Power Electronics

Rectifiers
Introduction
● Whenever there arises the need to convert an AC to DC power, a rectifier circuit comes
for the rescue.
● A simple PN junction diode acts as a rectifier.
● The forward biasing and reverse biasing conditions of the diode makes the
rectification.
● An alternating current has the property to change its state continuously.
● This is understood by observing the sine wave by which an alternating current is
indicated.
● It raises in its positive direction goes to a peak positive value, reduces from there to
normal and again goes to negative portion and reaches the negative peak and again
gets back to normal and goes on.
● A rectifier can take the shape of several physical forms such as solid-state diodes,
vacuum tube diodes, mercury-arc valves, silicon-controlled rectifiers, and various other
silicon-based semiconductors switches.
Introduction

● During its journey in the formation of wave, we can observe that the wave
goes in positive and negative directions. Actually it alters completely and
hence the name alternating current.
Introduction
● But during the process of rectification, this alternating current is changed
into direct current DC.
● The wave which flows in both positive and negative direction till then, will
get its direction restricted only to positive direction, when converted to
DC.
● Hence the current is allowed to flow only in positive direction and resisted
in negative direction, just as in the figure below.
Introduction

● The circuit which does rectification is called as a Rectifier circuit.

● A diode is used as a rectifier, to construct a rectifier circuit.
Types of Rectifiers
● Rectifiers are mainly classified into two types as:
○ Uncontrolled Rectifier
○ Controlled Rectifier
Uncontrolled Rectifiers
● The type of rectifier whose voltage cannot be controlled is known as an
uncontrolled rectifier.
● Uncontrolled rectifiers are further divided as follows:
○ Half Wave Rectifier
○ Full Wave Rectifier
Controlled Rectifiers
● A type of rectifier whose voltage can be varied is known as the controlled
rectifier.
● We use SCRs, MOSFETs and IGBTs to make an uncontrolled rectifier a
controlled one.
● These rectifiers are preferred over their uncontrolled counterparts.
● There are two types of controlled rectifiers;
○ Half Wave Controlled Rectifier
○ Full Wave Controlled Rectifier
● Half-wave controlled rectifier has the same design as the half-wave
uncontrolled rectifier except we replace the diode with an SCR.
Half-Wave Rectifier (HWR)
● The name half-wave rectifier itself states that the rectification is done only for
half of the cycle.
● The AC signal is given through an input transformer which steps up or down
according to the usage.
● Mostly a step down transformer is used in rectifier circuits, so as to reduce the
input voltage.
● The input signal given to the transformer is passed through a PN junction diode
which acts as a rectifier.
● This diode converts the AC voltage into pulsating dc for only the positive half
cycles of the input.
● A load resistor is connected at the end of the circuit. The figure below shows the
circuit of a half wave rectifier.
Half-Wave Rectifier (HWR)
Working of a HWR
● The input signal is given to the transformer which reduces the voltage levels.
● The output from the transformer is given to the diode which acts as a rectifier.
● This diode gets ON (conducts) for positive half cycles of input signal.
● Hence a current flows in the circuit and there will be a voltage drop across the
load resistor.
● The diode gets OFF (doesn’t conduct) for negative half cycles and hence the
output for negative half cycles will be, iD=0 and Vo=0
● Hence the output is present for positive half cycles of the input voltage only
(neglecting the reverse leakage current). This output will be pulsating which is
taken across the load resistor.
Waveforms of a HWR

● Hence the output of a half wave rectifier is a pulsating dc.

Analysis of HWR
● To analyze a half-wave rectifier circuit, let us consider the equation of
input voltage.

● Vm is the maximum value of supply voltage.

