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The document is a compilation of current affairs for May 2025, covering various topics such as polity and governance, economic scenarios, international relations, social issues, science and technology, environment, history, geography, security, disaster management, and miscellaneous updates. Key highlights include updates on the Press Council of India, NGO regulatory frameworks, and significant social issues like gendered malnutrition and child wellbeing. It also discusses advancements in science and technology, environmental challenges, and India's economic growth.

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May 2

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C urrent A ffairs

C onsolidation

MAY
2025
PART-II

C-171/2, 641, Mukherjee Nagar, 21, Tashkent Marg, Tonk Road, Burlington Arcade Mall, 12, Main AB Road,
Block-A, Opp. Signature Pusa Road, Civil Lines, Vasundhra Colony, Burlington Chauraha, Bhawar Kuan,
Sector-15, View Apartment, Karol Bagh Prayagraj, Jaipur, Vidhan Sabha Marg, Indore,
Noida New Delhi New Delhi Uttar Pradesh Rajasthan Lucknow Madhya Pradesh

E-mail : care@groupdrishti.in Phone: +91-87501-87501

www.drishtiias.com Current Affairs May Part-2, 2025 2

Contents
Polity and Governance.........................................................................................................7
Press Council of India..................................................................................................................................................... 7

Revisiting NGO Regulatory Framework.......................................................................................................................... 8

Overseas Citizenship of India Scheme.......................................................................................................................... 10

Northeast India From Frontier to Frontrunner............................................................................................................ 12

PM E-DRIVE Scheme..................................................................................................................................................... 14

SC Calls For Permanent Consumer Redressal Bodies................................................................................................... 14

Mizoram: India’s First State to Attain Full Functional Literacy..................................................................................... 17

Annual Review of State Laws 2024.............................................................................................................................. 18

Tackling Online Abuse.................................................................................................................................................. 19

Presidential Reference under Article 143.................................................................................................................... 22

Compulsory Inclusion of NOTA in Elections................................................................................................................. 24

Economic Scenario.............................................................................................................27
Strengthening Medium Enterprises as a Catalyst for MSME Growth.......................................................................... 27

Scheme for Special Assistance to States for Capital Investment (SASCI)..................................................................... 29

Economic Capital Framework and RBI’s Dividend Transfer......................................................................................... 31

GeM’s 8th Incorporation Day....................................................................................................................................... 34

Gig Economy................................................................................................................................................................. 34

International Relations.......................................................................................................37
Shift in OPEC+ Production Strategy.............................................................................................................................. 37

WHO Endorses Global Pandemic Agreement.............................................................................................................. 39

Social Issues.......................................................................................................................42
Global Report on Food Crises 2025.............................................................................................................................. 42

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Hooch Tragedies in India.............................................................................................................................................. 44

Accessibility and Empowerment of PwDs.................................................................................................................... 47

Child Wellbeing in an Unpredictable World................................................................................................................. 49

Gendered Malnutrition in India................................................................................................................................... 51

India’s Battle Against Tuberculosis............................................................................................................................... 53

Enrolment Drop in Government Schools and PM-POSHAN......................................................................................... 56

Science & Technology.........................................................................................................58

TR1 Cells Lead the Fight Against Malaria .................................................................................................................... 58

AI-Powered Autonomous Satellites............................................................................................................................. 59

India’s AMR Crisis......................................................................................................................................................... 61

First Successful Use of Customised Base Editing ......................................................................................................... 63

ICMR Launches First Stigma Scale for Sickle Cell Disease............................................................................................. 65

Dr. M. R. Srinivasan and India’s Nuclear Power Programme....................................................................................... 67

Quasi-steady State Cosmology Theory......................................................................................................................... 68

A-to-I mRNA Editing..................................................................................................................................................... 70

PSLV-C61/EOS-09 Mission............................................................................................................................................ 71

Bharat 6G Vision........................................................................................................................................................... 73

Environment and Ecology...................................................................................................75

WMO Global Annual to Decadal Climate Update 2025-2029...................................................................................... 75

World Dugong Day....................................................................................................................................................... 76

Strengthening Urban Biodiversity ............................................................................................................................... 77

Oil Spills........................................................................................................................................................................ 79

Sagarmatha Sambaad and Preserving Himalayas........................................................................................................ 81

Environmental Costs of Electric Vehicles..................................................................................................................... 83

Climate Physical Risks in India...................................................................................................................................... 85

World Hydrogen Summit 2025..................................................................................................................................... 87

World Turtle Day 2025................................................................................................................................................. 89

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Gangetic Dolphins ....................................................................................................................................................... 90

16th Asiatic Lion Census 2025...................................................................................................................................... 92

History...............................................................................................................................95
Veer Savarkar Jayanti................................................................................................................................................... 95

Geography.........................................................................................................................96
Early Monsoon Onset 2025.......................................................................................................................................... 96

Geographical and Climatic Factors Influencing Heatwaves........................................................................................ 100

Rising Cyclone Threats and Mangrove Vulnerability.................................................................................................. 103

Security............................................................................................................................107
Inter-Services Organisations Rules 2025.................................................................................................................... 107

INSV Kaundinya.......................................................................................................................................................... 109

India’s Rising Defence Innovation & Export Capability.............................................................................................. 110

Disaster Management......................................................................................................113
Urban Flooding in India.............................................................................................................................................. 113

Global Report on Internal Displacements 2025......................................................................................................... 116

Miscellaneous..................................................................................................................118
Gallantry Awards 2025............................................................................................................................................... 118

State of the World’s Animal Health Report................................................................................................................ 120

Rapid Fire Current Affairs.................................................................................................122

Mount Augustus Snail................................................................................................................................................ 123

Extension of Modified Interest Subvention Scheme.................................................................................................. 123

China’s Tianwen-2 Mission......................................................................................................................................... 124

Mount Khangchendzonga.......................................................................................................................................... 124

RoDTEP Scheme......................................................................................................................................................... 125

Maternity Benefits for Third Child.............................................................................................................................. 126

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Death Anniversary of Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru.......................................................................................................... 127

Dholes........................................................................................................................................................................ 127

Dark Patterns.............................................................................................................................................................. 128

Cave-Dwelling Fish Discovered in Meghalaya............................................................................................................ 129

DoP Launched New Digital Platforms......................................................................................................................... 131

INTERPOL Silver Notice............................................................................................................................................... 131

India’s First Gene-Edited Sheep................................................................................................................................. 133

Viksit Krishi Sankalp Abhiyan...................................................................................................................................... 134

Asian Productivity Organization................................................................................................................................. 134

Sugar Boards.............................................................................................................................................................. 135

NASA’s GRAIL Mission................................................................................................................................................ 135

Charaka and Sushruta Legacy..................................................................................................................................... 135

Jarosite ...................................................................................................................................................................... 136

India Becomes World’s 4th Largest Economy............................................................................................................ 136

Bharat Forecast System.............................................................................................................................................. 138

Bird-Wing Solar Event................................................................................................................................................ 138

Official Secrets Act 1923............................................................................................................................................. 139

Xenon Gas.................................................................................................................................................................. 140

Weather Balloons....................................................................................................................................................... 140

KVIC’s Honey Mission................................................................................................................................................. 141

Sagar Mein Samman Initiative.................................................................................................................................... 142

Judicial Accountability and the K Veeraswami Judgment, 1991................................................................................ 143

Golden Dome Missile Defence Project....................................................................................................................... 143

iGOT Karmayogi.......................................................................................................................................................... 144

Heart Lamp wins 2025 International Booker Prize..................................................................................................... 145

Guttala Drought Inscription........................................................................................................................................ 146

Metrology and India’s Initiatives................................................................................................................................ 148

Shirui Lily Festival....................................................................................................................................................... 149

Indian Yak Genomics.................................................................................................................................................. 150

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e-Zero FIR .................................................................................................................................................................. 150

Operation Olivia......................................................................................................................................................... 150

Suggi Migration.......................................................................................................................................................... 151

Suez Canal.................................................................................................................................................................. 152

Tsarap Chu Conservation Reserve.............................................................................................................................. 154

Yala Glacier Declared Dead........................................................................................................................................ 155

World Food Prize 2025............................................................................................................................................... 155

India’s Commitment to UN Peacekeeping................................................................................................................. 156

SC Strikes Down Ex-Post Facto Environmental Clearances........................................................................................ 156

Kandha Tribe.............................................................................................................................................................. 157

Dispute over Parasnath Hill........................................................................................................................................ 158

Shingles Diseases........................................................................................................................................................ 158

58th Jnanpith Award.................................................................................................................................................. 159

Nicaragua Withdrawal from UNESCO........................................................................................................................ 159

Mhadei River Water Dispute...................................................................................................................................... 160

Nipah Virus................................................................................................................................................................. 162

Algal Bloom Devastates Marine Life ......................................................................................................................... 162

North-East India’s First Geothermal Well in Dirang................................................................................................... 162

E-Passport.................................................................................................................................................................. 163

Repairability Index...................................................................................................................................................... 164

Quantum Dots and 2D Metals.................................................................................................................................... 164

Revamped PLFS.......................................................................................................................................................... 164

Chandrayaan-5 (LUPEX).............................................................................................................................................. 166

Illegal Killing of Migratory Birds................................................................................................................................. 167

Bhutan Launched First Crypto-Tourism Payment ..................................................................................................... 168

MSP for Jute............................................................................................................................................................... 169

Anamalai Tiger Reserve.............................................................................................................................................. 170

Parali Protection Force............................................................................................................................................... 170

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Polity and Governance

Highlights
z Press Council of India z Mizoram: India’s First State to Attain Full Functional Literacy
z Revisiting NGO Regulatory Framework z Annual Review of State Laws 2024
z Overseas Citizenship of India Scheme z Tackling Online Abuse
z Northeast India From Frontier to Frontrunner z Presidential Reference under Article 143
z PM E-DRIVE Scheme z Compulsory Inclusion of NOTA in Elections
z SC Calls For Permanent Consumer Redressal Bodies

news agency representative, 5 MPs and 3 experts

Press Council of India nominated by UGC, Bar Council, and Sahitya
Akademi.
Why in News? The term of the Chairman and other members
Lok Sabha Speaker has nominated 3 Members of is 3 years.
Parliament (MP) to the Press Council of India (PCI).
¾ Funding: Through grants-in-aid from the Central
What are the Key Facts Related to Government (appropriated by Parliament) and graded
the Press Council of India (PCI)? fees collected from newspapers, and other receipts.
¾ About: PCI is a statutory, quasi-judicial autonomous ¾ Functions: It frames a media code of conduct,
body, initially established on 16th November 1966 ensures ethical and accurate reporting, fosters public
by Parliament under the Indian Press Council Act, responsibility, monitors restrictions on news flow, and
1965 based on the recommendations of the First oversees foreign media assistance.
Press Commission. It also studies foreign newspapers’ impact, addresses

It was formally established in 1966, with Justice media ownership concerns, promotes industry
J.R. Mudholkar, then a judge of the Supreme cooperation, and advises the Central Government
Court, as chairman. to uphold press freedom and accountability.
It was abolished during Emergency (1975) and ¾ Powers: It can censure, warn, or admonish newspapers,
later reconstituted in 1979 under the Press Council agencies, editors, or journalists for violations of
Act, 1978. journalistic ethics after a fair inquiry.
It may also require publication of inquiry details
¾ Objective: To preserve the freedom of the press and
maintain and improve the standards of newspapers in public interest.
and news agencies in India. Its decisions are final and cannot be appealed

¾ Composition & Term: It consists of 29 members (1 before a court of law.

Chairman + 28 Members). Chairman is conventionally It has power of civil courts, summoning witnesses,

a retired Supreme Court judge nominated by a examining documents, and conducting inquiries
committee comprising the Vice President (Rajya deemed judicial proceedings.
Sabha Chairman), Lok Sabha Speaker, and a member However, it cannot compel disclosure of journalistic

elected by the PCI. sources.

The 28 other members include 13 working ¾ Limitations: The powers of the PCI are limited as it
journalists, 6 newspaper owners/managers, 1 cannot enforce penalties for guideline violations

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and only oversees print media such as newspapers Foreign Contribution Regulation Act
and magazines.
¾ About: FCRA is a law enacted in 1976 during the
It has no authority over electronic media, including
Emergency to regulate the acceptance and use of
radio, television, and internet platforms. foreign contributions by individuals, associations,
Note: and organizations in India.
It ensures that such contributions are used only
¾ National Press Day is celebrated annually on 16th
for legitimate purposes and do not compromise
November to commemorate the founding of the
national interest.
Press Council of India (PCI).
¾ Amendments: The original FCRA Act, 1976 was
repealed and replaced by new legislation in 2010 to
Revisiting NGO Regulatory modernise the law governing foreign contributions.
In 2020, additional amendments were introduced
Framework to tighten the regulations and improve oversight
of foreign donations.
Why in News?
What are NGOs and How are
The Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) has recently they Regulated in India?
announced new amendments to the Foreign Contribution
¾ About: A NGO is a non-profit entity that functions
(Regulation) Rules, 2011 affecting the manner in which independently of the government, focusing on
non-governmental organizations (NGOs) operating in humanitarian, social, or developmental objectives.
India can receive and utilize foreign funds. ¾ Formation of NGOs in India:
Societies: Registered under the Societies
What are the Key Provisions of
Registration Act, 1860.
the New FCRA Rules for NGOs?
Trusts: Private Trusts are registered under the
¾ Ban on Publication Activities: NGOs engaged in Indian Trusts Act, 1882 which is a central legislation.
publication-related activities must now obtain a z Public Trusts are registered under respective
certificate from the Registrar of Newspapers for state laws.
India ensuring compliance with media regulations Charitable Companies: Registered as non-profit

and declaring they are “Not a Newspaper.” companies under Section 8 of the Companies
Act, 2013.
¾ Financial Disclosure: NGOs applying for FCRA, 2010
¾ Foreign Contribution Regulation: NGOs that
registration must submit financial statements and
receive foreign contributions or donations must
audit reports for the past three years, including
obtain prior registration or permission under the
assets and liabilities, income and expenditure, and Foreign Contribution (Regulation) Act (FCRA), 2010,
receipts and payments accounts. administered by the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA).
¾ FATF Compliance: NGOs must declare adherence The FCRA, 2010 governs the receipt and utilization
to Financial Action Task Force (FATF) Good Practice of foreign funds by individuals, associations, or
Guidelines, aligning with India’s efforts to strengthen companies, including NGOs.
oversight of foreign financial flows. z Its core objective is to prevent foreign

¾ New Requirements for Receiving Foreign Contributions: contributions from undermining India’s
NGOs must submit a commitment letter from foreign sovereignty, integrity, security, economic or
scientific interests, public order, or leading to
donors matching the donation with a detailed project
any offence or harm to individuals.
report with expense breakdown.
¾ Key Amendments in the Foreign Contribution
¾ Obligations for Previously Registered NGOs: If an (Regulation) Amendment Act, 2020:
NGO’s FCRA registration has expired or been cancelled, Mandated that all foreign contributions be received
it must submit an affidavit detailing the receipt and only through a designated “FCRA Account” at a
utilisation of previously received foreign contributions. specified bank (State Bank of India, Delhi).

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Prohibited transfer of foreign contributions from the recipient to any other person or entity.
Reduced the permissible limit for administrative expenses from 50% to 20% of the foreign funds received.
Empowered the Central Government to:
z Restrict or suspend further receipt or utilization of foreign contributions following a summary inquiry.
z Require Aadhaar or other identification documents for office bearers, directors, and key functionaries of NGOs.

What are the Key Roles and Responsibilities of NGOs?

¾ Governance: NGOs strengthen democracy by promoting transparency and accountability, exemplified by the
Association for Democratic Reforms (ADR) whose PILs led to mandatory disclosure of candidates’ criminal records,
education, and assets.
They also supplement government schemes like the Akshaya Patra Foundation, supporting the PM POSHAN
initiative against malnutrition.

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¾ Social Reforms: NGOs protect human rights (e.g.,

Bachpan Bachao Andolan), empower women Overseas Citizenship
(SEWA), represent marginalized groups like PLWHA of India Scheme
(People living with HIV/AIDS) and LGBTQIA+
communities (Naz Foundation), and alleviate Why in News?
poverty (Goonj). The Indian government has cancelled the Overseas
¾ Disaster Relief and Rehabilitation: NGOs like SEEDS Citizen of India (OCI) registration of a British academic,
India play a critical role in providing immediate aid citing her involvement in anti-India activities through
and long-term rehabilitation support during natural her writings, speeches, and journalistic work at
disasters and emergencies. international forums.

¾ Environmental Conservation: Many NGOs like World What is the Overseas

Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) work to protect natural Citizenship of India Scheme?
resources, promote sustainable development, and About
combat climate change through awareness campaigns ¾ The OCI scheme was introduced through an amendment
and grassroots initiatives. to the Citizenship Act, 1955 in the year 2005, that
allows foreign citizens of Indian origin to live, work,
What are the Key Challenges and travel freely in India without dual citizenship.
Related to NGOs in India? In 2015, the Persons of Indian Origin (PIOs)
¾ Regulatory Restrictions: Strict FCRA regulations have and OCI categories were merged to streamline
resulted in the cancellation of NGO licenses, restricting documentation and benefits.
access to foreign donations, while domestic CSR As of 31st January, 2022, 40.68 lakh OCI cards had
funds are largely directed toward corporate-linked been issued.
NGOs, leaving smaller organizations underfunded Eligibility
and struggling. ¾ Eligibility: Foreign nationals (except Pakistan and
¾ Trust Deficits: NGOs face accusations of “anti- Bangladesh) who:
national” activities, leading to audits, raids, and the Were citizens of India on or after 26th January, 1950.
closure of NGOs. E.g., Greenpeace India was banned Were eligible to become Indian citizens on 26th
for allegedly obstructing economic development January, 1950.
through its campaigns against coal mining and nuclear Belonging to a territory that became part of India
power projects. after 15th August, 1947.
Are children, grandchildren, or great-grandchildren
¾ Lack of Transparency: Some NGOs have been
of such persons
criticized for poor accountability and failure to
Minor children of such individuals or those with
comply with reporting requirements, leading to
one Indian parent.
increased government scrutiny and a loss of public
Spousal Eligibility: A foreign-origin spouse of
trust.
an Indian citizen or an existing OCI cardholder is
In several instances, NGOs that did not file their eligible if the marriage has been registered and
annual returns faced cancellation of their FCRA has subsisted for at least two years preceding
registration. the application.

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Ineligible Categories: Individuals who are currently serving or retired from foreign military services are not
entitled to receive OCI status.

Benefits
¾ Visa Privileges: Entitled to a multiple-entry, multi-purpose lifelong visa for visiting India without the need for
repeated applications.
¾ Parity with NRIs: Enjoys parity with Non-Resident Indians (NRIs) in various financial, economic, and educational
fields, but cannot acquire agricultural/plantation land in India or adopt Indian children internationally.
¾ Pathway to Citizenship: Eligible for Indian citizenship under Section 5(1)(g) of the Citizenship Act, 1955 after 5
years as an OCI cardholder, with at least 1 year of residence in India during the last 5 years.
¾ Pension Scheme Access: Eligible to join the National Pension System (NPS) on equal terms with NRIs for long-
term retirement planning.

