔 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒔∆𝝎 𝒔 = − ∆𝑷𝑳
𝒔→𝟎 𝟏
𝑫+
𝑹
❖It is clear that, for the case with no frequency-sensitive load (i.e., with D = 0), the
steady-state deviation in frequency is determined by the governor speed regulation,
∆𝝎𝒔𝒔 = −∆𝑷𝑳 𝑹
❖When several generators with governor speed regulations 𝑹𝟏 , 𝑹𝟐 , … … … . 𝑹𝒏 are
connected to the system, the steady-state deviation in frequency is given by
𝟏
∆𝝎𝒔𝒔 = −∆𝑷𝑳
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑫+ + +⋯
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝒏
Example:-
❖A single area consists of two generating units with governor speed regulation 𝑹𝟏 =
𝟎. 𝟏𝒑𝒖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑹𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝒑𝒖. The units are operating in parallel, sharing 900 MW at
the nominal frequency. 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕𝟏 supplies 𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝑴𝑾 and 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝟐 supplies 𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝑴𝑾 at
𝟔𝟎 𝑯𝒛. The load is increased by 𝟗𝟎𝑴𝑾 (the base power 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑴𝑾).
a) Assume there is no frequency-dependent load, i.e., 𝑫 = 𝟎. Find the steady-
state frequency deviation and the new generation on each unit.
b) The load varies 1.5 percent for every 1 percent change in frequency, i.e.,
𝑫 = 𝟏. 𝟓. Find the steady-state frequency deviation and the new generation on
each unit.

𝟏
∆𝝎𝒔𝒔 = −∆𝑷𝑳
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑫+ + +⋯
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝒏
 ∆𝑷
❖ The damping constant is expressed as a percent change in 𝑫=
load for one percent change in frequency. ∆𝝎
 Automatic generation control
❖If the load on the system is increased, the turbine speed
drops before the governor can adjust the input of the
steam to the new load. As the change in the value of
speed decreases, the error signal becomes smaller, and
the position of the governor fly balls gets closer to the
point required to maintain a constant speed.
❖However, the constant speed will not be the set point,
and there will be an offset. One way to restore the
speed or frequency to its nominal value is to add an
integrator.
❖The integral unit monitors the average error over a
period of time and will overcome the offset. Because
of its ability to return a system to its set point, integral
action is also known as the rest action.
❖ Thus, as the system load changes continuously, the
generation is adjusted automatically to restore the
frequency to the nominal value. This scheme is known
as the automatic generation control (AGC).
❖In an interconnected system consisting of several areas, the role of the
AGC is:-
❖To divide the loads among the system, stations, and generators to
achieve the maximum economy, and correctly control the scheduled
interchanges of tie-line power while maintaining a reasonably
uniform frequency.
❖Implicitly assuming that the system is stable, so the steady-state is
achievable. During large transient disturbances and emergencies, AGC is
by passed and other emergency controls are applied.
❖Firstly, consider the AGC in a single area system.
❖Secondly, AGC in an interconnected power system.
[1]- AGC in a single area system Reference set power ∆𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒇
❖With the primary LFC loop, a change in the
system load will result in a steady state
frequency deviation, depending on the
governor speed regulation and frequency
sensitivity of the load.
❖Restoration of system frequency to nominal
value requires supplementary control action
which adjusts the load reference setpoint
(through the speed-changer motor).
❖ In order to reduce the frequency deviation to AGC for an isolated power system.
zero, we must provide a reset action.
❖The rest action can be achieved by introducing
an integral controller to act on the load
reference setting to change the speed set point.
The integral controller increases the system
type by 1 which forces the final frequency
deviation to zero. The integral controller gain
𝑲𝟏 must be adjusted for a satisfactory transient
response. The equivalent block diagram of AGC for an isolated
power system.
❖The closed-loop transfer function of the control system shown in the figure with only ∆𝑷𝑳 as
input becomes
∆𝝎(𝒔) 𝒔(𝟏 + 𝝉𝒈 𝒔)(𝟏 + 𝝉𝑻 𝒔)
=
−∆𝑷𝑳 (𝒔) 𝒔 𝟐𝑯𝒔 + 𝑫 𝟏 + 𝝉𝒈 𝒔 𝟏 + 𝝉𝑻 𝒔 + 𝑲𝑰 + 𝒔ൗ
𝑹