● Let us assume that the diode is ideal.
○ The resistance in the forward direction, i.e., in the ON state is Rf.
○ The resistance in the reverse direction, i.e., in the OFF state is Rr.
Analysis of HWR
DC Output Current
DC Output Voltage
RMS Current and Voltage
Rectifier Efficiency
Rectifier Efficiency
Ripple Factor
● The rectified output contains some amount of AC component present in
it, in the form of ripples.
● This is understood by observing the output waveform of the half wave
rectifier.
● To get a pure dc, we need to have an idea on this component.
● The ripple factor gives the waviness of the rectified output. It is denoted
by y.
● This can be defined as the ratio of the effective value of ac component of
voltage or current to the direct value or average value.
Ripple Factor
Regulation
● The current through the load may vary depending upon the load
resistance.
● But even at such condition, we expect our output voltage which is taken
across that load resistor, to be constant.
● So, our voltage needs to be regulated even under different load
conditions.
● The variation of D.C. output voltage with change in D.C. load current is
defined as the Regulation.
● The percentage regulation is calculated as follows.
Regulation
Transformer Utilization Factor
Transformer Utilization Factor
Peak Inverse Voltage
● A diode when connected in reverse bias, should be operated under a
controlled level of voltage.
● If that safe voltage is exceeded, the diode gets damaged.
● Hence it is very important to know about that maximum voltage.
● The maximum inverse voltage that the diode can withstand without being
destroyed is called as Peak Inverse Voltage. In short, PIV.
● Here the PIV is nothing but Vm
Form Factor
● This can be understood as the mathematical mean of absolute values of
all points on the waveform.
● The form factor is defined as the ratio of R.M.S. value to the average
value.
● It is denoted by F.
Peak Factor
● The value of peak in the ripple has to be considered to know how effective
the rectification is.
● The value of peak factor is also an important consideration.
● Peak factor is defined as the ratio of peak value to the R.M.S. value.
● Therefore,
Exercise
1. The applied input a.c. power to a half-wave rectifier is 100 watts. The d.c.
output power obtained is 40 watts.
a. What is the rectification efficiency ? (Ans: 40%)
b. What happens to remaining 60 watts ?
Exercise
2. An a.c. supply of 230 V is applied to a half-wave rectifier circuit through a
transformer of turn ratio 10 : 1. Find (i) the output d.c. voltage and (ii) the peak
inverse voltage. Assume the diode to be ideal. (Ans: V dc = 10.36V, PIV = 32.53V)
Exercise
3. A crystal diode having internal resistance rf = 20Ω is used for half-wave
rectification. If the applied voltage v = 50 sin ω t and load resistance RL= 800
Ω, find : (i) Im, Idc, Irms (ii) a.c. power input and d.c. power output (iii) d.c. output
voltage (iv) efficiency of rectification. (Ans: Im = 61mA, Idc = 19.4mA, Irms =
30.5mA, a.c. power input = 0.763 W, d.c. power output = 0.301 W, d.c. output
voltage = 15.52V, efficiency of rectification = 39.5%)
Exercise
4. A half-wave rectifier is used to supply 50V d.c. to a resistive load of 800 Ω.
The diode has a resistance of 25 Ω. Calculate a.c. voltage required. (Ans: 162V)
Full Wave Rectifiers
● Full Wave Rectifier is a diode circuit which is used to transform the
complete cycle of Alternating Voltage (AC Supply) to Direct Voltage (DC
Supply).
● In full wave rectification, current flows through the load in the same
direction for the complete cycle of input AC Supply.
Types of Full Wave Rectifiers
● Centre Tap Full Wave Rectifier
● Full Wave Bridge Rectifier
Centre Tap Full Wave Rectifier
The circuit of centre tap full wave rectifier consists of following main
components:

● Two Diodes
● A centre-tapped transformer
● A load resistance
Working of Centre-Tap FWR Circuit: Positive Half Cycle
● During the positive half cycle of input AC voltage, the end A of secondary
winding becomes positive and the end B negative.
● This makes the diode D1 forward biased (acts as closed switch) and diode
D2 reverse biased (acts as open switch).
● Therefore, current flows through the load (RL) from P to O.
Working of Centre-Tap FWR Circuit: Positive Half Cycle
Working of Centre-Tap FWR Circuit: Negative Half Cycle
● During the negative half cycle of input AC supply, the end B of secondary
winding becomes positive and the end A negative.
● This makes the diode D2 forward biased (acts like closed switch) and the
diode D1 reverse biased (acts as open switch).
● Therefore, the current will flow from B to O through diode D2, load RL and
lower half of the secondary winding.
Working of Centre-Tap FWR Circuit: Negative Half Cycle

● Note that the current through the load is in the same direction for both half
cycles of input AC supply. Hence DC output is obtained across the load.
Output Frequency of Centre – Tap FWR
● The output frequency is twice the input frequency. Since the input supply
is sine wave that repeats every 2π radians.
● The output of FWR is pulsating DC that repeats the same pattern as input
AC twice every 2π radians.
Disadvantages of Centre – Tap FWR
● The diodes must have peak inverse voltage.
● It is difficult to locate centre tap on secondary winding.
Full Wave Bridge Rectifier
The full wave bridge rectifier eliminates the need of centre tapped
transformer. It contains four diodes connected to form bridge:

● Four Diodes
● A step down transformer
● A load resistance
Working of Bridge FWR: Positive Half Cycle
● During positive half cycle, the end A of secondary winding becomes
positive and the end B negative.
● This makes diodes D1 and D3 forward biased (acts like closed switch) and
diodes D2 and D4 reverse biased (acts like open switch).
● The current flows from A to B through diode D1, load RL and diode D3.
Working of Bridge FWR: Positive Half Cycle
Working of Bridge FWR: Negative Half Cycle
● During Negative half cycle, the end A of secondary winding becomes
negative and the end B positive.
● This makes diodes D1 and D3 reverse biased (acts like open switch) and
diodes D2 and D4 forward biased (acts like closed switch).
● The current flows from B to A through diode D2, load RL and diode D4.
Working of Bridge FWR: Negative Half Cycle

● Therefore, the current flows through load RL in the same direction for
both the cycles of input AC supply. Hence, DC output is obtained across
the load.
Advantages of Bridge FWR
● The output is twice that of the centre tap full wave rectifier for the same
secondary voltage.
● No need of centre tapped transformer.
● For same DC output, PIV of full wave bridge rectifier is half that of
Centre-Tap FWR.
Disadvantages of Bridge FWR
● It requires four diodes.
● During each half cycle of AC input, the two diodes that conduct are in
series which causes voltage drop in internal resistance of diodes.
Full Wave Rectifier Waveform
Efficiency of FWR
● The efficiency of FWR is defined as the ration output DC power to the
input AC power.

● The maximum efficiency of Full wave rectifier is 81.2%.

Peak Inverse Voltage of FWR
● The PIV is the maximum voltage that a diode can withstand without
destruction when it is reverse biased.
● For the centre – tap full wave rectifier, the PIV is twice of the maximum
secondary winding voltage.

● For Bridge FWR, the PIV of each diode is equal to the maximum secondary
voltage.
Other Important Formulas
RMS Value of Load Current of FWR

Average Value of Load Current of FWR

Iavg = 2Im/π

RMS Value of Load Voltage of FWR

Other Important Formulas
Average Value of Load Voltage of FWR

DC Output Voltage of FWR

Vdc = IdcRL = IavgRL

Other Important Formulas
Form Factor of FWR

Ripple Factor of FWR: It gives the information about how a FWR can
transform input AC voltage to output DC voltage. It is given by:

The ripple factor for full wave rectifier is 0.482.

Exercise
1. A full-wave rectifier uses two diodes, the internal resistance of each diode
is 20 Ω constant. The transformer r.m.s secondary voltage from the center
tap each end of the secondary is 50 V and load resistance is 980 Ω. Find
the maximum load current. (Solution: 70.7mA)
Exercise
2. In a centre tapped full wave rectifier, the internal resistance of each diode is
10 Ω. The transformer secondary RMS voltage from centre tap to each end of
secondary is 60 V and load resistance is 870 Ω . Find:

● The average load current (Solution: 61.41mA)

● RMS value of load current (Solution: 68.18 mA)
● DC output voltage (Solution: 53.43 V)
● Peak Inverse Voltage (Solution: 169.68 V)
Exercise
3. In a full wave bridge rectifier circuit, each diode have forward resistance of
2Ω and an infinite reverse resistance. The alternating supply voltage is 230 V
RMS and resistive load is 50Ω. Calculate:

● Average load current (Solution: 3.83 A)

● Rectifier Efficiency (Solution: 74.84 %)
Exercise
4. In the bridge type circuit shown in the figure below, the diodes are assumed
to be ideal. Find : (i) d.c. output voltage (ii) peak inverse voltage (iii) output
frequency. Assume primary to secondary turns to be 4. (Ans: V dc = 52V, PIV =
81.3V, fout = 100Hz)
Exercise
5. The four diodes used in a bridge rectifier circuit have forward resistances
which may be considered constant at 1Ω and infinite reverse resistance. The
alternating supply voltage is 240 V r.m.s. and load resistance is 480 Ω.
Calculate (i) mean load current and (ii) power dissipated in each diode. (Ans:
mean load current = 0.45A, power dissipated in each diode = 0.123W)
Reading Assignment
● Read about single-phase and three-phase rectifiers