Limitations and Restrictions of OCI Cardholders

¾ No Dual Citizenship: OCI should not be interpreted as dual citizenship, as India does not permit dual nationality
under its legal framework.
¾ Political Rights: OCI cardholders are not entitled to voting rights in Indian elections.
OCI holders are barred from holding constitutional posts such as President (Art. 58), Vice-President (Art. 66),
Supreme Court Judge (Art. 124), and High Court Judge (Art. 217).
¾ Legislative Ineligibility: OCIs are not eligible to become members of the Lok Sabha, Rajya Sabha, or State Legislatures.
¾ Public Employment Restrictions: Under Article 16 (equality of opportunity in public employment), OCI cardholders
cannot hold regular government jobs, except where specifically permitted by the Central Government via special
notifications.
¾ Activity-Based Restrictions: Special permission is mandatory for research, mountaineering, missionary/journalistic
work, and travel to Protected or Restricted Areas.

Cancellations
¾ Cancellations are governed by Section 7D of the Citizenship Act, 1955.
Grounds for cancellation include fraud or misrepresentation in application, anti-India acts, and violations of
conditions under the Citizenship Act, 1955.
Person of Indian Origin (PIO)
¾ A Person of Indian Origin (PIO) is a foreign citizen (excluding nationals of Pakistan, Afghanistan, Bangladesh,
China, Iran, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, and Nepal) who:
once held an Indian passport
has ancestry (parents/grandparents/great-grandparents) born and permanently residing in India as defined
in Government of India Act, 1935 and other territories that became part of India thereafter or,
is a spouse of an Indian citizen or PIO.

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Northeast India From Frontier to Frontrunner

Why in News?
The Prime Minister at the “Rising Northeast: The Investor Summit” declared that the Northeast Region (NER) of
India is no longer a “frontier” but a “frontrunner” in India’s growth journey. Highlighting its strategic importance and
economic potential, he emphasized the region’s evolving role as a gateway for trade with Southeast Asia.
Note: The Ministry of Development of North Eastern Region (DoNER) is organizing the Rising Northeast Summit
to unlock the investment and trade potential of the NER of India.
¾ The initiative aims to project NER as a dynamic economic corridor with strategic connectivity to ASEAN and BBN
(Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal) countries.
¾ Rising North East Investors Summit 2025 drew an unprecedented Rs 4.3 lakh crore in investment interest, setting
the stage for the NER to become India’s next economic powerhouse.

How is the Northeast Emerging as a ‘Frontrunner’ for India’s Growth?

¾ Bio-economy and Natural Resources: The NER, referred to as ‘Ashta Lakshmis’, highlights the region’s vast potential
in renewable energy, agro-based industries, eco-tourism, and strategic manufacturing.
The region’s biodiversity is being leveraged for green growth. Assam is a major hub for tea production, while
Arunachal Pradesh leads in bamboo-based industries.
The region holds 40% of India’s hydropower potential (~62,000 MW), yet only 6.9% is harnessed. Solar potential
is estimated at 57,360 MW with only 17% installed capacity.
¾ Tourism and Human Capital Strengths: The Northeast’s natural beauty and vibrant culture make it a perfect
destination for eco-friendly and sustainable tourism.

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Key attractions include Meghalaya’s living root What are the Challenges in Making
bridges, Sikkim’s eco-tourism, Kaziranga National Northeast India a Frontrunner?
Park, and Kamakhya Temple in Assam, and
¾ Historical Insurgency and Security Issues: Decades of
Manipur’s Loktak Lake. These sites boost local
insurgent movements (Naga, Mizo, ULFA, NDFB) created
livelihoods and promote eco-friendly travel.
instability, affecting investment and development.
Additionally, high literacy rates among NER
Cross-border infiltration from Bangladesh and
(~80%) and a high proportion of English-speaking Myanmar has posed persistent security challenges.
populations contribute to the region’s workforce
The 2023 ethnic violence in Manipur between
readiness.
Meiteis and Kukis highlights deep-rooted tensions
States like Manipur and Mizoram are national leaders
and fragile inter-community relations and identity
in sports like football, boxing, and weightlifting. politics prevent a unified development approach.
¾ Gateway to Southeast Asia: The Northeast is central Fear of “outsiders” and demands for perpetuation
to India’s Act East Policy, serving as a bridge to ASEAN of Inner Line Permits (ILP) create resistance to
and Indo-Pacific markets. migration, investment, and entrepreneurship.
Projects like the India-Myanmar-Thailand ¾ Agricultural Distress and Employment Gaps: Although
Trilateral Highway and the Kaladan Multi-Modal agriculture is the mainstay, the region faces serious
Transit Transport Project are enhancing regional issues like low productivity and lack of modern
connectivity. techniques.
Development of ports like Sittwe in Myanmar and Middlemen dominance is prevalent in NER,
Chittagong in Bangladesh will connect Northeast which traps farmers in debt and low income. Even
India to key Indian Ocean shipping routes, boosting cooperatives struggle to compete against these
India-ASEAN trade from USD 125 billion to USD intermediaries.
200 billion over the next decade. Despite high literacy and English proficiency, a
¾ Critical to National Security: NER shares 5,484 km of lack of industry-ready skills affects employability.
borders with five countries (Myanmar, Bangladesh, ¾ Low Tourist Footfall: The region’s huge tourism
Nepal, Bhutan, Tibet/China) plays a frontline role in potential is underutilized due to limited connectivity,
national security. safety concerns, and weak marketing.
The Siliguri Corridor (Chicken’s Neck), is a vital ¾ Dependency on Central Funds: Many NER states
strategic and economic lifeline, connecting heavily rely on Union government support, indicating
Northeast India to the rest of the country and low fiscal self-reliance.
serving as a key transit hub for trade with Bhutan, ¾ Limited Industrial Base: Industrial development is
Bangladesh, and Nepal. uneven, and high logistics costs discourage large-
¾ Infrastructure Push: The central government has scale investments.
significantly increased funding with 10% of the Ministry ¾ Geographical Constraints and Environmental
of Road Transport and Highways’ budget allocated to Vulnerability: Difficult terrain, frequent floods, and
the Northeast. landslides hamper infrastructure development and
The North East Special Infrastructure Development connectivity.
Scheme (NESIDS), launched in 2018, has a USD The Northeast faces frequent floods, landslides,
1 billion allocation for roads, water, and power. and erratic rainfall that harm infrastructure and
Projects like the Sela Tunnel in Arunachal livelihoods.
Pradesh are improving all-weather connectivity to The 2022 Assam floods, which displaced millions,
remote areas. New initiatives like the upcoming highlight the region’s ecological vulnerability,
Semiconductor Plant in Assam mark a shift toward while climate change threatens agriculture and
high-tech industrial investment. water security.

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¾ Drug Trafficking: Proximity to the Golden Triangle ¾ Key Components:

makes the NER vulnerable to narcotics trafficking, Target beneficiaries: Commercial and private
especially in Manipur and Mizoram. electric two-wheelers and three-wheelers with
Rise in drug addiction among youth, overburdening advanced batteries, e-ambulances, e-trucks with
healthcare systems and worsening the social fabric. scrapping certificates, and electric buses for public
transport.
What are Initiatives Related to Development
Demand incentives: The PM E-DRIVE Scheme
of the Northeast Region? offers demand incentives on EVs capped at 15%
¾ PM’s Development Initiative for North East Region of the ex-factory price or a fixed per-vehicle limit,
(PM-DevINE) whichever is lower.
¾ North East Industrial Development Scheme (NEIDS) z Only EVs priced below a specified threshold
¾ Mission Organic Value Chain Development for are eligible.
North Eastern Region (MOVCDNER) Charging Infrastructure Development: The scheme

¾ Uttar Poorva Transformative Industrialization aims to set up 72,300 public fast chargers in key
Scheme (UNNATI) cities and select highways to boost EV adoption.
¾ National Bamboo Mission z Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd (BHEL), a public

¾ Bharatmala Pariyojana sector unit under the MHI, will develop a digital
“Super App” for EV users to book slots, make
payments, and check charger availability.
PM E-DRIVE Scheme Testing Agencies Upgradation: The scheme
allocates Rs 780 crore to upgrade testing agencies
Why in News? under MHI with advanced technologies to support
In a major step toward sustainable clean urban green mobility.
mobility, the Ministry of Heavy Industries (MHI) will ¾ Eligibility: Only EVs with advanced batteries qualify for
deploy electric buses under the PM Electric Drive incentives. Government-purchased EVs are excluded
to prevent internal fund transfers.
Revolution in Innovative Vehicle Enhancement (PM
Vehicles must be registered under Central Motor
E-DRIVE) Scheme, with a focus on major cities like
Vehicles Rules (CMVR), 1989.
Bengaluru, Hyderabad, Delhi, and Ahmedabad.
e-2Ws and e-3Ws must be manufactured and
What is the PM E-DRIVE Scheme? registered within scheme validity (Oct 2024 – Mar
¾ About: The PM E-DRIVE is a flagship scheme approved 2026).
by Cabinet with Rs. 10,900 crore outlay; effective ¾ Surge in Sale of e-vehicles: The MHI is driving electric
from October 2024, to March 2026. vehicle adoption to support India’s net-zero 2070
goal. Under schemes like Electric Mobility Promotion
The primary objective of this initiative is to
Scheme (EMPS) and PM E-DRIVE, e-2W sales surged
accelerate the adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) to around 5.7 lakh units in 2024-25.
across various categories, build robust EV charging
infrastructure, and develop a strong domestic EV
manufacturing ecosystem aligned with the vision SC Calls For Permanent
of Aatmanirbhar Bharat. Consumer Redressal Bodies
PM E-DRIVE Scheme builds on earlier programs
like Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Hybrid Why in News?
and Electric Vehicles in India (FAME-I) (2015), The Supreme Court (SC) of India urged the Centre
FAME-II (2019) to accelerate adoption of electric to set up permanent adjudicatory bodies for consumer
two- and three-wheelers. disputes, emphasizing that consumer rights are

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constitutionally protected and need a stable framework Principles of State Policy (DPSP) under Part IV of the
due to gaps in implementing the Consumer Protection Constitution, which provides a moral and constitutional
Act, (CPA) 1986. foundation for welfare-oriented legislation.
What is the Need for a Permanent Article 37: It states that while DPSP are not legally

Consumer Dispute Resolution Body? enforceable, they are fundamental to governance

and must guide the State in lawmaking.
¾ Judicial Endorsement of Permanency: The SC noted
z The Consumer Protection Act, 2019, and earlier
that temporary appointments in consumer forums
versions are rooted in these principles.
lead to delays and inefficiency.
Article 47: The State shall endeavour to improve
It recommended setting up permanent bodies nutrition, living standards, and public health, and
with full-time presiding officers and staff, possibly prohibit the consumption of harmful intoxicants
headed by sitting judges. This would ensure except for medicinal purposes.
continuity, professionalism, and better justice ¾ Legislations for Protection of Consumer Rights:
delivery. Consumer Protection Act (CPA), 1986: It was
¾ Systemic Pendency and Delays: As per the National enacted to protect consumers in India and
Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission (NCDRC), resolve disputes through Consumer Councils at
over 5.5 lakh cases were pending across forums as national, state, and district levels. It addressed
of 2023. issues like adulterated products, and misleading
Consumer Councils suffer from vacant posts, and advertisements.
poor digital infrastructure, resulting in delays in z The Consumer Protection Act, 1986, grants six

cases. Adequate staffing and infrastructure are key rights to consumers: the Right to Safety,
essential for timely consumer redressal. Right to be Informed, Right to Choose, Right to
be Heard, Right to Seek Redressal, and Right
¾ Rise in Digital and Cross-Border Consumer Disputes:
to Consumer Education.
India’s e-commerce sector is projected to reach
z The 1986 Act had limitations, lacking provisions
USD 200 billion by 2026, and quick commerce is
for online transactions, product liability, unfair
expected to grow to USD 9.9 billion by 2029, with a
contracts, and alternative dispute resolution.
corresponding surge in complaints related to online
Consumer Protection Act, 2019: It replaced the
fraud, data privacy, service deficiencies, and cross-
1986 Act to address modern consumer challenges.
border consumer disputes. It expanded coverage to all merchandise and
Existing consumer forums often lack technical enterprise transactions, added new unfair trade
expertise and jurisdictional clarity to tackle new practices, included product liability, and regulated
challenges. A redressal body with judges and unfair contracts.
experts in modern and digital laws is essential for z The Act introduced rules for direct selling and
better consumer protection. e-commerce, mandated mediation cells at all
What are the Constitutional and Legal levels, and established the Central Consumer
Protection Authority (CCPA) to enforce consumer
Foundations of Consumer Protection in India?
rights.
¾ Consumer’s Right: It is the right to receive accurate Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) Act, 2016: Bureau
information about the quality, quantity, potency, of Indian Standards (BIS), India’s national standards
purity, price, and standards of goods or services and body, ensures product safety and quality.
to be protected from unfair practices. z The Act mandates certification for critical
¾ Constitutional Backing for Consumer Protection: products and allows product recalls and penalties
Consumer protection in India is rooted in the Directive for non-compliance.

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Legal Metrology Act, 2009: Ensures accuracy in weights and measurements used in commercial transactions.
It promotes fair trade practices, protects consumers, and improves market transparency.
¾ Other Initiatives:
DoCA: The Department of Consumer Affairs (DoCA) issued 2023 Guidelines on Dark Patterns to curb deceptive
online tactics like drip pricing and false urgency.
z DoCA runs the “Jago Grahak Jago” campaign nationwide and introduced the mascot “Jagriti” to empower
consumers.
z The E-Jagriti portal, launched by DoCA, is an integrated AI-powered platform streamlining consumer case
filing, monitoring, and virtual hearings across all consumer commissions.
z E-Dakhil Portal allows online consumer complaint filing.
National Consumer Helpline (NCH): Handles consumer complaints in 17 languages via toll-free number 1915.
National Consumer Day: India celebrates National Consumer Day on 24th December, commemorating the
CPA, 1986.
GRAI: The Grievance Redressal Assessment Index (GRAI), evaluates central ministries based on efficiency,
feedback, domain, and commitment using Centralized Public Grievance Redressal and Management System
(CPGRAMS) data for standardized grievance handling analysis.

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Consumer Rights Under CPA, 1986

Consumer Right Meaning

Right to Safety ¾ It ensures protection against hazardous goods and services.

¾ Consumers must get accurate product details to avoid unfair trade and pressure
Right to be Informed
selling.
¾ It ensures access to quality goods at fair prices, especially in competitive markets
Right to Choose
with diverse choices.
Right to be Heard ¾ It ensures that consumer interests are considered in appropriate forums.

Right to Seek Redressal ¾ It ensures the consumers to report issues and get help from consumer bodies.

Right to Consumer ¾ It is the right to lifelong consumer education, crucial to reduce exploitation,
Education especially in rural areas.

Mizoram: India’s First State to Attain Full Functional Literacy

Why in News?
Mizoram has exceeded the 95% literacy rate benchmark, achieving 98.20% literacy as per the PLFS Survey 2023-
24, meeting the Ministry of Education’s criteria for full functional literacy under the ULLAS (Understanding of Lifelong
Learning for All in Society) programme.
¾ Prior to this, Ladakh was the first UT to be declared fully functionally literate.
Note: Functional literacy refers to an individual’s capability to use reading, writing, and numerical skills in everyday
tasks that contribute to personal growth and community participation.

What is ULLAS- Nav Bharat Saksharta Karyakram or New India Literacy Programme (NILP)?
¾ About: ULLAS is a centrally sponsored scheme being implemented from 2022 to 2027.
It is designed to empower adults aged 15 years and above who missed out on formal schooling, in line with
the vision of the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020.
¾ Implementation Mechanism: Encouraging volunteerism to foster social responsibility and a sense of duty, or
‘Kartavya Bodh’.
¾ Key Components: Foundational Literacy and Numeracy, Critical Life Skills, Basic Education, Vocational Skills, and
Continuing Education.
¾ Key Features: Provides access to educational resources via the DIKSHA platform and ULLAS mobile/web portal,
supporting content in regional languages.
Includes the Foundational Literacy and Numeracy Assessment Test (FLNAT), conducted biannually or as required
at local schools for assessment and certification.

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Other Government Initiatives Related to Education state assemblies currently do not have one. Notably,
Jharkhand has been without a Deputy Speaker for
¾ National Programme on Technology Enhanced
over 20 years.
Learning.
The Lok Sabha also lacks a Deputy Speaker from
¾ Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan
June 2019.
¾ PRAGYATA
¾ Bills Passed Without Deliberation: States passed an
¾ Mid Day Meal Scheme
average of 17 bills in 2024.
¾ Beti Bachao Beti Padhao
Over 51% of bills were passed on the same day
¾ PM SHRI Schools
they were introduced, often without debate. The
average duration of each sitting was only 5 hours.
Annual Review The quality of legislative debate is deteriorating,

of State Laws 2024 with most bills receiving minimal discussion. This
trend of rushed law-making reflects a weakening
Why in News? of deliberative democracy.
A report titled Annual Review of State Laws 2024 ¾ Focus Areas of Legislation: About half of the laws were
by PRS Legislative Research, a non-partisan think tank, related to education, finance, and local governance.
reveals that India’s state legislative assemblies are Uttarakhand became the first state to pass a
functioning with alarmingly low productivity. Uniform Civil Code, while West Bengal introduced
What is the Status of Legislative the Aparajita Act, mandating stricter penalties
Assemblies in India? for rape.
Madhya Pradesh brought in legislation to regulate
¾ Low Number of Sitting Days: In 2024, state legislative
assemblies met for an average of only 20 days, down private school fees, and
from 28 days in 2017 and 16 days in 2020 (pandemic Maharashtra granted 10% reservation to Marathas
year). in education and government jobs.
Some states have minimum sitting day requirements
What Key Facts About State Legislature in India?
under their Rules of Procedure. None of the states
¾ Constitutional Provisions: The structure, powers,
met their own targets in any year from 2017 to 2024.
and functioning of State Legislatures are governed
by Part VI of the Constitution, from Articles 168
to 212.
These articles lay down the organization,
composition, duration, powers, and procedures
of state legislative bodies.
¾ Composition: Article 168 of the Constitution of India
provides for the constitution of State Legislatures.
There are two types of state legislatures:
unicameral and bicameral.
¾ Variation Across States: Odisha (42 days) and Kerala z A unicameral legislature comprises the

(38 days) had the highest sittings in 2024. Larger Governor and the Legislative Assembly
states like Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh met (Vidhan Sabha), which is the more common
for just 16 days. structure in most states. In contrast, a
¾ Vacancy in the Deputy Speaker’s Post: Despite Article bicameral legislature includes the Governor,
178 of the Constitution mandating the election of a the Legislative Assembly, and the Legislative
Deputy Speaker in every State Legislative Assembly, 8 Council (Vidhan Parishad).