∆𝝎𝒔𝒔 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒔∆𝝎 𝒔 = 0.0

𝒔→𝟎

❖The function of AGC is to restore the system frequency to the specified nominal value. This is
accomplished by adding a reset or integral control which acts on the load reference settings
of the governors of units. The integral control action ensures zero frequency error in the steady
state.
[2]-AGC in the multi-area system
❖In many cases, a group of generators are closely
coupled internally and swing in unison.
Furthermore, the generator turbines tend to have
the same response characteristics. Such a group
of generators are said be coherent. Then it is
possible to let the 𝑳𝑭𝑪 𝒍𝒐𝒐𝒑 represent the whole
system, which is referred to as a control area.
❖The AGC of a multiarea system can be realized
by studying first the AGC for a two- area system. Two-area system with only primary speed control
Consider two areas represented by an equivalent
generating unit interconnected by a lossless tie line ❖ For a small deviation in the tie-line flow ∆𝑷𝟏𝟐 from
with reactance 𝑿𝒕𝒊𝒆 · Each area is represented by a the nominal value, i.e.,
voltage source behind an equivalent reactance as 𝒅𝑷𝟏𝟐
shown in the figure. During normal operation, the ∆𝑷𝟏𝟐 = ∆𝜹𝟏𝟐 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝜹𝟏𝟐 = 𝜹𝟏𝟐𝟎
real power transferred over the tie line is given by:- 𝒅𝜹 𝟏𝟐
𝑬𝟏 𝑬𝟐 ∆𝑷𝟏𝟐 = 𝑷𝑺 ∆𝜹𝟏𝟐
𝑷𝟏𝟐 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜹𝟏𝟐 ❖ The quantity 𝑷𝑺 is the slope of the power angle
𝑿𝟏𝟐
curve at the initial operating angle 𝜹𝟏𝟐𝟎 = 𝜹𝟏𝟎 −
Where 𝑿𝟏𝟐 = 𝑿𝟏 + 𝑿𝒕𝒊𝒆 + 𝑿𝟐 𝜹 . This was defined as the synchronizing power
𝟐𝟎
coefficient.
𝜹𝟏𝟐 = 𝜹𝟏 − 𝜹𝟐 𝒅𝑷𝟏𝟐 𝑬𝟏 𝑬𝟐
∆𝑷𝑺 = ቚ𝜹 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔∆𝜹𝟏𝟐𝟎
𝒅𝜹𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝑿𝟏𝟐
❖The tie-line power deviation then takes on the ∆𝑷𝟏𝟐 = 𝑷𝑺 ∆𝜹𝟏 − ∆𝜹𝟐
form ∆𝝎
∆𝑷𝟏𝟐 = 𝑷𝑺 (∆𝜹𝟏 − ∆𝜹𝟐 ) ∆𝜹 =
𝒔
❖The tie-line power flow appears as a load 𝑷𝑺
increase in one area and a load decrease in the ∆𝑷𝟏𝟐 (𝒔) = (∆𝝎𝟏 (𝒔) − ∆𝝎𝟐 (𝒔))
𝒔
other area, depending on the direction of the
flow. The direction of flow is dictated by the
phase angle difference; if ∆𝜹𝟏 > ∆𝜹𝟐 , the power
flows from area 1 to area 2.
❖A block diagram representation for the two-area
system with LFC containing only the primary
loop is shown in the figure.
❖Let us consider a load change ∆𝑷𝑳𝟏 in area 1. In
the steady-state, both areas will have the same
steady-state frequency deviation, i.e.,
∆𝝎 = ∆𝝎𝟏 = ∆𝝎𝟐
∆𝑷𝒎𝟏 − ∆𝑷𝟏𝟐 − ∆𝑷𝑳𝟏 = ∆𝝎𝑫𝟏
Two -area system with only primary LFC loop.
∆𝑷𝒎𝟐 + ∆𝑷𝟏𝟐 = ∆𝝎𝑫𝟐
❖The change in mechanical power is determined by the governor speed characteristics, given by:
−∆𝝎
∆𝑷𝒎𝟏 =
𝑹𝟏
−∆𝝎
∆𝑷𝒎𝟐 =
𝑹𝟐
❖Consider the steady-state values following an increase in area 1 load by ∆𝑷𝑳𝟏 . For area 1, we
have
−∆𝝎
∆𝑷𝒎𝟏 − ∆𝑷𝟏𝟐 − ∆𝑷𝑳𝟏 = ∆𝝎𝑫𝟏 − ∆𝑷𝟏𝟐 − ∆𝑷𝑳𝟏 = ∆𝝎𝑫𝟏
𝑹𝟏
and for area 2,
−∆𝝎
∆𝑷𝒎𝟐 + ∆𝑷𝟏𝟐 = ∆𝝎𝑫𝟐 + ∆𝑷𝟏𝟐 = ∆𝝎𝑫𝟐
𝑹𝟐
−∆𝑷𝑳𝟏 −∆𝑷𝑳𝟏
∆𝝎 = ∆𝝎 =
𝟏 𝟏 𝑩𝟏 + 𝑩𝟐
+ 𝑫𝟏 + + 𝑫𝟐
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
𝟏 𝟏
𝑩𝟏 = + 𝑫𝟏 𝑩𝟐 = + 𝑫𝟐
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
❖𝑩𝟏 and 𝑩𝟐 are known as the frequency bias factors. The change in the tie-line power is
𝟏
𝑹𝟐
+𝑫𝟐 ∆𝑷𝑳𝟏 𝑩𝟐
∆𝑷𝟏𝟐 = − 𝟏 𝟏
∆𝑷𝟏𝟐 = (−∆𝑷𝑳𝟏 )
+𝑫𝟏 +(𝑹 +𝑫𝟐 ) 𝑩𝟏 +𝑩𝟐
𝑹𝟏 𝟐
❖Similarly, for a change in area 2 load by ∆𝑷𝑳𝟐 , we have

