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reloading the page. ACADEMIC YEAR : 2022-2023 PROJECT REPORT ON “PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT” SUBMITTED BY MAIDAM VEDHA VYAS SUBJECT PHYSICS CLASS XII UNDER THE GUIDENCE OF MR. KADIR SIR CERTIFICATE This is to certify that MAIDAM VEDHA VYAS of class XII has completed the project work in PHYSICS in the year
2022-2023 on “PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT” under the guidance of MR.KADIR SIR as prescribed by CBSE course. Internal Examiner School Stamp ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I,MAIDAM VEDHA VYAS, would like to express my sincere gratitude to our physics teacher MR.KADIR SIR for his vital support, guidance and encouragement without which this
project would not have been completed. I also wish to thank K JOHN PUBLIC SCHOOL for allowing us to use the school laboratory. INDEX SL NO DESCRIPTION PAGE NO 1 HISTORY 05 2 WHAT IS PHOTON? 07 3 PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT 08 4 EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP TO STUDY PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT 10 5 EFFECT OF INTENSITY,
FREQUENCY,POTENTIAL ON P.E. CURRENT 11 6 LAWS OF PHOTOELECTRIC EMISSION 15 7 EINSTEIN’S PHOTOELECTRIC EQUATION 16 8 VERIFICATION OF LAWS OF PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT BASED ON EINSTEIN’S PHOTOELECTRIC EQUATION 18 9 APPLICATION OF PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT 19 History of Photoelectric Effect:
Before Albert Einstein explained the matter, several scientists made similar observations but were unable to clarify the concept. In the 1800s, James Clark Maxwell and Hendrik Lorentz resolved that light behaves like a wave. The theory was proven when light waves demonstrated interference, scattering, and diffraction. German physicist Heinrich
Rudolf Hertz discovered the photoelectric effect in 1887, observing sparking between two metal electrodes when shone with ultraviolet light. In 1899, JJ Thompson found that electron ejection occurs on a metal surface hit by ultraviolet light. Philipp Lenard further clarified the connection between electricity and light in 1902. Arthur Compton's
theoretical studies in 1922 proved X-rays could be treated as photons, earning him the Nobel Prize in 1927. Ralph Howard Fowler did similar work in 1931 linking photoelectric currents with metal temperatures. Photons are energy packets that exhibit unique properties. They travel at the speed of light c in vacuum and have zero rest mass, meaning
they cannot exist at rest. Photons also possess kinetic mass m and momentum p, which depend on their frequency ν and wavelength λ. Some key characteristics of photons include: i) Traveling in a straight line, ii) Having zero rest mass, iii) Possessing kinetic mass and momentum that depends on frequency and wavelength, iv) Energy dependent on
frequency, v) Wavelength changing in different media, vi) Velocity different in different media, vii) Being electrically neutral, viii) Showing diffraction under certain conditions, ix) Not deviating by magnetic or electric fields. The photoelectric effect is a phenomenon where electrons are emitted from metal surfaces exposed to light energy of suitable
frequency. This leads to the emission of photoelectrons and a photoelectric current. Characteristics of the photoelectric effect include: i) Threshold frequency varying with material, ii) Photoelectric current directly proportional to light intensity, iii) Kinetic energy of photoelectrons directly proportional to light frequency, iv) Stopping potential directly
proportional to frequency and process instantaneous. Factors affecting the photoelectric effect include: i) Intensity of incident radiation, ii) Potential difference between metal plate and collector, iii) Frequency of incident radiation. The conditions required for the photoelectric effect are that the frequency of incident rays should be very high,
providing energy for electrons to leave their outermost shell. The study of the photoelectric effect has led to a deeper understanding of quantum nature of light and electrons, influencing the concept of wave-particle duality. When all electrons from the photos reach plate A, the current becomes highest and is called saturation current. As the potential
decreases, the current also decreases but never reaches zero even at zero potential. This shows that a few electrons can still reach the plate due to their remaining energy. When a negative potential is applied to plate A relative to C, the photoelectric current becomes zero at a specific negative potential known as stopping potential or cutoff potential.
The intensity of the incident light does not affect the stopping potential. The effect of frequency on photoelectric current is as follows: For a fixed intensity, the current doesn't depend on the frequency of the light because it only depends on the number of electrons emitted and the photons hitting the surface, not their energy. However, for different
frequencies, the current increases with increasing positive potential applied to the anode but reaches saturation at the same level for all frequencies. When the potential is decreased below zero, the current decreases to zero at different stopping potentials for each frequency. The graph of stopping potential versus frequency shows that there's a
minimum frequency threshold below which photoelectric emission isn't possible, regardless of light intensity. This threshold depends on the metal type emitting electrons. The laws of photoelectric emission are: 1. A minimum frequency (threshold frequency) is required for any substance to emit electrons. 2. For frequencies above the threshold, the
current is directly proportional to light intensity. 3. Maximum kinetic energy is directly proportional to frequency, above the threshold. 4. Maximum kinetic energy is independent of light intensity. 5. Photoelectric emission occurs instantly when a suitable photon hits the surface. Einstein's photoelectric equation explains how photons interact with
metal surfaces: When a photon hits the surface, its energy is used in two ways - overcoming the surface barrier (work function) and giving velocity to the emitted electron (maximum kinetic energy). The energy of a photon is directly related to the mass of the emitted photoelectron. According to the law of conservation of energy, the energy of the
photon (hν) can be expressed as: hν = Φ + ½ mv2max = hν0 + ½ mv2max This relationship indicates that the kinetic energy of the photoelectron is directly proportional to the frequency of the incident photon. Therefore, the energy of the photon and the kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectron are connected by the following equation: Ephoton =
Φ + Eelectron ⇒ h = hth + ½mev2 The threshold energy (Φ) is the minimum energy required for the emission of photoelectrons, which is equal to hνth. If the photon's energy is less than the threshold energy, no photoelectrons are emitted (since the attractive forces between nuclei and electrons cannot be overcome). On the other hand, if the
frequency of the photon matches the threshold frequency, an emission of photoelectrons occurs with zero kinetic energy. The Einstein's photoelectric equation further supports these principles: ½ mv2 max = h ( ν - ν0 ) It shows that for photoelectric emission to take place, the frequency of the photon must be greater than the threshold frequency.
Moreover, the number of photoelectrons emitted per second is directly proportional to the intensity of the incident light. The photoelectric effect has various applications in everyday life, including: 1. Automatic fire alarms 2. Automatic burglar alarms 3. Scanners in television transmission 4. Reproduction of sound in cinema films 5. Measuring paper
thickness in the paper industry 6. Locating flaws or holes in finished goods 7. Astronomy 8. Determining opacity of solids and liquids 9. Controlling furnace temperature 10. Photometry 11. Beauty meters for skin complexion measurement 12. Light meters in cinema industries to check light levels 13. Photoelectric sorting 14. Photo counting 15.
Meteorology

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