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¾ Sessions of State Legislature: What are the Implications of Low

Summoning: The Governor summons the State
Productivity of State Legislative Assemblies?
Legislature to meet from time to time. The ¾ Weakening of Democratic Deliberation: Legislative
maximum gap between two sessions cannot assemblies are meant to deliberate on laws, budgets,
exceed six months. A session consists of multiple and public issues, but low productivity undermines
sittings. this role.
z Article 174 mandates state legislatures to In 2021, Nearly 44% of the 583 Bills tabled in state
meet at least twice a year, with no more than Assemblies were passed within a day after they
six months between sessions. were introduced, leaving no scope for informed
Adjournment: It is the temporary suspension
debate, resulting in laws that lack depth, foresight,
of House proceedings for hours, days, or weeks. and public engagement.
Prorogation: After the session ends, the Governor
¾ Decline in Legislative Oversight: Assemblies often fail
officially ends the session by issuing a notice. to hold the executive accountable through instruments
This is called prorogation, it can be issued even like Question Hour, motions, and debates.
when the House is in session. Fewer sittings mean reduced scrutiny of public

z Adjournment ends a meeting, but prorogation

expenditure, departmental performance, and
ends the session. policy impact. This undermines accountability and
transparency, key pillars of democratic governance.
Dissolution: Applies only to the Legislative
¾ Poor Quality of Legislation: In most states, bills
Assembly, not the Legislative Council (permanent
are passed without referral to the Public Accounts
house).
Committee (PAC). Ad hoc Select Committees are
z Dissolution ends the full term of the Assembly,
rare; hence, sectoral expertise and stakeholder
leading to fresh elections. consultations are missing.
Quorum: It is the minimum number of members
Consequently, laws are often poorly drafted, hastily
needed to start a meeting. It is either 10 members passed, and vulnerable to legal and implementation
or 1/10th of total members, whichever is greater. challenges.
z If quorum is not met, the House is adjourned ¾ Delayed or Arbitrary Governance: Many Bills require
or suspended by the Presiding Officer. the Governor’s assent to become law. However delays
Voting in the House: Decisions are by majority in granting assent by Governors are frequent and
of members present and voting. The Presiding often unexplained. This raises serious concerns about
Officer votes only in the case of a tie (casting vote). arbitrary governance and a lack of accountability in
z Special majority is required only in specified the legislative process.
cases (e.g., removal of Speaker/Chairman). Additionally, over-reliance on ordinances (Kerala

Language in State Legislature: Business is issued 144 in 2021) circumvents legislative scrutiny.
conducted in the official state language, Hindi, ¾ Overlooking Local Aspirations: State legislatures’
or English. Members can speak in their mother inaction on key areas like education, health, land,
tongue with permission. agriculture, and policing delays essential reforms,
z States may discontinue English after 15 years
depriving people of timely grassroots solutions.
(most states), 25 years (Himachal Pradesh,
Manipur, Meghalaya, Tripura), and 40 years Tackling Online Abuse
(Arunachal Pradesh, Goa, Mizoram)
Rights of Ministers and Advocate General: Why in News?
Ministers and the Advocate General can speak Following the Pahalgam terror attack, a peace appeal
and take part in discussions in either House or its by a victim resulted in her severe trolling. Similarly, India’s
committees, even if not members. However, they Foreign Secretary faced abusive remarks after announcing
cannot vote unless they are elected members. India-Pakistan ceasefire.

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¾ It revealed India’s growing crisis of cyber harassment and weak regulation highlighting the need for legal reform,
platform accountability, and victim protection.
What is Online Abuse?
¾ About: Online abuse (cyber abuse, digital abuse, or internet harassment) refers to any form of harmful, threatening,
or demeaning behavior that occurs through digital platforms.
It can be directed at individuals, groups, or entire communities and can take many forms, from verbal attacks
and harassment to the non-consensual sharing of private information or images.

¾ Types:
Cyberbullying: It is the use of digital platforms to harass, threaten, or humiliate someone repeatedly, causing
emotional harm.
Cyberstalking: It is persistent, unwanted online monitoring and harassment that causes fear, involving repeated
messages, tracking activity, or using spyware and fake accounts.

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Trolling: Trolling is deliberately posting offensive exposing a woman’s personal details, recognizing
or provocative messages online to upset people doxxing’s serious privacy and safety risks despite
or disrupt conversations. lacking specific legal status.
Doxxing: Doxxing, short for “dropping dox” Shreya Singhal v. Union of India Case, 2015: The
(documents), is the unauthorized online sharing Supreme Court struck down Section 66A of the IT
of private information, like addresses or phone Act, which criminalized “offensive” online speech,
numbers, often to harass or threaten victims. as unconstitutional—protecting free speech while
emphasizing that reasonable restrictions must be
Revenge Porn: It is sharing or threatening to share
narrowly defined.
intimate images without consent, violating privacy
KS Puttaswamy v. Union of India Case, 2017: The
and often used for blackmail or humiliation.
Supreme Court declared privacy a fundamental
Catfishing: It is creating a fake online identity to right (article 21), laying the foundation to protect
deceive others, often for emotional, financial, or personal data and prevent unauthorized online
malicious purposes. disclosure or doxxing.
¾ Status of Cyberbullying in India: India has the highest
What are the Challenges in
cyberbullying rate globally, with over 85% of children
Tackling Online Abuse in India?
reported it.
¾ No Dedicated Law: India currently lacks a specific
About 46% reported bullying strangers (vs. 17%
law that directly addresses online hate speech and
globally) and 48% bullied someone they know trolling comprehensively.
(vs. 21%).
Existing laws don’t cover ongoing online abuse
Top forms include spreading false rumours (39%), unless it’s obscene, threatening, or fraudulent.
exclusion from chats/groups (35%), and name- Stalking laws are gender-specific (limited to men
calling (34%). targeting women) and target individual intent,
¾ Legal Provisions to Tackle Online Abuse: overlooking mass online harassment.
Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS), 2023: ¾ Content Moderation Challenges: Social media
companies are taking significantly fewer content
Information Technology (IT) Act, 2000:
screening and proactive measures to address hate
z Section 66C: Identity theft speech in India compared to the US and EU.
z Section 66D: Impersonation fraud Platforms like Telegram are facing legal action for
z Section 67: Publishing or transmitting obscene permitting criminal activity, while profit motives
material electronically. have weakened moderation, allowing hate speech
Digital Personal Data Protection Act (DPDP), 2023: to spread.
DPDP provides for penalties for failing to prevent ¾ Ambiguity over “Publicly Available Data”: The Digital
data breaches leading to harassment Personal Data Protection (DPDP) Act, 2023 exempts
“publicly available” personal data but lacks a clear
IT (Intermediary Guidelines & Digital Media
definition, creating ambiguity.
Ethics Code) Rules, 2021: Social media platforms
This gap may enable cybercrimes like doxxing, as
must disclose the first originator of content for
fragmented data from various platforms can be
investigations into offences like rape, death threats, easily combined for harassment or intimidation.
sexually explicit material, and content threatening ¾ Enforcement Gaps: There is lax implementation of
state harmony or international relations. the IT Rules in India, leading to weak enforcement of
¾ Judicial Stand: digital safety and accountability standards.
Shaviya Sharma vs Squint Neon & Ors Case, 2024: Victims, especially of gendered abuse, face disbelief

The Delhi High Court ordered removal of tweets and victim-blaming, discouraging legal recourse.

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Presidential Reference under Article 143

Why in News?
The President has invoked Article 143 of the Indian Constitution to refer a set of 14 constitutional questions to
the Supreme Court (SC) for its advisory opinion.
¾ This move comes after a recent SC judgement which invoked Article 142 in the State of Tamil Nadu v The Governor
of Tamil Nadu Case, 2023 imposing timelines on Governors and the President to act on Bills passed by state
legislatures.

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¾ The reference raises 14 key questions, primarily ¾ Historical Context: Advisory jurisdiction under Article
concerning Articles 200 and 201, and the justiciability 143 is derived from the Government of India Act,
of executive actions before a Bill becomes law. 1935, which allowed the Governor-General to refer
legal questions to the federal court.
What is Article 143 of
The Canadian Constitution allows its SC to provide
the Indian Constitution?
legal opinions, while the US SC refrains from giving
¾ About: Article 143 (Advisory jurisdiction) empowers advisory opinions to uphold a strict separation
the President of India to seek the SC’s advisory of powers.
opinion on any question of law or fact that is of public ¾ Past Instances of Such References: There have been
importance and is likely to arise or has already arisen. about 15 Presidential references to the Supreme
This provision establishes the SC’s advisory Court under Article 143. Some landmark cases include:
jurisdiction, which is exclusive to the President. Delhi Laws Act case (1951): Defined the scope of

¾ Types of Questions Referred: delegated legislation.

Article 143 (1): The President may refer any Kerala Education Bill (1958): Harmonized

question of law or fact of public importance Fundamental Rights with Directive Principles.
which has arisen or which is likely to arise. Here, Berubari case (1960): Held that territorial cession

the Supreme Court may tender or may refuse to requires a constitutional amendment.
tender its opinion to the president. Keshav Singh case (1965): Explained legislative

z E.g., the Supreme court has declined to provide privileges.

its opinion in 1993 with respect to the Ram Presidential poll case (1974): Allowed elections

Janmabhoomi case. despite vacancies in State Assemblies.

Third Judges case (1998): Established the Collegium
Article 143(2): It allows the President to refer
disputes arising from out of any pre-constitution system for judicial appointments.
treaty, agreement, covenant, sanad or other similar ¾ Key Issues in Current Reference: It raises issues about
instruments. The SC must tender its opinion to whether courts can impose timelines on President
the President. and Governors not explicitly stated in the Constitution
(especially under Articles 200 and 201).
¾ Nature of the Advise: In both the cases, the opinion
It also questions the extent of the SC’s power
expressed by the SC is only advisory and not a judicial
under Article 142 (complete justice provision).
pronouncement.
¾ Overturning Power through Advisory Reference:
Hence, it is not binding on the president; she may
According to the 1991 Cauvery Water Disputes
follow or may not follow the opinion. Tribunal opinion, Article 143 cannot be used to review
However, it facilitates the government to have or reverse settled judicial decisions.
an authoritative legal opinion on a matter to be However, the government may still seek review
decided by it. or curative petitions to challenge the State of
What are the Key Facts Regarding Tamil Nadu v The Governor of Tamil Nadu Case,
2023 verdict.
the Presidential Reference?
¾ About: Article 143 gives the President the power to What is the Significance of the
refer any question of law or fact of public importance Presidential Reference System?
to the SC for its opinion, based on the Union Council ¾ Constitutional Interpretation of Roles: It can clarify the
of Ministers’ advice. constitutional roles of the President and Governors,
Article 145 (3) requires such references to be heard and whether non-time-bound executive actions can
by a bench of at least five judges. be subject to judicial oversight.

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¾ Reaffirmation of Democratic Structure: It offers a seeking to make the NOTA (None of the Above) option
chance to redefine the balance of power among compulsory in all elections, including those with a single
the legislature, executive, and judiciary, ensuring candidate.
constitutional order by preventing overreach.
What is NOTA in Indian Elections?
¾ Procedural Certainty: It resolves procedural
uncertainties in intergovernmental matters and may ¾ About: The “None of the Above” (NOTA) option on
help establish guidelines for resolving institutional Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) allows voters to
friction in future. reject all candidates while maintaining the secrecy
¾ Smooth Federal Functioning: In a federal structure, of their choice.
this reference helps define jurisdictional boundaries ¾ Significance: Technically, it does not affect the outcome
between the Centre and States, promoting cooperative
of the election, i.e., the candidate with the highest
federalism through a clear legal framework for
dispute resolution. votes still wins, even if NOTA gets more votes than
any candidate, but it empowers citizens to express
What are Challenges in the dissatisfaction with contesting candidates without
Presidential Reference System? abstaining from the electoral process.
¾ Non-Binding Nature: The Supreme Court’s Article ¾ Background: In its 170th Report in 1999, the Law
143 advice is not legally binding on the President, Commission explored the concept of negative voting
limiting its practical impact and raising doubts about
alongside a 50%+1 voting system, but practical
its effectiveness.
challenges led to no final recommendations on the
¾ Potential Politicization: The reference risks political
matter.
misuse, especially when the ruling government seeks
to validate controversial decisions or question adverse In 2004, the People’s Union for Civil Liberties
rulings, potentially compromising judicial neutrality (PUCL) petitioned the Supreme Court, citing that
and involving the judiciary in political disputes. the Conduct of Elections Rules, 1961 violated voter
¾ Unclear Threshold for Referral: The Constitution lacks secrecy by recording identities of non-voters.
a clear standard for what constitutes a “question of law z In September 2013, the Supreme Court directed
or fact of public importance,” granting the executive the Election Commission of India (ECI) to
broad discretion that may result in references lacking introduce the NOTA option following its directive
true constitutional significance.
given in the PUCL vs Union of India Case Case,
¾ Institutional Tensions: Referrals often arise from
2013, as a measure to safeguard the secrecy
judiciary-executive disputes, potentially heightening
of voters’ choices.
tensions and undermining judicial independence,
especially when revisiting settled judgments. ¾ Usage of NOTA: NOTA is available in Lok Sabha, State
¾ No Timeline for Response: The Constitution sets Assembly, and Panchayat elections, though not
no time limit for the Supreme Court to respond to a uniformly across all local bodies.
reference, risking delays in urgent matters that hinder It was first used in the 2013 Assembly elections
governance and policy clarity. in Chhattisgarh, Mizoram, Rajasthan, Delhi, and
Madhya Pradesh.
Compulsory Inclusion In Lok Sabha elections, NOTA vote share has
of NOTA in Elections remained low but consistent, 1.1% in 2014, 1.04%
in 2019, and similar in 2024.
Why in News? z In State elections, Bihar recorded the highest
A Public Interest Litigation (PIL) has been filed in the at 2.48% (2015), followed by Gujarat at 1.8%
Supreme Court (SC) by Vidhi Centre for Legal Policy, (2017).

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Rule 49-O vs. NOTA What are the Arguments Related to Compulsory
¾ Rule 49-O of the Conduct of Elections Rules, 1961,
Inclusion of NOTA in All Elections?
allowed voters to formally abstain from voting by Arguments in Favour of Compulsory NOTA Option
informing the presiding officer at the polling booth.
This was recorded as a “None of the Above” ¾ Expands Voter Choice: NOTA empowers voters to
type option but was not anonymous, as the reject all contesting candidates, allowing them to
voter’s choice to reject all candidates was noted express disapproval without abstaining from voting,
publicly, violating the secrecy of the ballot. enhancing voter autonomy.
¾ NOTA option (since 2013) allows voters to reject all ¾ Upholds Voter Choice in Uncontested Polls: NOTA
candidates anonymously by pressing a designated ensures voters can express dissent even in single-
button on Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) which candidate elections, preserving democratic choice.
preserves the secrecy of the ballot, empowering ¾ Promotes Political Accountability: The presence
voters to express dissent without fear or exposure. of NOTA encourages political parties to nominate
What are the Judicial better, more competent, and ethical candidates to
Pronouncements Related to NOTA? avoid losing votes.
¾ Signals Voter Dissatisfaction: NOTA vote counts serve
¾ In Lily Thomas v. Speaker, Lok Sabha, 1993, the
as an important indicator for the EC and parties about
Supreme Court (SC) held that the right to vote includes
public discontent, prompting corrective measures.
the right to express one’s will either in support or
in opposition. It can pave the way for future reforms, like

This also implies a voter’s right to remain neutral

mandatory re-election if NOTA crosses a threshold
in an election. and minimum winning thresholds based on voter
¾ In People’s Union for Civil Liberties v. Union of India, turnout and votes polled.
2013, SC directed the Election Commission to include Arguments Against Compulsory Inclusion of NOTA
a NOTA button in EVMs.
¾ Rare Use, No Electoral Impact: NOTA has no effect on
The Court emphasized that voter secrecy must
election outcomes, as the candidate with the highest
be maintained whether the person votes for a
candidate or opts for NOTA, thus empowering votes wins regardless of NOTA count.
voters and deepening democratic participation. Since 1952, only 9 Lok Sabha candidates have

¾ In Shailesh Manubhai Parmar v. Election Commission been elected unopposed, just 6 since 1971, making
of India, 2018, SC ruled that the NOTA option was rules for such rare scenarios largely redundant.
unsuitable for Rajya Sabha (Upper House) elections, ¾ Caste-Based Bias: In reserved constituencies, high
as it could distort the electoral process, promote NOTA votes sometimes reflect caste prejudice against
corruption, and encourage political defections. certain candidates, which can distort its intended
Consequently, the Court removed NOTA from purpose.
indirect elections. ¾ Promotes Voter Apathy & Disillusionment: Mandatory
International Practices Similar to NOTA NOTA may lead to casual rejection of all candidates
without meaningful evaluation, reducing critical
¾ Several European nations like Finland, Spain, Sweden,
voter engagement.
France, Belgium, and Greece permit voters to cast
a vote equivalent to NOTA. Additionally, if NOTA secures significant votes but

¾ In the US, though there’s no formal NOTA button, has no electoral consequence, it can erode public
some states allow write-in votes, enabling voters to trust in the democratic process and legitimacy of
write “None of the Above” or any name to express the elected government.
dissatisfaction. ¾ Weakens Representative Democracy: Since NOTA
¾ Countries such as Colombia, Ukraine, Brazil, and does not affect the mandate, it may undermine the
Bangladesh also provide a NOTA-like voting option principle of representative democracy by not ensuring
to their citizens. clear voter endorsement.

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Economic Scenario
Highlights
z Strengthening Medium Enterprises as a Catalyst for MSME Growth z Economic Capital Framework and RBI’s Dividend Transfer
z Scheme for Special Assistance to States for Capital Investment z GeM’s 8th Incorporation Day
(SASCI) z Gig Economy

(links a central unit to multiple branches) to ensure

Strengthening Medium wider outreach and phased implementation for
Enterprises as a Catalyst smooth adoption.
¾ Strengthening R&D & Innovation: Allocate 25–30%
for MSME Growth of Government funding from the Self-Reliant India
Fund specifically for medium enterprises’ R&D.
Why in News? Establish a three-tier governance system and

NITI Aayog has released a report titled ‘Designing a promote competition-based funding aligned with
Policy for Medium Enterprises’, proposing a dedicated national priorities.
concessional credit scheme and reforms to boost India’s ¾ Cluster-Based Testing & Quality Certification: Expand
medium-sized enterprises (that includes enterprises with the MSE-Cluster Development Programme to medium
investment in plant and machinery up to ₹125 crore and enterprises by setting up sector-specific testing
an annual turnover up to ₹500 crore). facilities within industrial clusters, reducing costs
and improving export quality compliance through
¾ The report can also serve as a potential blueprint for
public-private partnerships and digital tools.
addressing the challenges faced by small and micro
enterprises, paving the way for a more inclusive and ¾ Customized Skill Development: Enhance real-time
skill gap mapping via the MSME Sampark Portal and
scalable MSME ecosystem.
expand the Entrepreneurship and Skill Development
What are the Key Policy Recommendations Programme to include cluster-specific, technology-
of NITI Aayog for Medium Enterprises? linked, and export-oriented training.
¾ Centralized Digital Portal: Create a dedicated sub-portal
¾ Facilitating Financial Access: Introduce a dedicated
on the Udyam platform consolidating information on
working capital scheme offering concessional loans
schemes, compliance, finance, and market access,
up to Rs 25 crore and a Medium Enterprise Credit
integrated with AI tools for eligibility assistance,
Card with pre-approved limits up to Rs 5 crore for
compliance tracking, and real-time regulatory and
emergency funds. market updates.
Extend the Non-Performing Asset (NPA)
Note: While medium enterprises act as catalysts
classification period from 90 to 180 days to ease
through higher innovation, investment, and export
liquidity pressures. capacity, it is crucial to strengthen the entire MSME
¾ Technology Integration & Industry 4.0: Upgrade ecosystem, including micro and small enterprises—
existing Technology Centres into India SME Industry which are vital to inclusive economic growth and rural
4.0 Competence Centres providing AI, IoT, and employment. A synergistic approach can amplify
automation support through a hub-and-spoke model sectoral development and resilience.

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What are Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs)?