−∆𝑷𝑳𝟐
∆𝝎 =
𝑩𝟏 + 𝑩𝟐
𝟏
+ 𝑫𝟏 ∆𝑷𝑳𝟐 𝑩𝟏
𝑹𝟏
∆𝑷𝟐𝟏 =− ∆𝑷𝟏𝟐 = −∆𝑷𝟐𝟏 = (∆𝑷𝑳𝟐 )
𝟏 𝟏 𝑩𝟏 + 𝑩𝟐
+ 𝑫 𝟏 + ( + 𝑫𝟐 )
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐

Effect of change in area 1 load

Example
Area 1 2
❖A two-area system connected by a tie line has the
parameters in the table. The units are operating in parallel at Speed 𝑅1 = 0.05pu 𝑅2 = 0.0625pu
the nominal frequency of 𝟔𝟎 𝑯𝒛. A load change of regulation
𝟏𝟖𝟕. 𝟓 𝑴𝑾 occurs in area 1.
Frequency load 𝐷1 = 0.6 𝐷2 = 0.9
❖Determine the new steady-state frequency and the change in
the tie-line flow. coefficient
Solution Inertia constant 𝐻1 = 5 𝐻2 = 4
The per unit load change in area 1 is: Governor time 𝑀𝑉𝐴𝑏1 𝑀𝑉𝐴𝑏2
𝟏𝟖𝟕. 𝟓 constant = 1000𝑀𝑉𝐴 = 1000𝑀𝑉𝐴
∆𝑷𝑳𝟏 = = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟖𝟕𝟓𝒑𝒖
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 Turbine time 𝜏 𝑇1 = 0.5sec 𝜏 𝑇2 = 0.6sec
The per unit steady-state frequency deviation is constant
−∆𝑷𝑳𝟏 Governor time 𝜏𝑔1 = 0.2sec 𝜏𝑔2 = 0.3sec
∆𝝎𝒔𝒔 =
𝟏 𝟏 constant
+ 𝑫𝟏 + ( + 𝑫𝟐 )
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
−𝟎. 𝟏𝟖𝟕𝟓
= = −𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓𝒑𝒖
𝟐𝟎 + 𝟎. 𝟔 + (𝟏𝟔 + 𝟎. 𝟗)
Thus, the steady-state frequency deviation in Hz is:
∆𝒇 = −𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓 ∗ 𝟔𝟎 = −𝟎. 𝟑𝑯𝒛
and the new frequency is 𝒇 = 𝒇𝟎 + ∆𝒇 = 𝟔𝟎 − 𝟎. 𝟑 =
𝟓𝟗. 𝟕𝑯𝒛
The change in mechanical power in each area is
−∆𝝎 −𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟓 −∆𝝎 −𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟓
∆𝑷𝒎𝟏 = =− = 𝟎. 𝟏𝒑𝒖 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝑴𝑾 ∆𝑷𝒎𝟐 = =− = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝒑𝒖 = 𝟖𝟎𝑴𝑾
𝑹𝟏 𝟎.𝟎𝟓 𝑹𝟐 𝟎.𝟎𝟔𝟐𝟓
❖Thus, area 1 increases the generation by 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑴𝑾 and area 2 by 𝟖𝟎 𝑴𝑾 at the new operating frequency of 59.7
Hz.
❖The total change in generation is 𝟏𝟖𝟎 𝑴𝑾, which is 𝟕. 𝟓 𝑴𝑾 less than the 187.5 MW load change because of
the change in the area loads due to frequency drop.
❖The change in the area 1 ∆𝝎𝑫𝟏 = −𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓 ∗ 𝟎. 𝟔 = −𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟑𝒑𝒖 = −𝟑. 𝟎𝑴𝑾
❖And the change in the area 2 load is ∆𝝎𝑫𝟐 = −𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓 ∗ 𝟎. 𝟗 = −𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟒𝟓𝒑𝒖 = −𝟒. 𝟓𝑴𝑾
❖Thus, the change in the total area load is −𝟕. 𝟓 𝑴𝑾.
The tie-line power flow is
𝟏
∆𝑷𝟏𝟐 = ∆𝝎𝒔𝒔 + 𝑫𝟐 = −𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓 𝟏𝟔. 𝟗 = −𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟒𝟓𝒑𝒖 = −𝟖𝟒. 𝟓𝑴𝑾
𝑹𝟐
❖That is, 𝟖𝟒. 𝟓 𝑴𝑾 flows from area 2 to area 1.
❖𝟖𝟎 𝑴𝑾 comes from the increased generation in area 2,
❖𝟒. 𝟓 𝑴𝑾 comes from the reduction in area 2 load due to frequency drop.
❖In the previous example , LFCs were equipped with only the primary control
loop, a change of power in area 1 was met by the increase in generation in
both areas associated with a change in the tie-line power, and a reduction in
frequency. In the normal operating state, the power system is operated so that
the demands of areas are satisfied at the nominal frequency.
Tie-line bias control
The basic objective of supplementary control is to restore balance between each area load and
generation. This is met when the control action is required to :-
1) Keep frequency approximately at the nominal value (50-60Hz).
2) Maintain the tie-line flow at about schedule.
3) Each area should absorb its own load changes.
❖Conventional LFC is based upon tie-line bias control, where each area tends to reduce the area
control error (ACE) to zero. The control error for each area consists of a linear combination of
frequency and tie-line error. 𝒏