¾ About: MSMEs are businesses that produce, process, and preserve goods and commodities.
¾ Classification: These are broadly classified into micro, small and medium enterprises based on their investment
in plant and machinery for manufacturing or equipment for service enterprises, as well as their annual turnover.

¾ MSME Scenario: As per Udyam Portal (Feb 2025), India has 5.93 crore MSMEs, with micro enterprises forming
over 98%, while medium enterprises account for just 0.3% (69,300 units).
Out of 2.95 crore registered MSMEs (as per MSME Annual Report 2023-24), 72% are engaged in the service
sector and remaining 28% in the manufacturing sector.
¾ Significance:
Contribution to GDP & Employment: MSMEs currently contribute approximately 29% to India’s GDP, producing
6,000+ diverse products and employ over 60% of India’s workforce.
z MSMEs create 27 crore jobs, with women comprising 26% of the workforce.

z While micro enterprises generate 89% of MSME jobs, medium enterprises contribute 3%, but with a high
per unit employment of ~89 persons.
Contribution to Exports: MSMEs account for 40% of India’s exports despite only 1.36% of registered MSMEs
are exporters.
z Of these, 64% have an export turnover of less than Rs 1 crore.

Green & Sustainable Growth: MSMEs lead India’s green industrial push by adopting clean energy and circular
economy practices. Schemes like RAMP (with World Bank support) and Telangana MSME Policy (Rs 4,000 crore)
focus on sustainable growth and entrepreneurship.
Leading Digital & Technological Transformation: MSMEs are rapidly adopting digital payments, automation,
and AI. Programs like ONDC and the Rs 1 lakh crore interest-free innovation fund support this shift.
z 72% of MSME transactions are now digital.

Click Here to Read More: Role of MSMEs in India’s Economic Growth

What are the Key Issues Associated with MSMEs in India?
¾ Access to Finance: Despite schemes like Mudra Yojana and PM Vishwakarma, MSMEs face credit hurdles due
to lack of collateral, high interest rates, and complex loan procedures. Many fail to meet formal lender criteria,
pushing them toward unreliable informal credit sources.
As per SIDBI Report 2025, 17% of surveyed MSMEs did not avail any credit, while 8% relied on informal
sources, micro enterprises being most impacted (12%).

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¾ Regulatory and Compliance Burden: MSMEs struggle

with complex tax structures, frequent policy changes, Scheme for Special
and onerous compliance, lacking manpower and
expertise. While GST has eased some processes, the
Assistance to States for
regulatory load remains heavy, leading to penalties Capital Investment (SASCI)
and financial stress.
Multiple overlapping laws across labor, taxation, Why in News?
and environmental regulations create bureaucratic The Centre’s 50-year interest-free capex loans under
roadblocks.
the Scheme for Special Assistance to States for Capital
¾ Infrastructure and Logistics Gaps: Poor transport, Investment (SASCI) are driving major land reforms across
warehousing, and supply chains increase costs and India by pushing states to modernise property systems,
delays, especially in rural areas, limiting market boosting efficiency, and industrial growth.
expansion and customer satisfaction.
The Economic Survey 2022-23 pointed out that What is SASCI?
logistics costs in India were in the range of 14- ¾ About: The ‘Scheme for Special Assistance to States
18% of GDP against the global benchmark of 8%. for Capital Expenditure’ was launched in 2020–21 in
¾ Technology Adoption Lag: Most MSMEs lack access response to the Covid-19 pandemic.
to AI, IoT, automation due to financial and technical Later renamed as SASCI, it aims to stimulate
constraints, reducing competitiveness and innovation. economic recovery by providing interest-free
Digital payment integration is weak, and cybersecurity assistance to states specifically for capital investment.
remains inadequate, increasing operational risks.
¾ Key Features:
Of 64 million MSMEs, just 7.7 million have achieved
Capital Investment Focus: Provides long term
digital maturity.
According to a survey by the Ministry of MSMEs,
interest free loans for a period of 50 years to
only 45% of MSMEs have adopted some form of states exclusively for capital expenditure projects.
AI in their operations z Capital expenditure boosts productive capacity,

¾ Skilled Workforce Shortage: MSMEs rely heavily on creates jobs, and drives sustainable growth.
semi/unskilled labor, affecting efficiency. Lack of It has a high multiplier effect for every Rs 1
targeted training and skilled manpower in technical/ spent it is estimated to generate Rs 3 in Gross
managerial roles constrains growth and productivity. Domestic Product (GDP).
About 47% of MSMEs report difficulty in finding Structure: Divided into multiple parts targeting

employees with the right skills, especially in different sectors, such as urban reforms, vehicle
manufacturing and IT-enabled services, where scrapping incentives, police housing, Make in
specialised talent is crucial for sustained growth. India initiatives, digital infrastructure, Optical
¾ Market Access and Competition: MSMEs face low Fibre Cable, and tourism development.
brand visibility, restricted marketing budgets, and ¾ Progress:
limited market intelligence. Massive Scale-Up: The scheme grew from Rs 12,000
Only 1.36% of registered MSMEs are currently crore in 2020-21 to Rs 1,50,000 crore in 2024-25,
exporting. And even in them, Medium enterprises, reflecting increased focus on capital investment.
though just 9% of exporting units contribute 40% Widespread Industrial Reforms: Under SASCI 22
of MSME exports. states updated building bylaws for industrial and
¾ High Informality: Despite recent improvements, still a commercial plots.
major portion of MSMEs operate unregistered, lacking
z Additionally, 18 states reduced land wastage by
access to formal credit, govt. schemes, and IPR/
optimizing setbacks and parking norms, making
legal protection. Weak documentation undermines
more efficient use of available space.
credibility and scalability.
z To support vertical industrial growth, 12 states
Click Here to Read More: Challenges Related to MSME have doubled the permissible built-up area for
Sector flatted factories.

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z Furthermore, 8 states have raised the Floor Area Ratio (FAR) in commercial zones, thereby unlocking higher
density development and boosting overall urban productivity.
Rural Land Digitisation: Under SASCI 90% of cadastral maps (land ownership map) geo-referenced nationwide,
and 30% of land parcels are assigned Unique Land Parcel Identification Numbers (ULPIN) (Bhu-Aadhar).
z Additionally, 91% of Records of Rights (legal documents containing all necessary information about a land
parcel) digitised, enabling transparency and reducing disputes.
z Improved land administration and industrial reforms are expected to increase manufacturing capacity,
streamline credit access, and enhance overall economic growth.
Tourism: For the first time under SASCI, funds have been earmarked for tourism, with Rs 3,295 crore sanctioned
for 40 projects across 23 states to develop iconic tourist centres at a global scale.

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Capital Expenditure The framework was recommended by the former

RBI Governor, Bimal Jalan Committee (2018) and
¾ Capital Expenditure (Capex) refers to funds spent
formally adopted in 2019.
by the government or businesses on acquiring,
upgrading, or maintaining physical assets such as ¾ Objective: It aims to strike a balance between
infrastructure, machinery, or technology. maintaining adequate financial buffers for monetary
Unlike Operating Expenses (Opex), which cover and financial stability and ensuring prudent surplus
day-to-day operational costs, Capex involves distribution.
substantial long-term investments recorded as It enables the RBI to maintain a Contingency Risk
assets and depreciated over time. Buffer (CRB) as a financial safeguard against
¾ The Indian government allocates Capex through unforeseen shocks like currency volatility and
its annual Union Budget, with Rs 11.21 lakh crore economic crises.
(3.1% of GDP) earmarked for FY 2025–26. z CRB is a financial safety net of 5.5% to 6.5%
¾ Capex as a countercyclical fiscal tool, it stabilizes of RBI’s balance sheet, ensuring its stability
the economy during downturns and supports future and capacity to act as Lender of Last Resort
revenue through asset creation. during crises.
¾ Capex also aids in reducing public liabilities via ¾ Revised ECF (Bimal Jalan Committee Recommendations,
loan repayments and encourages private sector 2019):
investment, making it essential for India’s sustained Realized Equity (Contingency Fund-CF): The CF
development and infrastructure expansion. acts as a buffer against unforeseen losses and is
to be maintained between 5.5% and 6.5% of the
Economic Capital RBI’s balance sheet.
z Any excess above this range is transferred to
Framework and RBI’s the government. The RBI’s Central Board has
Dividend Transfer fixed the target at the lower bound of 5.5%.
Economic Capital (Capital and General Risk
Why in News? Account- CGRA): The CGRA includes the RBI’s
The Central Board of Directors of the Reserve Bank capital, reserves, risk provisions, and revaluation
of India (RBI) assessed the Economic Capital Framework balances arising from fluctuations in exchange
(ECF) for determining risk provisioning and the distribution rates, gold prices, and interest rates.
of dividend (surplus) from the central bank to the It is to be maintained between 20.8% and 25.4%
government. of the balance sheet size, and any excess may be
¾ It has approved the highest-ever transfer of Rs transferred to the Centre.
2,68,590.07 crore as surplus to the Government of ¾ Review Mechanism: As per the committee’s
India for FY 2024–25, under the revised ECF, with the recommendations, ECF is reviewed every 5 years to
Contingent Risk Buffer (CRB) raised to 7.5% of the adjust for evolving economic conditions and risks,
RBI’s balance sheet. with the latest review done in August 2024.
What is Economic Capital Framework (ECF)? ¾ Trends in Dividend Transfer: RBI’s dividend transfers to
¾ About: The ECF is a structured mechanism adopted the government have increased from Rs 30,307 crore
by the RBI to determine the appropriate level of in FY22 to an estimated Rs 2.5-3 lakh crore in FY25.
risk provisions and the surplus (profit) that can be This sharp rise is attributed to strong earnings from
transferred to the Government of India under Section dollar sales, rising gold prices, and appreciation
47 of the RBI Act, 1934. in government securities.

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This higher dividend will help manage the fiscal deficit and boost banking liquidity and potentially easing
short-term interest rates.

What are the Provisions Governing RBI’s Surplus Transfer?

¾ RBI Act, 1934: Section 47 of the RBI Act mandates that the net profits of the RBI, after making provisions for the
Contingency Fund (CF) and Asset Development Fund (ADF), must be transferred to the Central Government.
Section 48 exempts the RBI from paying income tax or super tax on its income, thereby enabling a more direct
transfer of surplus to the exchequer.
¾ Committee Recommendations: Historically, the RBI retained a considerable portion of its profits to strengthen
its internal reserves.
Over the years, several expert committees have examined the adequacy of RBI’s capital buffers and the
quantum of surplus to be transferred:
z V. Subrahmanyam Committee (1997)
z Usha Thorat Committee (2004)
z YH Malegam Committee (2013) recommended higher transfers to the government while maintaining
prudent reserves.
z Bimal Jalan Committee (2018) introduced the revised Economic Capital Framework (ECF), balancing risk
provisioning with fiscal needs.
Following these recommendations, particularly the Malegam and Jalan Committees, the RBI has progressively
increased its surplus transfers to the government, ensuring both macroeconomic stability and fiscal space for
public spending.

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What are the Major Income & Expenditure Heads of RBI?

¾ Interest on Rupee Securities: Income earned from holding rupee-denominated

Government Securities, adjusted for profit or loss on their sale or redemption, along
with depreciation and amortization expenses.
¾ Interest from Liquidity Adjustment Facility (LAF) and Marginal Standing Facility
(MSF): Net interest earned through operations under LAF and MSF mechanisms.
Source of Income
¾ Interest on Loans and Advances: Interest income from loans extended to the Central
and State Governments, banks, financial institutions, and RBI employees.
¾ Interest from Foreign Currency Assets: Earnings from interest on foreign currency-
denominated assets held by the RBI.
¾ Open Market Operations (OMOs)

¾ Risk Provisions: The RBI maintains 2 principal risk funds:

Contingency Fund (CF): Set aside to cover unforeseen contingencies such as
depreciation in the value of securities and risks arising from monetary policy changes.
Asset Development Fund (ADF): Allocated for investments in subsidiaries and
associated institutions, as well as for internal capital expenditures.
¾ Currency Printing Costs: Expenses related to the printing of banknotes.
Expenditure
¾ Agency Charges: Commissions paid to banks, primary dealers, and other agents
involved in currency distribution and government securities operations.
¾ Operating Expenses: Salaries, benefits, and other related costs incurred for RBI staff.
¾ Interest Paid on Deposits and Borrowings: Expenditure incurred by a bank in the
form of interest payments on funds deposited by customers, inter-bank borrowings,
central bank facilities, or debt instruments such as bonds.

¾ Net income derived from the total income (sources of income) minus total expenditure
Surplus (expenses).
¾ Reserve funds and contingency provisions for financial stability and emergencies.

What is the Significance of RBI’s Surplus Transfer to Government?

¾ Reduces Fiscal Deficit: Assists the government in meeting its fiscal deficit target of 5.1% in FY 2024–25 by
augmenting non-tax revenue.
¾ Enhances Revenue Generation: Acts as a major non-tax revenue source, enabling higher public expenditure and
supporting economic growth.
¾ Lowers Government Borrowing: May reduce gross borrowings by up to Rs 1 trillion, freeing fiscal space for capital
expenditure.
¾ Reduces Borrowing Costs: Lower borrowing needs can soften G-Sec yields, reducing the government’s debt
servicing burden.
¾ Keeps Interest Rates in Check: Falling sovereign yields influence broader market rates, making borrowing cheaper
for businesses and households.

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¾ Progress: GeM’s user base has tripled, now including

GeM’s 8th Incorporation Day over 1.64 lakh buyers and 4.2 lakh active sellers,
offering 10,000+ product categories and 330+ services.
Why in News? ¾ Pan-India Adoption: GeM is now adopted in all 36
On its 8th Incorporation Day, Government e States and UTs, with Uttar Pradesh leading and eight
Marketplace (GeM) reaffirmed its transformative role states, including Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Assam,
in driving inclusive economic growth and digital mandating its use.
governance in India.
¾ Technological Advancement: It has launched GeMAI,
¾ GeM was incorporated on 17th May 2017 under the India’s first generative AI-powered chatbot in the
Companies Act, 2013. public sector, supporting voice and text in 10 Indian
What is Government e Marketplace (GeM)? languages, to improve user support and inclusive
¾ About: GeM is an online platform to facilitate service delivery.
procurement of goods and services by various
government departments and public sector units. Gig Economy
It was launched on 9th August 2016 by the Ministry
of Commerce and Industry. Why in News?
¾ Objective: It ensures transparency, efficiency, and The gig workers’ meeting on “Current Developments,
fairness in government procurement, streamlining
Challenges, and the Way Forward,” organized by the Gig
processes and reducing corruption.
Workers Association, highlighted critical issues within
Independent reviews, including the World Bank,
India’s gig economy and recommended the establishment
report nearly 10% cost savings in government of minimum wages, social security, and legal protections
procurement, with nearly 97% of transactions
for gig and platform workers.
fee-free and reductions of 33%-96% (capped at
Rs 3 lakh) for large orders. ¾ It also called for the establishment of tripartite
welfare boards at both state and national levels,
¾ User base: It serves as the Public Procurement Portal
including representatives of workers, employers,
for purchasing goods and services across all Central
and State Government Ministries, Departments, and the government.
Public Sector Units (PSUs), and their affiliates. What is the Gig Economy?
¾ Product Range: It offers a wide range of products and
¾ About: The new Labour Codes of 2019 defines
services, e-bidding, reverse e-auction, and demand
a gig worker as “A person who performs work or
aggregation.
participates in a work arrangement and earns from
The Ministry of Finance has authorized and made
such activities outside of traditional employer-
purchases through GeM mandatory for government
employee relationship”.
users under the General Financial Rules, 2017.
It is a labor market of short-term, flexible jobs
¾ Ownership: It is managed by GeM SPV (Special Purpose
often enabled by digital platforms.
Vehicle), a completely government-owned (100%),
not-for-profit entity established under the Ministry Workers, as freelancers or independent contractors,
of Commerce and Industry. are paid per task rather than through full-time
¾ Inclusivity: It empowers diverse Indian entrepreneurs, contracts. Common activities include freelance
including MSEs, startups, women-led enterprises, services, food delivery, and digital work.
artisans, and weavers. ¾ Status of India’s Gig Economy: A NITI Aayog report
Over 10 lakh MSEs, 1.3 lakh artisans and weavers, estimates 7.7 million gig workers in India in 2020–21,
1.84 lakh women entrepreneurs, and 31,000 projected to reach 23.5 million by 2029–30, mostly
startups are now part of the GeM ecosystem. in medium-skilled jobs.

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¾ Key Factors of Growth:

Growing Digital Access: India has over 936 million internet users, with rapid growth in rural areas. Around 650
million smartphone users, supported by falling prices, are expanding access, strengthening the gig economy.
E-Commerce Boom: The growth of startups and e-commerce is driving demand for flexible gig workers in
content creation, marketing, logistics, and delivery.
Rising Demand for Convenience: Urban consumers’ demand for quick services like food delivery and e-commerce
boosts gig opportunities in delivery and customer support.
Low-Cost Labor: A surplus of semi-skilled labor, high unemployment, and weak social security drive many into
low-paid gig work as a survival strategy.
Shift in Work Preferences: Younger generations favor flexibility and work-life balance, finding gig work attractive
for its project-based, remote, and flexible options.
¾ Segment:

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What is the Significance of the Gig Economy? inadequate for gig workers due to the flexible and
¾ Opportunities for Gig Workers: The gig economy decentralized nature of platform work.
provides flexible work that helps balance personal ¾ Employment Instability: Gig workers face job
and professional life, especially benefiting women, insecurity as opaque algorithms and customer ratings
while enhancing skills and earning potential. control their work, pay, and employment, leading
to unpredictable income.
¾ Business Friendly: Businesses gain cost-effective,
A 2024 NITI Aayog report found 90% of gig workers
scalable labor and can hire skilled workers for
lack savings and face high vulnerability, while a
short-term projects, boosting productivity without
2023 Fair Work India study reported average
long-term commitments.
monthly earnings of Rs 15,000–Rs 20,000 only.
¾ Economic Growth and Job Creation: By 2030, India’s
¾ Inadequate Government Response: The Code on
gig economy could support 90 million jobs, handle
Social Security, 2020, mandates a National Social
USD 250 billion in work volume, contribute 1.25%
Security Board for gig workers’ welfare, but slow
to GDP, and make up 4.1% of the workforce. implementation and weak enforcement leave most
¾ Inclusive Growth: Initially dominated by high-income workers without benefits or protection.
professionals, the gig economy now offers alternative The “Prisoners on Wheels” report found that 83%
income and flexible jobs to entry-level workers and cab drivers work over 10 hours a day.
freshers, especially in growing Tier-II and Tier-III cities. ¾ Gender Disparities: Women gig workers face more
¾ Future Potential with Technology Integration: The harassment, lack grievance support, and often
gig economy is set to drive economic growth and experience underpayment, limited opportunities,
job creation, boosted by Artificial Intelligence (AI), and unsafe conditions, worsening gender inequality.
predictive analytics, and digital innovation enhancing ¾ Timely Payments: Over 25% of gig workers face job
gig work’s efficiency and reach. dissatisfaction due to delayed payments, stressing the
¾ Supporting the Informal Economy: Many gig workers need for timely, transparent, and shorter payment
in India, including drivers and delivery staff from cycles to avoid financial strain.
informal sectors like agriculture, find additional ¾ Algorithmic Control: The lack of transparency and
work opportunities through platforms like Zomato accountability in algorithmic management creates a
and Swiggy. severe power imbalance, with workers facing arbitrary
decisions like unexplained account deactivations and
What are the Major Issues no clear recourse, exposing platform exploitation.
Affecting the Gig Economy in India?
India’s Initiatives Related to Gig Workers
¾ Lack of Legal Protections: Gig workers, classified as
¾ Code on Social Security, 2020
independent contractors, lack essential rights like
¾ e-Shram Portal
minimum wage, paid leave, and health benefits,
making them vulnerable to exploitation. ¾ Pradhan Mantri Shram Yogi Maandhan Yojana
Laws like the Contract Labour Act, 1970, and ¾ Rajasthan’s Platform-Based Gig Workers (Registration

Employment Compensation Act, 1923, are and Welfare) Act, 2023

nnn

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International Relations
Highlights
z Shift in OPEC+ Production Strategy z WHO Endorses Global Pandemic Agreement

Shift in OPEC+ Production Strategy

Why in News?
The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)+ group led by Saudi Arabia decided to increase
oil production by 411,000 barrels per day (bpd). This marks the third consecutive month of production hikes, gradually
reversing the voluntary output cuts initiated in 2023.

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Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries

¾ The OPEC is a permanent intergovernmental organization founded at the Baghdad Conference, in 1960 by Iran,
Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and Venezuela, headquartered in Vienna, Austria.
OPEC currently has 12 members, including Algeria, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, Saudi Arabia, UAE, and
Venezuela.
OPEC works to coordinate oil policies among member countries to ensure stable prices, steady supply to
consumers, and fair returns for investors.
OPEC nations produce about 30% of the world’s crude oil, hold 80% of proven reserves, and account for
nearly half of global exports, with Saudi Arabia as the largest producer among the OPEC.
¾ OPEC+ was formed in 2016 as an alliance between OPEC and 10 other oil producers to address declining oil
prices due to US shale oil growth.
OPEC+ includes the OPEC members plus Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Brunei, Kazakhstan, Malaysia, Mexico, Oman,
Russia, South Sudan, and Sudan.
The OPEC and OPEC+ countries combined produce about 60% of global oil production.
What Factors Influenced the Rise in Oil Production by OPEC+?
¾ Weak Impact of Output Cuts: In 2023, eight OPEC+ members voluntarily cut oil production by 2.2 million barrels
per day (bpd) to support falling prices.
Despite these reductions, global oil prices continued to decline, indicating weak market response.

¾ Rise of Overproduction Within OPEC+: Countries like Kazakhstan, Iraq, UAE, and Nigeria produced more oil than
their agreed limits. This concerned Saudi Arabia, which made the largest cuts of around 3 million bpd.

¾ Post-COVID Market Weakness: Post-pandemic recovery has been K-shaped, leading to weak and uneven oil
demand. The oil market now has many freelance producers outside OPEC+, making it more complex.

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High investments have gone into expensive

What are the Implications of Global Oil
offshore and difficult fields that need to keep Price Volatility for India’s Economy?
producing, even if profits are low, due to political
¾ India’s Growing Oil Demand: India is the world’s
and economic reasons.
3rd-largest crude importer (after China and the US)
Big oil exporters like Russia, Iran, and Venezuela
with demand growth (~3.2% in 2024-25) nearly four
are limited by US sanctions.
times the global rate.
Non-OPEC+ producers like Brazil and Guyana
India is expected to contribute nearly 25% of global
are also ramping up production, adding to global
crude demand growth in 2025 and become the
oversupply.
primary demand driver until 2040.
Shale producers in the US have returned stronger,
¾ Short-Term Benefits: Lower crude prices can reduce
making the market more competitive and less
India’s import bill, with every USD 1 drop in oil prices
responsive to OPEC+ controls.
saving roughly USD 1.5 billion annually.
¾ Shift from Price Support to Market Share: With price
¾ Long-Term Risks: Lower oil revenues can weaken the
stabilization efforts failing, Saudi Arabia revived its old
economies of key Gulf trading partners, reducing
strategy of chasing market share over price.
bilateral trade, investments, and tourism.
Saudi Arabia is known as the “swing producer”
It could lead to possible job losses for over nine
due to its large spare oil production capacity and
preference for stable, moderately high prices to million Indian expatriates in the Gulf, threatening
maintain steady revenues. remittance inflows (approx USD 50 billion), which
support India’s balance of payments.
However, when other producers exceed their
Tax revenues linked to oil and gas sectors also
quotas, Saudi Arabia floods the market (as seen
in 1985–86, 1998, 2014–16, and 2020) to pressure reduce, impacting government finances.
high-cost producers and reassert its leadership. ¾ Need for Diversification: India faces the strategic
imperative to reduce hydrocarbon dependence and
How is Global Oil Demand Evolving? develop new growth drivers to mitigate risks from
¾ Weakening Global Oil Demand: The International volatile oil markets.
Energy Agency (IEA) expects global oil demand to
grow only 0.73% in 2025.
The “peak demand” theory (the idea that global
WHO Endorses Global
oil demand will reach its highest point and then Pandemic Agreement
permanently decline) is gaining credibility, with
indicators like a global economic slowdown, rising Why in News?
EV adoption, and stronger climate action. The World Health Organization (WHO), at its 78th
z These trends, compounded by disruptions such World Health Assembly has adopted the world’s first
as the US tariff war, have led to reduced global global Pandemic agreement under Article 19 of the WHO
GDP (S&P Global forecasts global GDP growth Constitution, aiming to strengthen health security and
of just 2.2% in 2025 and 2.4% in 2026 weakest ensure equitable pandemic responses.
since the 2008 crisis) and trade forecasts. ¾ It is the second legal instrument after the 2003
As a result, oil demand may plateau, and prices Framework Convention on Tobacco Control.
may not rebound even if supply constraints ease.
¾ Trade Risks: World Trade Organisation (WTO) predicts
What is the WHO’s Global
a 0.2% annual decline in global trade in 2025. This Pandemic Agreement?
may cause oil prices to remain subdued despite ¾ About: It was adopted on 20th May 2025, which lays
supply cuts, challenging traditional supply-demand down principles for international cooperation to
price mechanisms. strengthen global health architecture and ensure
¾ Sanctions and Supply-Side Constraints: Key oil timely and equitable access to diagnostics, vaccines,
producers like Russia, Iran, and Venezuela are under and therapeutics during pandemics.
US sanctions, reducing their export capacity (a situation The treaty is open for signature and ratification and
that may change if sanctions are lifted). will become binding once ratified by 60 countries.

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¾ Background: Negotiations for the pandemic treaty ¾ Intellectual Property & Innovation: Pharmaceutical
began in December 2021 during the Omicron variant of companies seek strong Intellectual Property (IP)
Covid-19, exposing vaccine hoarding by rich countries protection and legal certainty to support high-risk
that denied access to poorer nations. research and innovation, highlighting the challenge
Studies showed equitable vaccine distribution of balancing these with equitable access during
could have saved over a million lives. To address pandemics.
poor coordination and inequality, WHO member ¾ Unclear Benefit-Sharing Mechanism: The Pathogen
states collaborated to create this treaty. Access and Benefit-Sharing System (PABS) aims to
¾ Key Provisions: govern the sharing of biological materials (pathogens)
Pathogen Access & Equitable Sharing: Pharma and genome sequences to ensure fair benefit-sharing,
companies gain access to pathogen samples and data including equitable access to vaccines and diagnostics.
in return for sharing 10% of their pandemic-related However, its implementation lacks clarity, and the
vaccines, therapeutics, and diagnostics with WHO, mechanism is still under negotiation, with finalization
and another 10% supplied at affordable prices. expected at the 2026 World Health Assembly.
Technology & Knowledge Transfer: Member states ¾ US Exit from WHO: The withdrawal of the US, a
must promote and incentivize the sharing of key player in global pharmaceutical manufacturing,
technology and expertise to enable local production from the WHO, weakens the treaty’s impact, as its
of vaccines and drugs in developing countries. pharma companies are not obligated to share data
Coordinating Financial Mechanism & GSCL: Member or comply with treaty provisions, creating major
States mandated the initiation of a Coordinating gaps in global coordination.
Financial Mechanism for pandemic prevention,
preparedness and response. India’s Contributions in WHO Pandemic Agreement
z The Global Supply Chain and Logistics Network ¾ Advocacy for Equity & Global Solidarity: India
(GSCL) was launched to remove barriers and advocates fair access to vaccines, diagnostics, and
ensure equitable, timely, safe, and affordable therapeutics, especially for Lower-middle-income
access to pandemic-related health products economies (LMICs) and has pushed for strong equity
during public health emergencies of international clauses to counter vaccine nationalism and ensure
concern. timely global support.
Research Funding & Access Rights: Countries
¾ Support for Technology Transfer and IPR Flexibility:
must ensure publicly funded research includes India, in partnership with South Africa, led the global
conditions for timely and fair access to resulting call at the WTO for waivers on intellectual property
medical products. rights (IPR) for Covid-19 vaccines and therapeutics.
It continues to push for balanced IPR provisions
z Governments should intervene if life-saving
medicines developed with public funds are in the treaty to facilitate technology transfer
unaffordable or unavailable. and enhance manufacturing capabilities in
developing countries.
Sovereignty Preserved: WHO is barred from
¾ Emphasis on Health System Resilience: India
overriding national laws or imposing mandates
advocates for increased global investment in public
such as travel bans, vaccination requirements, or
health infrastructure, workforce capacity building,
lockdowns, ensuring countries retain full authority
and training to strengthen resilient health systems,
over their pandemic responses.
particularly in low-resource settings.
What are the Key Concerns Associated with
WHO’s Global Pandemic Agreement? What are the Key Global Health Challenges?
Click Here to Read: Global Health Challenges
¾ Limited WHO Authority: The treaty explicitly denies
What is the Role of India in Shaping and Advancing
WHO powers to direct national laws or impose
measures like travel bans, vaccine mandates, or Global Health Governance?
lockdowns, limiting enforcement and compliance Click Here to Read: Role of India in Global Health
during crises. Governance

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Note:
¾ The 78th World Health Assembly also honoured Austria, Norway, Oman, and Singapore for eliminating industrially
produced Trans Fatty Acids (TFAs) from their food supplies.

¾ Efforts Against Trans Fats:

WHO limits trans fats to 2g/100g of total fat or ban partially hydrogenated oils (PHOs).
REPLACE Action Framework (2018) of WHO for global elimination of industrially produced trans fats by 2025.
z It had set the target of trans-fat elimination policies in countries that account for at-least 90% of the
global trans fat burden and at least 70% within each region by the end of 2025.
z However, as of May 2025, 60 countries (46% of the global population) have adopted best-practice policies.
India’s Role:
z India enforced a 2% limit on trans fats in oils and fats in 2022 under the Food Safety and Standards
(Prohibition and Restrictions on Sales) Regulations, 2021.

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Social Issues
Highlights
z Global Report on Food Crises 2025 43 z Gendered Malnutrition in India 51
z Hooch Tragedies in India 45 z India’s Battle Against Tuberculosis 53
z Accessibility and Empowerment of PwDs 47 z Enrolment Drop in Government Schools and PM-POSHAN 57
z Child Wellbeing in an Unpredictable World 49

Global Report on Food Crises 2025

Why in News?
The Global Report on Food Crises (GRFC) 2025 has revealed that more than 295 million people across 53 countries
experienced acute hunger, an increase of 13.7 million compared to 2023.
¾ The report highlights a deepening global food insecurity crisis fueled by ongoing conflicts, severe climate events,
economic disruptions, and forced displacement.
Global Report on Food Crises (GRFC)
¾ The Global Report on Food Crises (GRFC), 2025 has been published by the Global Network Against Food Crises
(GNAFC) in collaboration with the Food Security Information Network (FSIN) .
¾ The GRFC is an annual publication that provides a comprehensive analysis of acute food insecurity and nutrition
crisis (malnutrition) worldwide.
Acute food insecurity occurs when disruptions in food availability, access, utilization, or stability threaten
lives or livelihoods.
A nutrition crisis arises when factors like food scarcity, disease, conflict, and poor healthcare lead to high
acute malnutrition in children aged 6–59 months.
What are the Key Drivers of Food Insecurity as per GRFC 2025 Report?

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¾ Conflict & Displacement: Conflict drives food insecurity in 20 countries, affecting 139.8 million people and causing
most Catastrophe ( Integrated Food Security Phase Classification (IPC)- 5 i.e., starvation, death, or severe
malnutrition) cases, especially in Nigeria, Sudan, and Myanmar.
Additionally, global acute malnutrition cases in the top 10 affected countries rose from 26.9 million in 2023 to
30.4 million in 2024, with the worst crises in Sudan, and Gaza.
¾ Extreme Weather Event & Displacement: Rising temperatures, floods, and El Nino caused crop failures, damaging
food supply and increasing malnutrition risks.
It has fueled food insecurity in 18 countries, affecting 96.1 million people, while in 2024, 95.8 million displaced
individuals—75% internally displaced—resided in the 53 food-crisis countries.

¾ Economic Shocks: It drives food insecurity in 15 countries (e.g., South Sudan), affecting 59.4 million people by
disrupting incomes, jobs, and food supply chains, leading to higher food prices, lower purchasing power, and
reduced access to nutritious food.
¾ Funding Cuts: The abrupt end of United States Agency for International Development (USAID) funding in 2025
has hit humanitarian efforts risking severe malnutrition and death for 14 million children in Afghanistan, DRC,
Ethiopia, Haiti etc.
¾ Weak Governance: Food insecurity drivers worsen existing vulnerabilities like weak health systems, fragile
economies, and political instability, while poor data limits effective response and monitoring.

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What are the Socio-Economic Implications of Food Crises on Global Development?

¾ Poverty Intensification: Food crises disrupt local agro-economies, especially where agriculture dominates, and
rising food prices fuel inflation, reducing low-income purchasing power.
¾ Human Capital Loss: Food crises severely impact nutritional outcomes, especially among children and pregnant
women, with over 735 million people chronically undernourished globally as per Global Hunger Index 2023.
Nutrition-related factors contribute to about 45% of deaths in children under 5 years of age.

¾ Social Instability: Food shortages often trigger civil unrest and contribute to forced migration. The United Nations
High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) reports 23.5 million climate-displaced individuals, many of whom flee
due to crop failure and food insecurity.
¾ Gender Inequality: Food crises disproportionately affect women, who are often responsible for household nutrition
but have less access to land, credit, and aid.
As per UN Women, it is estimated that 60% of chronically hungry people are women and girls.

¾ Impairment of Educational Systems: Children affected by food crises often experience higher dropout rates due
to hunger or the need to support household incomes.
While the global number of out-of-school children fell by 9 million from 2015-2021, it has increased by 6 million
since then, due to stagnation worldwide in food supply.

Hooch Tragedies in India

Why in News?
A major hooch tragedy in Punjab’s Amritsar district has claimed 21 lives and left several hospitalised after the
consumption of spurious liquor suspected to contain methanol, a highly toxic chemical.

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Note: Hooch refers to poor-quality, often illicitly produced alcohol, a term derived from the Hoochinoo tribe of
Alaska known for brewing strong liquor.
¾ It is typically made in unregulated and unhygienic conditions. Sometimes, hooch contains a high quantity of
methanol (an industrial alcohol along with ethanol), which is highly toxic and can be fatal when consumed.
What is Methanol?
¾ About: Methanol, also known as methyl alcohol, wood alcohol, or wood spirit, is the simplest alcohol, with the
chemical formula CH₃OH.
Methanol is a colorless, volatile liquid with a faintly sweet pungent odor and is completely miscible with water.

¾ Applications: It serves as a solvent in paints, varnishes, and plastics. It is a key raw material in the production of
formaldehyde, acetic acid, and various aromatic hydrocarbons.
Methanol also functions as an antifreeze agent and fuel additive, helping remove water from automotive
and aviation fuels.
Additionally, it is gaining prominence as a biodegradable energy resource in sustainable energy applications.

¾ Impact on Human Body: Methanol is highly toxic to humans, especially if ingested. It breaks down into formic acid
in the liver, causing metabolic acidosis and lowering blood pH.
This disrupts oxygen use in cells, leading to organ damage. Methanol can also harm the optic nerve, causing
blindness, and may result in brain swelling or bleeding, which can lead to coma or death.

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¾ Regulatory Framework: The Food Safety and Standards ¾ Lack of Awareness and Social Stigma: In rural and
(Alcoholic Beverages) Regulations 2018 set maximum semi-urban areas, there is a lack of awareness about
methanol limits in liquors to ensure safety and quality. the dangers of consuming unregulated alcohol.
Methanol is listed under Schedule I of the
Social stigma around alcoholism also prevents
Manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous people from seeking medical help when symptoms
Chemicals Rules, 1989.
of poisoning appear.
The Indian Standard IS 517 provides specifications
¾ Absence of Community Reporting Mechanisms: Fear
for determining methanol quality.
of local liquor mafias prevents communities from
What are the Causes of reporting illegal hooch production.
Hooch Tragedies in India? There is often no structured system to anonymously
¾ Economic Vulnerability and Poverty: People from report bootlegging activities to authorities.
economically weaker sections often resort to cheap, ¾ Flaws in Supply Chain Monitoring: Lack of digital
locally brewed alcohol (hooch) as they cannot afford
tracking and surveillance of raw materials like methanol
licensed, quality liquor.
allows for unchecked distribution.
The cost of hooch is significantly lower than legal
Absence of real-time tracking mechanisms makes
alcohol due to evasion of excise duty and taxes.
it difficult to identify illegal distilleries.
¾ Widespread Misuse of Methanol: Methanol, an
inexpensive industrial chemical, is often stolen and ¾ Case Studies of Major Hooch Tragedies in India:
illegally added to illicit liquor to increase potency, Mumbai (2015): A hooch tragedy killed around
despite its extreme toxicity. Bootleggers frequently 100 people in Malwani due to methanol poisoning.
use methanol to produce deadly hooch, as seen in Punjab (2020): More than 100 people died after
several mass poisoning cases. consuming adulterated liquor in multiple districts.
¾ Lack of Regulation and Enforcement: Despite the
Bihar (2022): Despite prohibition, 40 people
Excise Act, 1944 and local regulations, enforcement is
lost their lives in Saran due to spurious liquor
often weak, allowing illegal brewing and distribution
consumption.
to flourish.
Tamil Nadu (2024): A severe illicit liquor tragedy in
In states with alcohol prohibition (e.g., Bihar,
Gujarat), hooch networks expand underground, Kallakurichi, Tamil Nadu, caused over 50 deaths.
exploiting weak enforcement. Legal Measures to Prevent Hooch
Methyl alcohol is not categorised as a “poison” ¾ Excise Act, 1944 regulates the production and
under the definition provided in the Poison Act, distribution of alcohol, including penalties for illegal
1919, thereby limiting the scope of legal culpability. manufacturing.
z This legal gap complicates the prosecution of ¾ States like Bihar, and Gujarat have complete
such cases and highlights the need for legislative prohibition, yet hooch incidents still occur.
reform. ¾ Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS), 2023 includes
¾ Political and Bureaucratic Nexus: There are frequent specific sections like 103 (murder) and 105 (culpable
allegations of political protection and bureaucratic homicide not amounting to murder) for hooch-
involvement in illegal liquor trade. related deaths.
Political connections sometimes provide immunity to ¾ Alcohol regulation is under the Seventh Schedule
hooch manufacturers, preventing law enforcement of the Constitution of India, specifically the State
action. Bribery and corruption further allow List, granting states exclusive power to legislate on
bootleggers to operate without fear of police its production, sale, and distribution. Therefore,
intervention. alcohol laws vary across states.