𝑨𝑪𝑬𝒊 = ෍ ∆𝑷𝒊𝒋 + 𝑲𝒊 ∆𝝎𝒊

𝒋=𝟏
❖The area bias 𝑲𝒊 determines the amount of interaction during a disturbance in the neighboring
areas. An overall satisfactory performance is achieved when 𝑲𝒊 is selected equal to the frequency
𝟏
bias factor of that area, i.e., 𝑩𝒊 = + 𝑫𝒊 Thus, the ACEs for a two-area system are
𝑹𝒊
𝑨𝑪𝑬𝟏 = ∆𝑷𝟏𝟐 + 𝑩𝟏 ∆𝝎𝟏
𝑨𝑪𝑬𝟐 = ∆𝑷𝟐𝟏 + 𝑩𝟐 ∆𝝎𝟐
❖Where ∆𝑷𝟏𝟐 and ∆𝑷𝟐𝟏 are
achieved from scheduled
interchanges.
❖𝑨𝑪𝑬𝒔 are used as actuating
signals to activate changes in the
reference power set points, and
when steady-state is reached,
∆𝑷𝟏𝟐 and ∆𝜔 will be zero.
❖The block diagram of a simple
AGC for a two-area system is
shown in the figure . We can
easily extend the tie-line bias
control to an n-areas system. AGC block diagram for a two-area system.
 Load frequency control and economic dispatch control

❖An important secondary function of

automatic generation control is to
distribute generation so that each
power source is loaded most
economically. This function is referred
to as economic dispatch control (EDC).
❖The signal to change the speed changer
setting is constructed in accordance with
economic dispatch error equal to,
[𝑷𝒈 𝒅𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒅 − 𝑷𝒈 (𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍)].

Control area load frequency and

economic dispatch control
❖The load frequency control, changes the speed changer setting or the
governors of all generating units of the area so that, together, these units
match the load and the frequency returns to the scheduled value (this action
takes place in a few seconds).
❖However, in the process of this change the loadings of various generating units
change in a manner independent of economic loading consideration.
❖A satisfactory solution is achieved by using independent controls for load
frequency and economic dispatch. While the load frequency controller is a
fast acting control (a few seconds), and regulates the system around an
operating point.
❖The economic dispatch controller is a slow acting control, which adjusts the
speed changer setting every minute (or half a minute) in accordance with a
command signal generated by the central economic dispatch computer.
The system thus operates with economic dispatch error only for very short periods of
time before it is readjusted.