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¾ Fosters Social and Economic Growth: Inclusive societies

Accessibility and that prioritize accessibility unlock the potential of all
citizens, contributing to poverty reduction, equitable
Empowerment of PwDs economic opportunities, and overall sustainable
development.
Why in News?
The Department of Empowerment of Persons with What is the Current Status of PwDs in India?
Disabilities (DEPwD) under the Union Ministry of Social ¾ PwDs in India: As per Census 2011, the number of
Justice and Empowerment organized the Inclusive India PwDs in the country is 2.68 crore (2.21% of the total
Summit, to mark Global Accessibility Awareness Day population).
(GAAD). The prevalence of disability was higher among
¾ The summit resulted in the signing of three males than females, with a rate of 2.4% in males
Memorandums of Understanding to enhance disability and 1.9% in females. It was also higher in rural
inclusion. Key initiatives include an ‘Accessibility areas than in urban areas.
Index’ to audit public buildings, promotion of inclusive As per the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (RPwD)
infrastructure, and awareness through hackathons Act, 2016, there are 21 types of Disabilities which
and national competitions. includes Locomotor Disability, Visual Impairment,
Note: GAAD, founded in 2012 by Jennison Asuncion Hearing Impairment, Speech & Language Disability,
Intellectual Disability, Multiple Disabilities, Cerebral
(accessibility professional) and Joe Devon (web
Palsy, Dwarfism etc.
developer), is observed annually on the 3rd Thursday
of May to encourage developers, designers, and digital ¾ Constitutional Provisions:
creators to build accessible websites and digital content Preamble of the Constitution: Secures to all citizens

for persons with disabilities (PwDs). Justice (social, economic, political), Liberty (of
thought, expression, belief, faith, worship), and
Why is Accessibility Crucial Equality (of status and opportunity).
for an Inclusive Society? Fundamental Rights (Part III): The Constitution

¾ Ensures Equal Rights and Participation: Accessibility guarantees six Fundamental Rights (Equality,
enables PwDs to exercise their fundamental human Freedom, Protection against Exploitation, Freedom
rights, such as freedom of expression, access to of Religion, Cultural and Educational Rights, and
education, employment, healthcare, and social Constitutional Remedies) which apply to all citizens,
participation, on an equal footing with others. including persons with disabilities, even if not
explicitly mentioned.
¾ Removes Barriers for Full Inclusion: PwDs often face
physical, informational, and attitudinal barriers. Directive Principles of State Policy (Part IV):
Article 41 calls for public assistance in cases of
Accessibility focuses on removing these obstacles
unemployment, old age, sickness, and disablement.
by providing reasonable accommodations tailored
to diverse needs, ensuring they can engage fully z It mandates the State to make effective

in social, economic, and political life. provisions, within its economic capacity, for
securing the right to work, education, and public
¾ International Normative Frameworks: Key UN
assistance for those in need.
documents like the UN Convention on the Rights
of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD)), the World Panchayati Raj and Urban Local Bodies:

Programme of Action concerning Disabled Persons, z Twelfth Schedule (Entry 9 of Article 243-W):
and the Standard Rules on the Equalization of “Safeguarding the interests of weaker sections
Opportunities emphasize accessibility as both a right of society, including the handicapped and
and a means to empower PwDs. mentally retarded.”
These frameworks call for accessible physical z Eleventh Schedule (Entry 26 of Article 243-
environments, information, communication, G): “Social welfare, including welfare of the
transportation, education, and healthcare. handicapped and mentally retarded.”

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¾ Policy Frameworks: The National Policy for Persons The absence of basic accessibility features like
with Disabilities, 2006 aims to ensure equal ramps, elevators, or tactile paths effectively
opportunities, rights protection, and full participation segregates PwDs, restricting their mobility and
of PwDs in society. independence.
India ratified the UNCRPD in 2008. To fulfill its ¾ Educational Exclusion: According to the 76th National
obligations under the Convention, Parliament Sample Survey (NSS), only 52.2% of persons with
enacted the RPwD Act 2016 (to ensure dignity, disabilities aged 7 and above are literate, much
non-discrimination, and equal opportunities for lower than the national average of 80%, due to poor
PwDs). access to inclusive education and lack of accessible
The National Trust Act, 1999, established a school facilities.
national body to support the welfare of persons ¾ Employment Barriers and Economic Marginalization:
with Autism, Cerebral Palsy, Mental Retardation, Societal biases and employer reluctance to provide
and Multiple Disabilities. reasonable accommodations prevent PwDs from
The Rehabilitation Council of India Act, 1992, securing meaningful employment.
made RCI a statutory body to regulate and Out of 1.3 crore employable PwDs in India,
monitor disability services, standardize training, only 34 lakh are employed, reflecting significant
and maintain a register of qualified rehabilitation underutilization of talent.
professionals.
Additionally, the lack of accessible infrastructure
The Scheme for Implementation of the Rights of
and assistive devices at workplaces continues to
Persons with Disabilities Act (SIPDA), launched limit their participation.
in 2015, focuses on skill training for PwDs aged
¾ Healthcare Inaccessibility: During Covid-19, PwDs
15-59 under the National Action Plan for Skill
faced heightened risks and reduced access to essential
Development.
services due to inadequate preparedness and outreach.
¾ Judicial Pronouncements:
¾ Expanding Digital Divide: Around 98% of websites are
In Rajive Raturi v. Union of India (2024), the
not compliant with accessibility standards, excluding
Supreme Court reaffirmed that accessibility for PwDs from digital services like education, banking,
PwDs is a constitutional imperative under Article
and governance.
21, linking it to the right to life, dignity, and freedom
Despite programs like Pradhan Mantri Gramin
of movement.
Digital Saksharta Abhiyan (PMGDISHA), PwDs
z It stressed that digital inclusion is vital for
are significantly underrepresented in digital skill
ensuring substantive equality and preventing
development initiatives.
their marginalisation.
Many assistive technologies (e.g., for facial
In Reserve Bank of India vs. A. K. Nair & Others
recognition, voice commands) are either unavailable
(2023), the Supreme Court held that the RPwD
or unaffordable, particularly affecting acid attack
Act 2016, expressly provides for reservation
survivors and visually impaired individuals.
in promotions for persons with disabilities, in
accordance with the instructions issued by the ¾ Weak Implementation of Legal and Policy Frameworks:
Government from time to time. Harmonized accessibility guidelines (2016 and 2021)
have not been integrated into building by-laws, due
What are the Challenges to poor awareness and accountability within public
Faced by PwDs in India? works departments.
¾ Inaccessible Physical Infrastructure: Most public ¾ Flexibility to Meet Diverse Needs: Accessibility is not
buildings, transportation systems, and urban one-size-fits-all; it means designing environments,
infrastructure remain non-compliant with universal services, and technologies that are flexible and usable
design norms. According to a 2018 government report, by people with varying disabilities, whether physical,
only 3% of buildings were fully accessible. sensory, cognitive, or otherwise.

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Child Wellbeing in an Unpredictable World

Why in News?
A United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF) report titled “Child Wellbeing in an
Unpredictable World” reveals that children in the world’s wealthiest nations have experienced a steep decline in
academic performance, mental health, and physical wellbeing since the onset of the Covid-19 pandemic.
What is the Impact of Covid-19 on Global Children’s Well-being?
¾ Academic Setbacks: School closures ranging from 3 to 12 months during the pandemic severely disrupted learning.
Approximately 8 million 15-year-olds (~50% of the age group) were not functionally literate and numerate in
2022, a 4% rise since 2018.
Countries like Bulgaria, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cyprus, and Mexico reported over two-thirds of 15-year-olds
lacking basic skills.
¾ Mental Wellbeing Decline: Life satisfaction of children dropped significantly in 14 out of 32 countries with available
data. Japan was the only country reporting an improvement in children’s life satisfaction.
¾ Physical Health Concerns: Overweight and obesity rates increased substantially in 14 out of 43 countries, continuing
a worrying long-term trend.
¾ Best in Child Well Being: The Netherlands and Denmark are the top two countries for child wellbeing, measured
across mental wellbeing, physical health, and skills followed by France.

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What is the Status of Child Wellbeing in India? z According to the World Bank’s Learning Poverty
¾ Mental Well-being: In India, most children with mental Index (percentage of 10-year-olds unable to
health issues remain undiagnosed and untreated. read a basic text), India’s learning poverty rate
increased to 70% post Covid-19, from 55% in
Even before Covid-19, 50 million children were
2019.
affected, with 80–90% not seeking help.
Social Skills: A survey by Smile Foundation reveals
A 2021 UNICEF-Gallup survey found that only
that 58% of teachers in India believe children
41% of Indian youth supported seeking mental
missed out on social skills during Covid-19 and
health help, highlighting widespread stigma and
get distracted easily.
reluctance to seek support.
It has been observed that suicide is the 4th leading
What are the Causes of
cause of death among the late adolescent age
Declining Child Wellbeing ?
groups (15–19 years) in India. ¾ Economic Inequality: Economic disparities deprive
¾ Physical Health: millions of children of basic needs such as nutritious
food, shelter, healthcare, and education.
Nutrition: According to UNICEF’s World Obesity
Atlas 2022, India may have over 27 million obese Children in poor households are more likely to
experience child labour, and school dropouts.
children by 2030 (1 in 10 globally), with associated
economic costs projected to surge from USD 23 Chronic undernutrition (stunting, wasting) continues
billion in 2019 to USD 479 billion by 2060. to affect children, especially in low-income and
marginalized communities.
Child mortality: Infant Mortality Rate (IMR)
reduced from 39 per 1000 live births (2014) to 27 z Inadequate access to quality healthcare,
especially in rural and tribal areas, impacts child
per 1000 live births (2021).
survival and long-term development.
z Under-Five Mortality Rate (U5MR) dropped
¾ Social Cause: Discriminatory practices (e.g., preference
from 45 per 1000 live births (2014) to 31 per
for sons, caste-based exclusion) coupled with Harmful
1000 live births (2021).
traditional practices like child marriage, female genital
¾ Skills:
mutilation, etc., impact the rights and wellbeing of
Academic Proficiency: India has one of the largest many children.
school systems with over 240 million students Children in conflict zones or refugee camps face
and 9 million teachers, but learning outcomes, trauma, hunger, violence, and lack of access to
especially in literacy and numeracy, remain a basic services.
major challenge.
z Migrant children are often excluded from
z The Economic Survey 2024-25 notes that national education and health systems,
National Education Policy (NEP), 2020 aims increasing their vulnerability.
for 100% Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) by 2030. Rising academic pressure from a very early age,
z Currently, GER is nearly universal at the primary coupled with family stress and digital overexposure,
level (93%) but lower at the secondary level has led to increasing cases of depression, anxiety,
(77.4%). and even suicide among children and teenagers.
z Despite progressive enrollment, learning Rising instances of trafficking, sexual exploitation,
outcomes remain poor, particularly in and domestic violence exacerbate the crisis of
foundational literacy and numeracy. child wellbeing.

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¾ Digital Inequality: The rise of digital education has women aged 15–49 are anaemic, compared to just
excluded children without access to devices, electricity, 26% of men. Nearly 1 in 5 women are underweight.
or internet, especially in rural and tribal regions. Women have higher nutritional needs during
Poor digital literacy among parents and children menstruation, pregnancy, and lactation. These
(only 38% of households in India are digitally literate) physiological demands, if unmet, exacerbate
also contributes to the learning gap. deficiencies such as anaemia and underweight
Additionally, Unregulated use of social media status, impacting both maternal and child health.
platforms exposes children to cyberbullying,
¾ Limited Education: As per Census 2011, the overall
online harassment, addiction, misinformation,
literacy rate in India is 72.98%, with a significant gender
and harmful content.
gap 80.9% for males and only 64.63% for females.
z According to the National Crime Records Bureau
This disparity in education affects women’s
(NCRB), there were a total of around 1800 cases
awareness about nutrition, health practices,
of cybercrimes against children in 2022.
and access to healthcare services, contributing
z Social media can negatively impact self-esteem
to gendered malnutrition.
and mental health, especially among adolescents
due to unrealistic comparisons and online peer ¾ Entrenched Social Norms: In many economically
pressure. disadvantaged Indian households, food distribution
¾ Climate Change and Environmental Stress: Extreme is unequal where women and girls often eat last and
weather events, rising temperatures, air pollution, receive the least.
and water scarcity negatively impact children’s health Malnutrition in such cases reflects not only food
and living conditions. scarcity but also deep-rooted social injustice and
Climate change increases food insecurity and gender-based discrimination.
displacement, which disrupts children’s education Cultural biases that prioritize the nutritional needs
and emotional stability. of men further worsen health outcomes for women.
¾ Economic Dependency: Around 49% of women lack
Gendered Malnutrition in India decision-making power over their earnings, which
translates to compromised nutrition. Economic
Why in News? vulnerability restricts women’s access to nutritious
India’s free foodgrain programme currently covers food, perpetuating malnutrition.
approximately 800 million people, yet challenges related ¾ Policy Gaps: Despite large investments (Rs 24,000
to hunger and malnutrition persist, particularly among crore for 2022-23), POSHAN Abhiyaan had utilized
women and girls. only 69% of its funds by December 2022.
¾ Despite economic growth and the implementation The scheme has created awareness about nutrition,
of POSHAN Abhiyaan (Prime Minister’s Overarching but failed to improve key outcomes, like reducing
Scheme for Holistic Nourishment), gender-based
anaemia or undernutrition among women.
nutritional disparities remain stark.
POSHAN 2.0 remains isolated from schemes
What are the Factors Behind aimed at women’s economic empowerment.
Gendered Malnutrition in India? Nutritional interventions alone are insufficient if
¾ Higher Rates of Anaemia and Underweight: According women lack the financial means and agency to
to National Family Health Survey (NFHS)-5, 57% of access nutritious food.

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What is the POSHAN Abhiyaan?

¾ About: POSHAN Abhiyaan (formerly known as the National Nutrition Mission), is the flagship nutrition mission of
the Government of India launched in 2018.
Its primary aim is to improve the nutritional outcomes for children (0–6 years), adolescent girls, pregnant
women, and lactating mothers in a time-bound manner.
It targets to reduce stunting, under-nutrition, anaemia (among young children, women and adolescent girls)
and reduce low birth weight by 2%, 2%, 3% and 2% per annum respectively.
It promotes behavioural change through Jan Andolan (People’s Movement) and the development of Poshan
Vatikas (Nutri-Gardens) to ensure local and diverse access to nutritious food.
¾ Pillars of Poshan Abhiyaan:
Access to Quality Services: Providing essential health services through schemes like Integrated Child Development
Scheme (ICDS) , National Health Mission (NHM), and Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandana Yojana (PMMVY),
especially during the first 1,000 days of a child’s life.
Cross-Sectoral Convergence: Coordinating efforts across multiple ministries, including water and sanitation
under the Swachh Bharat Mission and drinking water access through the National Drinking Water Mission.
Leveraging Technology: Tools like the Poshan Tracker application enable real-time data collection and intervention.
Jan Andolan: Community engagement is key to driving mass awareness and encouraging behavioral change
around nutrition.
¾ POSHAN 2.0: Initially launched as a three-year programme, POSHAN Abhiyaan was expanded in 2021 into Mission
POSHAN 2.0, which integrated multiple nutrition-related schemes under a single umbrella.

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These include the ICDS – Anganwadi Services, Supplementary Nutrition Programme, POSHAN Abhiyaan, Scheme
for Adolescent Girls, and the National Crèche Scheme.
This integrated initiative is now implemented as Mission Saksham Anganwadi and POSHAN 2.0, commonly
referred to as POSHAN 2.0.
¾ Implementation and Funding: Poshan 2.0 is a Centrally-sponsored program, with a cost-sharing ratio of 60:40
between the Central and State Governments.
¾ Progress: Mission Poshan 2.0 covers an impressive 8.9 crore children (0-6 years). Poshan Abhiyan benefits 69.42
lakh Pregnant Women (PW) and 42.54 lakh Lactating Mothers (LM).

India’s Battle Against Tuberculosis

Why in News?
The Prime Minister chaired a high-level review meeting on the National Tuberculosis Elimination Programme
(NTEP) and emphasized the need for targeted, data-driven interventions and the use of technology to accelerate
India’s mission to eliminate tuberculosis (TB) by 2025.

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National TB Elimination Programme (NTEP) What Progress has India made under the
¾ NTEP: In 2020, the Revised National Tuberculosis National TB Elimination Programme?
Control Program (RNTCP) was renamed the NTEP ¾ Reduction in TB Incidence and Mortality: The World
with the goal to eliminate TB in India by 2025, five Health Organization (WHO) Global TB Report 2024
years ahead of the global target of 2030. highlighted that TB incidence in India declined by
The Sustainable Development Goal targets 18% (from 237/lakh in 2015 to 195/lakh in 2023),
for TB include 80% reduction in incidence, 90% over double the global decline of 8%.
reduction in mortality, and zero TB patients TB mortality reduced by 21%, from 28 to 22 deaths
facing catastrophic costs. per lakh population.
The program is guided by the National Strategic In 2023, India alone accounted for over 26% of
Plan (2017-2025) under the strategic pillars: global TB cases and deaths.
Detect – Treat – Prevent – Build (DTPB). ¾ Increased Treatment Coverage: TB treatment coverage
The NTEP focuses on early diagnosis, quality- has risen to 85%, reflecting the success of NTEP
assured treatment, engaging private providers, strategies and decentralized care through 1.7 lakh
contact tracing in high-risk areas, and addressing Ayushman Arogya Mandirs.
social determinants through a multi-sectoral ¾ 100-Day TB Mukt Bharat Abhiyaan: During 100-Day
approach. TB Mukt Bharat Abhiyaan campaign, 12.97 crore
The programme recorded its highest-ever case individuals were screened in high-focus districts, leading
notifications, reporting 25.5 lakh TB cases in to the detection of 7.19 lakh TB cases, including 2.85
2023 and 26.07 lakh cases in 2024. lakh asymptomatic cases.
Under NTEP, India introduced improved drug- ¾ Nikshay Mitra Initiative: 2.55 lakh Nikshay Mitras
resistant TB treatments, including a safer, shorter (volunteers) have supported TB patients, distributing
all-oral Bedaquiline regimen, increasing success 29.4 lakh nutrition baskets to patients, demonstrating
rates from 68% in 2020 to 75% in 2022. the role of community participation in the elimination
z The mBPaL regimen (Bedaquiline, Pretomanid, efforts.
Linezolid) offers 80% success for MDR-TB, ¾ Ni-kshay Poshan Yojana: The Ni-kshay Poshan Yojana
reducing treatment duration to six months. has facilitated Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT) payments
¾ Pradhan Mantri TB Mukt Bharat Abhiyaan to 1.28 crore TB patients since 2018.
(PMTBMBA): Launched in 2022 as part of NTEP, The incentive amount for nutritional support has
it focuses on providing nutritional, diagnostic, and been enhanced to Rs 1,000 in 2024, promoting
vocational support to improve treatment outcomes better health outcomes for patients undergoing
and accelerate India’s TB elimination goal. P TB treatment.
PMTBMBA is the world’s largest crowd-sourcing ¾ Expansion of Diagnostic Infrastructure: India has
initiative for TB patient nutrition. significantly expanded its TB diagnostic network
The Ni-Kshay Mitra initiative, part of the with NAAT (Nucleic Acid Amplification Testing) labs
PMTBMBA, encourages individuals, NGOs, (helps in the detection of TB) and drug susceptibility
and corporations to support TB patients with labs, and deployed AI-enabled X-ray units enhancing
nutritional, social, or economic aid for six months. accessibility and early detection.
The Ni-Kshay Portal helps health workers manage Screening has expanded to high-risk settings like
TB cases, track treatment, and report real-time mines, construction sites, tea gardens, and urban
data for India’s TB surveillance. slums to identify cases in vulnerable populations.

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What are the Key Facts About Tuberculosis?

¾ About: TB is a bacterial infection (Mycobacterium tuberculosis) affecting the lungs, spreading through the air. It
is preventable and curable with antibiotics.
About 25% of the global population is infected, but only 5–10% develop symptoms.

¾ Risk Factors: Weak immune system, diabetes, malnutrition, tobacco, and alcohol use.
¾ Diagnosis: WHO recommends rapid molecular diagnostic tests as initial tests for people showing signs and symptoms
of TB. Other diagnostic tools can include sputum smear microscopy and chest X-rays.
¾ Prevention: The Bacille Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccine is given to infants to prevent TB.
¾ Transmission: TB spreads through the air when an infected person coughs, sneezes, or spits, releasing germs
that others can inhale.
¾ Treatment: Standard TB treatment lasts 4-6 months. Incomplete treatment leads to drug-resistant TB.
¾ Multidrug-resistant TB (MDR-TB): It is resistant to isoniazid and rifampicin (medicines used to treat TB), treatable
with costlier alternatives.
¾ Extensively Drug-Resistant TB: It is more severe, with limited treatment options.
¾ TB and Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV): HIV patients are 16 times more vulnerable to TB, a leading cause
of their deaths.

What Challenges do Vulnerable Groups face While Battling TB?

¾ Inadequate Nutrition: Undernutrition is a critical risk factor that both increases susceptibility to TB infection and
worsens treatment outcomes.
Vulnerable groups often lack sufficient nutritional support, which leads to higher mortality rates, increased
drug toxicity, and relapse.
Although government schemes exist (such as the Nikshay Poshan Yojana and Ni-kshay Mitras), the reach and
effectiveness of nutritional aid remain limited.
¾ Delayed and Missed Diagnosis: Symptoms of TB are often mistaken for common ailments among the poor, leading
to delayed diagnosis.

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Women, particularly homeless women, face longer delays than men in reaching diagnosis due to stigma, lack
of awareness, and difficulty accessing health facilities.
Diagnostic procedures like sputum collection are uncomfortable or inaccessible, especially for women who
face cultural barriers.
¾ Social Stigma and Isolation: TB carries significant stigma, which discourages patients, especially women, from
seeking timely treatment.
The NTEP does not specifically recognize homelessness as a vulnerability category, resulting in gaps in data
collection and tailored interventions.
Homeless individuals face marginalization and social exclusion and often lack official documents like Aadhar
cards and bank accounts, which are essential for accessing government schemes and financial support, further
worsening their health and diminishing their motivation or ability to seek care.
¾ Childhood TB: It is difficult to diagnose due to low bacterial load, inability of young children to produce sputum,
reliance on less sensitive tests like smear microscopy and chest X-rays, and limited drug resistance screening.
Only 12% of molecular tests in children confirmed TB bacteriologically in 2022.

¾ Mental Health and Psychosocial Support Deficits: Mental health challenges related to TB diagnosis and treatment
are often neglected, leaving patients without adequate psychological support, which can affect treatment success.

Enrolment Drop in Government Schools and PM-POSHAN

Why in News?
The Ministry of Education (MoE) convened a discussion with States and UTs to review the performance, planning,
and budget of the Pradhan Mantri Poshan Shakti Nirman (PM-POSHAN) scheme, revealing a decline in government
school enrolment in 23 States.
What are the Trends in Declining Government School Enrolment?
¾ Decline in School Enrolment: The Ministry of Education revealed a significant enrolment drop in 23 States and
UTs for 2024–25, with some seeing declines of over 1 lakh students.
It is led by Uttar Pradesh (21.83 lakh), Bihar (6.14 lakh), Rajasthan (5.63 lakh) and West Bengal (4.01 lakh).

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¾ Factors Behind Enrolment Decline: Entitlements: Primary (class 1-5) and upper primary
¾
Change in Data Collection Methodology: The (class 6-8) students receive 100g and 150g of food
transition from school-wise (total numbers) to grains daily, ensuring 700 calories.
student-wise reporting (name, address, parents’ It also provides extra nutrition (e.g, milk or eggs)

names and Aadhaar details) likely eliminated for children in aspirational districts and areas with
outdated records and false entries, such as “ghost” high anemia rates.
students not actually attending school. ¾ Key Provisions:
Nutritional Gardens: It promotes school nutritional
Shift to Private School: Several States suggest that
post-Covid years have seen a shift in enrolment gardens to provide students with additional micro-
from government to private schools, reversing nutrients.
trends observed during the pandemic. Tithi Bhojan: The Tithi Bhojan program, where
communities provide special food to children on
What is the PM-POSHAN Scheme?
special occasions like festivals, is being widely
¾ About: PM-POSHAN is a centrally sponsored scheme promoted.
for providing one hot cooked meal to students up to Nutrition Expert: Each school will appoint a nutrition
Class 8 Government and Government-aided schools. expert to monitor Body Mass Index (BMI), weight,
Launched for an initial five-year period (2021–22 and haemoglobin levels.
to 2025–26), it replaced the earlier midday meal Social Audit: Social audits are now mandatory in
scheme (MDM). all schools to assess scheme implementation, with
z Launched in 1995, the MDM Scheme is the college students enlisted for local monitoring.
world’s largest school meal programme, aimed Vocal for Atmanirbhar Bharat: It encourages
at universalizing primary education. involvement of Farmers Producer Organizations
¾ Cost Sharing: Its cost is shared by the Centre and (FPOs) and Women Self Help Groups (SHGs), and
States on a 60:40 basis, with the Centre supplying promotes locally grown traditional foods to boost
foodgrains. local economies
nnn

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Science & Technology

Highlights
z TR1 Cells Lead the Fight Against Malaria z Dr. M. R. Srinivasan and India’s Nuclear Power Programme
z AI-Powered Autonomous Satellites z Quasi-steady State Cosmology Theory
z India’s AMR Crisis z A-to-I mRNA Editing
z First Successful Use of Customised Base Editing z PSLV-C61/EOS-09 Mission
z ICMR Launches First Stigma Scale for Sickle Cell Disease z Bharat 6G Vision

What are the Key Components

TR1 Cells Lead the of the Human Immune System?
Fight Against Malaria ¾ Physical Barriers: These include the skin and mucous
membranes that act as the first line of defense by
Why in News? preventing pathogens from entering the body.
A new study has revealed that TR1 (Type-1 Regulatory
¾ Innate Immunity: This is the immediate, non-specific
T-cells), rather than TH1 cells, are the main drivers of the
defense mechanism that includes physical barriers,
immune response to malaria, challenging earlier
assumptions. white blood cells like neutrophils, macrophages,
and natural killer cells, as well as the inflammatory
What are TR1 Cells? response (such as swelling and fever).
¾ About: TR1 cells, or Type-1 Regulatory T-cells, are a It provides rapid protection against any invading
specialized group of CD4+ helper T-cells that play a
pathogens.
key role in regulating the immune system.
Unlike other T-cells that mainly attack pathogens,
¾ Adaptive Immunity: A slower but highly specific
T R1 cells help control and balance immune defense system that targets particular pathogens
responses by reducing inflammation and preventing and creates memory for long-term protection. It
excessive immune reactions. involves specialized cells called lymphocytes, mainly
CD4+ cells (helper T cells) are a type of white B-cells and T-cells.
blood cell (lymphocyte) that play a central role B-cells: B-cells produce antibodies, which are
in adaptive immunity. They express the CD4
proteins that bind specifically to antigens (foreign
protein on their surface and help coordinate the
immune response. molecules on pathogens) to neutralize or mark
¾ Role Against Malaria: When infected by Plasmodium
them for destruction.
falciparum, the body must balance fighting the T-cells: T-cells develop in the thymus and include:
parasite and avoiding excessive immune damage. z Helper T cells: Activate B-cells to produce
TR1 cells promote immune tolerance by controlling antibodies, assist macrophages in killing
inflammation, allowing coexistence with the microbes, and stimulate killer T cells.
parasite and helping develop clinical immunity
that prevents severe illness. z Killer T cells: Destroy virus-infected cells, cancer
Essentially, T R 1 cells act as peacekeepers,
cells, and damaged cells.
moderating the immune response to protect z Regulatory T cells: Help control and balance
the body. the immune response.

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¾ Lymphatic System: Organs like lymph nodes, spleen, ¾ India’s Efforts to Contain Malaria: National Framework
thymus, and bone marrow produce and house for Malaria Elimination 2016-2030, National Vector-
immune cells, filtering out pathogens and coordinating Borne Disease Control Programme, National Malaria
immune responses. Control Programme (NMCP), Malaria Elimination
¾ Chemical Messengers: Molecules like cytokines help Research Alliance-India (MERA-India).
immune cells communicate and regulate the body’s
defense mechanisms. AI-Powered
What is Malaria? Autonomous Satellites
¾ About: Malaria is a life-threatening vector-borne
disease caused by the Plasmodium parasites, Why in News?
transmitted through the bites of infected female The rise of Artificial Intelligence (AI)-powered
Anopheles mosquitoes. autonomous satellites has exposed significant gaps in
There are 5 Plasmodium parasite species that global space governance. As satellites gain the ability to
cause malaria in humans and 2 of these species – P. think and act independently, questions around legal
falciparum and P. vivax – pose the greatest threat. liability, ethical governance, and geopolitical risks have
¾ Transmission: The mosquito becomes infected after taken centre stage.
biting an infected person. The malaria parasites
then enter the bloodstream of the next person the What is an AI-Autonomous Satellite?
mosquito bites. ¾ About: AI-autonomous satellites refer to spacecraft
The parasites travel to the liver, mature, and then that leverage AI to operate with minimal or no human
infect red blood cells. intervention.
¾ Treatment: These satellites use advanced algorithms, often

Artemisinin-based Combination Therapies (ACTs):

based on machine learning and deep learning
It is the most effective treatment for Plasmodium techniques to analyze data, make decisions, and
falciparum malaria, combining artemisinin with execute tasks independently in real time.
another antimalarial drug. ¾ Key Features:
Chloroquine: It is used primarily for Plasmodium Data Processing Onboard: AI enables satellites to

vivax and other non-falciparum malaria where analyze data in space, filter out irrelevant details, and
resistance is not present. send only key insights to Earth, saving bandwidth
Primaquine: It is used to eliminate dormant liver and reducing delays.
forms (hypnozoites) of P. vivax and P. ovale to z Space-based data centers could harness solar
prevent relapse. power and release heat directly into space,
Other Drugs: Such as quinine, mefloquine, and reducing energy consumption. This approach
doxycycline, used in specific cases or drug-resistant could dramatically cut carbon emissions
infections. compared to terrestrial data centers.
¾ Vaccine: The RTS,S/AS01 malaria vaccine, known as Swarm Intelligence: In constellations or clusters,

Mosquirix, became the first malaria vaccine to receive satellites can share data and learn collectively (also
a World Health Organization (WHO) recommendation. called “hive learning”). This allows for collaborative
The Serum Institute of India (SII), in collaboration behavior and improved performance across the
with the University of Oxford, has developed a network.
malaria vaccine called R21/Matrix-M, which has Automated operations: They continuously monitor
been recommended by WHO for use in malaria- their own condition, identify faults, and perform
endemic regions. repairs independently.

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Strategic Defence: The next-gen AI satellite fleet What are the Emerging Risks of
will create a multi-layered surveillance system AI-Autonomous Satellites?
across GEO (Geostationary Equatorial Orbit), and ¾ Fault Attribution and Legal Ambiguity: If an
LEO (Low Earth Orbit). autonomous satellite miscalculates and causes a near-
z e.g., a GEO satellite detecting something can task collision or actual damage, it’s unclear who is legally
a LEO satellite for closer inspection, enabling liable the AI developer, launching state, operating
real-time monitoring and coordinated responses entity, or owner nation.
vital for science and defense. This creates multi-jurisdictional entanglements
Self-diagnosis: Detect internal malfunctions and where no single entity is clearly accountable for
attempt in-orbit fixes. AI decisions.
Collision Avoidance: With increasing space traffic ¾ AI Hallucinations and Misjudgments: AI systems can
and debris, autonomous satellites can use AI to misclassify threats, such as mistaking a commercial
predict potential collisions and perform evasive satellite for a hostile object or identifying a harmless
maneuvers without awaiting instructions from item as a collision hazard, which could lead to
ground control. unintended confrontations in space.
Combat Support: Satellites provide real-time threat This can lead to unintended manoeuvres or
detection with autonomous target tracking and defensive actions that escalate into diplomatic
engagement. They can adapt operations based on or military conflicts.
situational needs, such as retargeting sensors after ¾ Dual-Use and Weaponisation Risks: AI technologies
disasters or adjusting orbit due to environmental carry dual-use risks, as autonomous satellites designed
conditions. for civilian purposes could be repurposed for real-time
surveillance, targeting, or even offensive operations
¾ Advancements of AI in Space Exploration: India will
in space, aiding military operations and potentially
launch 50 AI-powered satellites over the next five
escalating an arms race in orbit.
years. These satellites will boost space exploration and
¾ Collision Risk and Orbital Debris Thousands of
national security, marking a major step in integrating
autonomous satellites are expected in LEO by 2030.
AI into space technology.
Without coordinated collision-avoidance protocols,
Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) autonomous decisions by multiple satellites could lead
landmark use of AI was seen in Chandrayaan-3, to space traffic congestion, accidents, or a cascade
the Pragyaan Rover, without an orbiter, used AI of debris (Kessler Syndrome).
to communicate with the Vikram Lander, aiding in ¾ Lack of Human Oversight: Current treaties demand
safe landing, navigation, and resource detection. “authorization and continuing supervision” of space
China launched 12 satellites as part of building its activities by states.
Three-Body Computing Constellation, which aims to True autonomy, however, limits the scope for
create the world’s first space-based supercomputer. meaningful human control, raising concerns about
Equipped with AI, these satellites process data in automated decision-making without accountability.
orbit and test advanced technologies. ¾ Gaps in Certification and Standards: Unlike aviation
Note: TakeMe2Space, a Hyderabad-based space or maritime sectors, space lacks global certification
technology firm, will launch My Orbital Infrastructure frameworks for testing and verifying the safety and
- Technology Demonstrator (MOI-TD), India’s first AI reliability of AI in satellites.
lab in space. The mission will demonstrate real-time There are no current international standards for
data processing in orbit, making space research more AI performance in hostile or anomalous space
affordable and accessible. conditions.

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¾ Ethical Dilemmas: AI satellites could support lethal What is Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR)?
autonomous weapons systems (LAWS). This raises
¾ About: AMR occurs when microorganisms (bacteria,
ethical concerns over the delegation of life-and-
viruses, fungi, parasites) adapt and resist drugs like
death decisions to machines, especially if deployed
antibiotics and antivirals, making infections harder
in or from space, which remains legally and morally
to treat and easier to spread.
contentious.
Often called “superbugs,” these drug-resistant
Autonomous AI warfare systems lack a moral
microbes are a major global threat and are
compass and make decisions without considering
listed by WHO among the top 10 health risks.
long-term diplomatic consequences. When
¾ Threat: A 2019 report by the Institute of Health
violations of international laws or human rights
Metrics and Evaluation (IHME) revealed that AMR
occur, assigning responsibility becomes complex.
caused 2,97,000 deaths in India and 1.27 million
¾ Legal Gaps: Current space laws such as the Outer globally.
Space Treaty (1967) and the Liability Convention
If unchecked, The Lancet projects 1.91 million
(1972) assume human control and state responsibility
direct AMR deaths and 8.22 million associated
but lack clear provisions for AI-driven autonomous
deaths by 2050.
satellites.
Article VI of the OST holds states responsible What are the Key Issues Leading
for national space activities but does not clearly to Rise of AMR in India?
address responsibility for autonomous actions. ¾ Overuse of Antibiotics: Improper prescriptions and
Outer Space Treaty and Liability Convention overuse of antibiotics—even for viral infections like
¾ Outer Space Treaty (1967): It is based on the 1963 influenza—drives resistance.
UN Declaration, and is the foundation of space law. Although only 30% of antibiotics are used in humans,
It bans nuclear and weapons of mass destruction in 2022, 59% of India’s antibiotic consumption
in space and ensures space is used for peaceful came from the “Watch” group.
purposes by all nations. India has ratified the Outer z The “Watch” group is a category of antibiotics
Space Treaty. classified by the World Health Organization
¾ Liability Convention (1972): Building on Article 7 (WHO), intended for use only in treating severe
of the OST, Liability Convention makes launching infections.
states absolutely liable for damage their space ¾ Inadequate Healthcare Infrastructure: Lack of
objects cause on Earth and liable for fault-based diagnostic tools leads doctors to prescribe broad-
damage in space. India has ratified the Liability
spectrum antibiotics empirically. Overcrowded,
Convention.
unhygienic hospitals and poor infection control
promote resistant bacteria and hospital-acquired
India’s AMR Crisis infections.
Frequent AMR outbreaks in Indian tertiary care
Why in News? centers highlight systemic deficiencies fueling
The launch of Nafithromycin (Miqnaf)—India’s first antimicrobial resistance (AMR) .
indigenously developed antibiotic in over 30 years, marks ¾ Lack of New Antibiotics: No new antibiotics emerged
a key step in combating Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR), for 30 years until Nafithromycin (2024), as pharma
but the scale and urgency of the AMR crisis demand far companies prioritize more profitable chronic disease
broader and sustained efforts. drugs over antibiotic R&D.

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¾ Unregulated Use in Agriculture and Animal Husbandry: India is among the top antibiotic consumers in livestock,
where 70% are used for growth promotion in livestock, agriculture, and aquaculture.
These antibiotics enter the food chain and environment, spreading resistance. Indiscriminate antibiotic use
in aquaculture further worsens the problem.
¾ Environmental Factors: Pharmaceutical factories discharge antibiotic residues into water bodies without proper
treatment, contaminating rivers and soil, and creating resistance hotspots.
Inadequate sewage and waste management in India further allow resistant microbes to spread unchecked in
the environment.

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What are the Consequences of Rising ¾ AMR Surveillance Networks: Through the National
Antimicrobial Resistance? Antimicrobial Surveillance Network (NARS-Net),
India monitors nine priority bacterial pathogens,
¾ Health Catastrophe: AMR makes infections harder including Escherichia coli.
to treat, raising mortality and morbidity. Common ¾ Antibiotic Regulation: In August 2024, the government
illnesses like tuberculosis, pneumonia, and urinary banned 156 fixed-dose combination (FDC) drugs,
tract infections can become life-threatening. including popular medicines such as Cheston Cold
E.g., In 2017, multidrug-resistant or rifampicin- and Foracet.
resistant TB caused 230,000 deaths, mostly in Hospital Antimicrobial Stewardship Programs
India and China. (AMSP) optimize patient care and help combat
Surgeries, chemotherapy, and transplants depend antimicrobial resistance.
on effective antibiotics; without them, routine Schedule H1 drugs (last-resort antibiotics
procedures become high-risk. e.g., carbapenems) require chemists to retain
¾ Economic Cost: The World Bank estimates AMR could prescription copies before sale.
add USD 1 trillion in healthcare costs by 2050 and In January 2024, Kerala became the first state in

cause USD 1–3.4 trillion in annual GDP losses by 2030. India to ban the over-the-counter sale of antibiotics
Longer illnesses and deaths lower workforce
without a prescription, setting an example that
other states can follow to reduce antibiotic misuse.
efficiency, while livestock losses disrupt food chains.
¾ Research & Innovation: Centre for Cellular and
¾ Food Security Crisis: With 70% of antibiotics used
Molecular Platforms (C-CAMP) India AMR Challenge
in farming, the AMR accelerates threatening food
identifies and supports startups, companies, and
availability, quality, and safety, and posing a risk to innovators developing technologies to tackle AMR.
national food security.
Companies like Wockhardt, Orchid Pharma, and
E.g., Resistant E. coli in poultry can infect humans,
Bugworks are among the few in India focusing on
and antifungal-resistant blights harm crops like antibiotic development.
wheat, rice, and bananas. ¾ Public Awareness: Red Line Campaign warns against
¾ Environmental Spread: Drug waste, hospital sewage, using medicines marked with a vertical red line,
and farm runoff spread resistance genes, while including antibiotics, without a prescription.
migratory birds and marine life carry resistant bacteria ¾ Global Collaboration: India participates in WHO’s
worldwide. GLASS (Global Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance
E.g., the River Ganga carries superbug bacterial System) to standardize and strengthen the collection,
genes, exposing users to antibiotic-resistant analysis, and sharing of data on AMR across countries.
infections.
¾ Social Implications: Poorer communities and countries First Successful Use of
with limited healthcare face higher AMR deaths due
to scarce diagnostics and drugs, risking declining Customised Base Editing
public confidence in treatments.
Why in News?
What Measures are Underway to Tackle
Scientists in the US have, for the first time, successfully
Antimicrobial Resistance in India?
employed a successful CRISPR-based gene-editing therapy
¾ National Action Plan on AMR (2017): NAP on AMR to treat a baby diagnosed with a rare genetic disorder
aligns with global efforts, focusing on surveillance, known as CPS1 deficiency.
rational antibiotic use, and public awareness. ¾ CPS1 deficiency is a rare metabolic disorder in which
Coordinated by the National Centre for Disease the liver is unable to effectively process byproducts
Control (NCDC), it covers 50 medical colleges/ of protein metabolism, resulting in the accumulation
labs across 27 states and 6 UTs as of March 2024. of toxic levels of ammonia in the body.

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What is Gene Editing Therapy?

¾ About: Gene Editing Therapy is a medical approach that involves precisely modifying DNA to correct genetic
defects, treat diseases, or enhance biological functions.
The most widely used tool is CRISPR-Cas9, which acts like molecular scissors to cut and edit specific genes.

¾ Applications: Treating Genetic Disorders e.g., Sickle Cell Anemia, Cancer Immunotherapy e.g., CAR-T Cell Therapy
and Agricultural Uses e.g., Drought-resistant crops.
¾ Tools Used for Gene Editing: CRISPR-Cas9 technology is a powerful and precise tool for editing genes that allows
scientists to cut and modify DNA at specific locations inside living organisms.
It uses guide RNA to locate and cut faulty DNA, enabling scientists to replace it with the correct sequence for
cellular repair.
TALENs and ZFNs: Transcription Activator-Like Effector Nucleases (TALENs) and Zinc Finger Nucleases (ZFNs)
are older technologies that also allow targeted DNA modifications.

How does Base Editing Differ from Traditional Gene Editing?

¾ Base Editing: Unlike CRISPR-Cas9, which creates double-strand breaks in DNA, Base editing allows direct, precise
conversion of one DNA base into another without cutting both DNA strands.
This reduces risks of unintended mutations and improves accuracy.

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¾ Mechanism: The base editing tool uses a fusion of Cas9 with a base-modifying enzyme to convert specific bases
(for example, changing a faulty cytosine to thymine) that cause genetic diseases.
¾ Precision: Base editing can be likened to using a pencil eraser to fix a typo instead of scissors and glue, allowing
safer and more targeted genetic correction.
Scientists identified the exact mispaired base causing CPS1 deficiency and used a base editor to precisely
locate and correct it in his DNA.
z This personalized treatment eliminated toxic ammonia buildup, marking the first known successful human
case of base editing.

ICMR Launches First Stigma Scale for Sickle Cell Disease

Why in News?
The Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) has developed the ICMR-SCD Stigma Scale for India (ISSSI), the
country’s first tool to measure and address stigma faced by sickle cell disease (SCD) patients and their caregivers.
The scale includes two components: ISSSI-Pt for patients and ISSSI-Cg for caregivers.
What are the Key Features of ICMR-SCD Stigma Scale for India?
¾ Multi-Dimensional Tool: Assesses stigma in 5 areas- familial/reproductive stigma, disclosure issues, illness burden,
discrimination, and healthcare stigma.

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¾ Culturally Grounded: Developed in 6 SCD-endemic districts to reflect India’s tribal, regional, and linguistic diversity.
Existing 3 SCD stigma scales from Africa and America were unsuitable for India due to phenotypic, socio-
cultural, and contextual differences, necessitating a locally relevant tool.
¾ Validated & Reliable: Psychometrically robust, suitable for clinical use, research, and policy evaluation.

What is Sickle Cell Disease?

¾ About:
Sickle Cell Disease (SCD) is a hereditary blood disorder caused by a genetic mutation in the haemoglobin
gene, leading to abnormal, crescent- or sickle-shaped red blood cells (RBC) instead of the usual round shape.
z These sickle-shaped RBCs are less flexible and do not move easily through small blood vessels, potentially
leading to blockages.
z This impairs blood circulation and leads to anaemia, organ damage, severe pain, and reduced lifespan.

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¾ Causes :
Sickle cell disease is a genetic disorder caused Dr. M. R. Srinivasan
by inheriting two mutated β-globin genes, one and India’s Nuclear
from each parent, resulting in the production of Power Programme
abnormal sickle haemoglobin.
¾ Treatment: Why in News?
Gene Therapy: SCD can be treated by bone Dr. Malur Ramasamy Srinivasan, former Chairman
marrow or stem cell transplantation by methods of the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) and a pioneer
like CRISPR. of India’s nuclear programme, passed away, marking the
end of a remarkable era in Indian atomic energy.
Blood Transfusions: These can help relieve anemia
and reduce the risk of pain crises. Who was Dr. Malur Ramasamy Srinivasan?
Medications for SCD include Voxelotor (prevents ¾ Contributions: Srinivasan joined the Department of
sickling and anemia), Crizanlizumab (reduces Atomic Energy (DAE) in 1955 and worked under Dr.
vessel blockage and pain crises), Hydroxyurea Homi Jehangir Bhabha, contributing to India’s first
nuclear reactor, Apsara.
(lowers complications), and L-glutamine (reduces
He served as the Principal Project Engineer for
pain episodes), along with nonsteroidal anti-
India’s first atomic power station at Tarapur and
inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and opiates for
later as the Chief Project Engineer for the Madras
pain relief. Atomic Power Station.
¾ Prevalence: He became the Founder-Chairman of the Nuclear
SCD is a major public health concern in India, with Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL),
the world’s second-largest SCD burden, with over 1 under his leadership, 18 nuclear power units
million affected individuals, and ranks 3rd globally were developed.
in SCD births after Nigeria and the Democratic ¾ Global and National Influence: Dr. Srinivasan served
Republic of the Congo. as Senior Advisor to the International Atomic Energy
Agency, Vienna (1990–92), Member of the Planning
Carrier rates among tribal groups range from 1%
Commission (1996–98), and National Security Advisory
to 40%, with most patients concentrated in the Board (2002–04, 2006–08). He also chaired the
tribal belt across Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka Task Force on Higher Education (2002–04).
Madhya Pradesh, and Maharashtra. ¾ Honours and Awards: Dr. Srinivasan received Padma
¾ Government Initiatives: Shri (1984), Padma Bhushan (1990), and Padma
National Sickle Cell Anaemia Elimination Mission: Vibhushan (2015).
Under this, CSIR is developing gene-editing What is India’s Nuclear Power Programme?
therapies for SCD. ¾ About: India’s Nuclear Power Programme was primarily
National Health Mission (NHM) 2013: Special formulated by Dr. Homi J. Bhabha, a prominent
focus on SCD. Indian physicist often called the “father of the Indian
nuclear program.”
The National Guidelines for Stem Cell Research
It is a strategic, three-stage plan aimed at harnessing
2017: It restricts the commercialisation of stem
atomic energy primarily for peaceful purposes,
cell therapies to clinical trials, except for Bone
such as electricity generation, while ensuring self-
marrow transplantation (BMT) for SCD. reliance in energy resources.
Rights of Persons with Disabilities (RPwDs) Act, It is designed to make optimal use of India’s
2016: SCD is included in the 21 disabilities that limited uranium reserves and abundant thorium
provide for benefits of reservation. resources.

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India’s programme is based on a closed fuel

¾ Future Plans and Projections: The study by the
cycle; each stage generates the fuel for the next, Department of Atomic Energy (DAE), estimates the
enhancing resource utilisation and reducing waste. nuclear share to be about 8.6% by the year 2032 and
¾ Three-Stage Nuclear Power Programme: 16.6% by the year 2052.
Stage 1: Using Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors
(PHWRs) fueled by natural uranium to generate Quasi-steady State
power and produce plutonium and depleted
uranium as by-products. Cosmology Theory
z In Stage 1, it is estimated that about 420 gigawatt-
years (GWe-yrs) of electricity can be produced. Why in News?
Stage 2: Deploying Fast Breeder Reactors (FBRs) Renowned astrophysicist and one of India’s most
that use plutonium from PHWRs to breed more influential scientists, Professor Jayant Vishnu Narlikar,
fuel while generating electricity (additional 54,000 passed away in Pune. He was best known globally for his
GWe-yrs). FBRs also produce uranium-233 from pioneering work on the quasi-steady state cosmology
thorium. theory of the universe.
Stage 3: It involves utilizing thorium-based reactors What is the Quasi-steady State
to convert thorium into fissile uranium-233, ensuring Cosmology Theory of the Universe?
a sustainable and long-term nuclear fuel supply.
¾ About: The Quasi-Steady State Cosmology (QSSC) is
z It aims at large-scale power generation using
a refined version of the Steady-State Theory of the
India’s abundant thorium reserves. This stage universe. It was developed in the early 1990s by
is projected to yield about 358,000 GWe-yrs of Fred Hoyle, Jayant Narlikar, and Geoffrey Burbidge
electricity, helping secure energy needs beyond as a response to the increasing dominance of the Big
the depletion of coal. Bang theory, while addressing some of its limitations.
z The world’s first thorium-based nuclear plant, ¾ Key Features of QSSC:
“Bhavni,” using Uranium-233, is being set up
Combines Steady-state and Cyclic Concepts:
at Kalpakkam in Tamil Nadu.
QSSC proposes that the universe follows a cyclical
¾ Current Status: Stage 1 is commercially mature. pattern of periodic expansion and contraction over
The second stage with FBRs began with a 500 MWe vast timescales, while still maintaining an overall
reactor at Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu. steady-state appearance.
Stage 3 thorium-based systems have been No Singular Origin: While the Big Bang theory
developed at the pilot scale; however, commercial posits a singular origin of the universe, QSSC
deployment is yet to begin. rejects the idea of a singular explosive beginning.
¾ Additionalities to the Three-Stage Program: z Instead, it suggests that the universe has existed
To accelerate nuclear power capacity, India is eternally and undergoes periodic episodes of
complementing its three-stage program with matter creation and expansion.
imported reactors. z Matter is continuously created in localized,
Kudankulam Nuclear Power Project (KKNPP), built non-singular events called ‘mini-bangs’ or
with Russian collaboration, currently operates creation events, which occur intermittently in
two 1,000 MWe VVER (water-water energy) the universe, avoiding a single origin point.
reactors since 2013 and 2016, with four more Modified General Relativity: The theory introduces
under construction. modifications to Einstein’s equations of general
z VVER reactors, known for safety and reliability, relativity to account for continuous matter creation,
are used globally and have clocked over 2,000 a key contribution by Jayant Narlikar.
reactor-years of operation. Scientific Acceptance: QSSC considered a minority
Nuclear energy is the 5th-largest source of electricity alternative to the Big Bang, with some mathematical
for India which contributes around 3% of the total innovations, but not widely accepted in mainstream
electricity generation in the country. cosmology.

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Note: The steady-state theory, proposed in 1948 by Hermann Bondi, Thomas Gold, and Fred Hoyle, posits that the
universe is eternally expanding while maintaining a constant average density.

What is Big Bang Theory?

¾ About: The Big Bang Theory, proposed in 1927 by Belgian cosmologist Georges Lemaître, explains the origin and
evolution of the universe, proposing that it began around 13.7 billion years ago from an extremely hot, dense
point known as a singularity.
The evolution of the universe started with a phase of cosmic inflation (an incredibly rapid expansion that
occurred within a fraction of a second after the Big Bang).
As the universe expanded and cooled, energy converted into fundamental particles, forming matter and
radiation. This led to the creation of atoms, stars, galaxies, and planets, along with the emergence of the four
fundamental forces: gravity, electromagnetism, strong nuclear, and weak nuclear forces.
¾ Planck Epoch: The Planck Epoch is the first 10⁻⁴³ seconds after the Big Bang, when the universe was extremely
hot and dense. Current physics (General Relativity and Quantum Mechanics) cannot describe this period, and a
theory of quantum gravity is needed to understand it.
¾ Evidence Supporting Big Bang:
Edwin Hubble’s observations, famously known as Hubble’s Law, showed that galaxies are moving away from
each other, with farther galaxies receding faster, indicating the universe is expanding.
The Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) radiation, discovered by Penzias and Wilson, is the cooled leftover
radiation from the first light that traveled freely through the Universe shortly after the Big Bang.
z It is considered a fossil or echo of the Big Bang, this ancient light has since cooled and weakened and is now
detected as microwaves.
z The European Space Agency’s Planck mission observed this oldest detectable radiation, providing valuable
insights into the Universe’s origin and evolution.
Who was Dr. Jayant Vishnu Narlikar?
¾ Early Life: Born on 19th July 1938 in Kolhapur, Maharashtra, Dr. Jayant Vishnu Narlikar pursued higher studies at
Cambridge University.

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¾ Institutional Building: In 1988, he was invited by the University Grants Commission (UGC) to establish the Inter-
University Centre for Astronomy and Astrophysics (IUCAA) in Pune as its Founder Director. His leadership made
IUCAA a global science hub.
¾ Bibliography: Dr. Narlikar was also a noted science communicator and author of popular science fiction works,
including An Introduction to Cosmology.
His autobiography, A Tale of Four Cities (Char Nagaratale Majhe Vishva), was awarded the Sahitya Akademi
Award in 2014 for its literary merit in Marathi.
¾ Awards: Received Padma Bhushan (1965) and Padma Vibhushan (2004). In 1996, Narlikar received the UNESCO
Kalinga Prize for his exceptional work in popularizing science.
Additionally, in 2011, he was conferred the Maharashtra Bhushan, the highest civilian honor awarded by the
Government of Maharashtra.
Read more: Challenging Big Bang Theory

A-to-I mRNA Editing

Why in News?
Researchers from China highlighted the process of A-to-I mRNA editing, especially in the wheat pathogen Fusarium
graminearum, revealing its complex role in biology.
What is A-to-I mRNA Editing?
¾ DNA: DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) is the genetic material of organisms and has a double helix structure. It is
composed of four nucleotides: adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), and guanine (G), which pair specifically (A
with T, and C with G).
The sequence of these bases carries the instructions for making proteins and Ribonucleic acid (RNA).

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¾ Messenger RNA (mRNA): It is a type of single-stranded RNA editing relies on ADAR enzymes naturally
RNA that plays a key role in protein synthesis. It is found in the human body, lowering the chance
created from DNA during the process of transcription. of immune reactions compared to DNA editing
mRNA acts as a messenger by carrying genetic tools that use bacterial proteins.
instructions from the DNA in the cell’s nucleus to RNA editing is therefore potentially safer for
the cytoplasm, where proteins are made. repeated treatments and for patients with immune
sensitivities.
In the cytoplasm, the cell’s protein-making
machinery (mainly ribosomes) reads the mRNA
sequence. PSLV-C61/EOS-09 Mission
z Each set of three bases (called a codon) ISRO’s Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV-C61)
corresponds to a specific amino acid. These mission failed to place the Earth Observation Satellite-09
amino acids are then linked together to form (EOS-09) into its intended sun-synchronous polar orbit
proteins, which perform essential functions in due to a glitch in the rocket’s third stage.
the body. ¾ This was ISRO’s 101st mission and the 63rd using
¾ A-to-I mRNA Editing: It is a biological process where the PSLV. The EOS-09 satellite carried a Synthetic
the nucleotide adenosine (A) in messenger RNA Aperture Radar (SAR) payload designed to capture
(mRNA) is enzymatically converted to inosine (I). all-weather Earth images.
The editing is performed by enzymes called ADARs Note:
(Adenosine Deaminases Acting on RNA). ¾ A sun-synchronous polar orbit (SSO) is a polar orbit
¾ Impact on Protein Synthesis: Inosine as result of A-to-I where a satellite passes over the same Earth location
mRNA Editing is read as guanine (G) by ribosomes at the same local solar time each day, maintaining
during translation, potentially altering the amino acid a consistent position relative to the Sun.
sequence of proteins. What is PSLV?
Note: Transcription is the process of making an RNA ¾ About: The Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) is
copy of a gene’s DNA sequence. Translation, in a highly reliable and cost-effective launch vehicle
genomics, is the process by which the information developed by ISRO.
encoded in messenger RNA (mRNA) directs the addition It is used to transport satellites into various orbits,
of amino acids during protein synthesis. including sun-synchronous, geostationary, and
How Does RNA Editing navigation orbits.
Compare to DNA Editing? ¾ Function: It carries satellites (payloads) into space,
overcoming Earth’s gravity through powerful propulsion
¾ RNA Editing: It is the process of correcting mistakes in systems. Once the desired orbit is reached, satellites
messenger RNA (mRNA) after it has been synthesized are deployed from the vehicle.
from DNA but before it directs protein production. ¾ Structure: PSLV has 4 stages:
This process allows cells to produce normal, PS1: Solid rocket motor with 6 strap-on boosters.
functional proteins despite errors in the mRNA PS2: Liquid engine (Vikas engine).
sequence.
PS3: Solid rocket motor for high thrust post-
¾ RNA Editing Vs. DNA Editing: RNA editing causes atmospheric phase.
temporary changes to the RNA, unlike DNA editing PS4: Two liquid-fuel engines for final orbital
which permanently alters the genome. insertion.
This temporary nature allows doctors to halt ¾ Variants: PSLV-XL (with extended strap-ons), PSLV-DL,
therapy if adverse effects arise, reducing long- PSLV-QL, etc., are selected based on payload weight
term risks. and target orbit.

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¾ Significance: Known as ISRO’s “workhorse” due to its versatility and high success rate.
Used in major missions like Chandrayaan-1 (2008) and Mars Orbiter Mission (2013).

Achieved global recognition by launching 104 satellites in a single mission (PSLV-C37, 2017).

¾ Earlier Failure: The PSLV has failed twice in its history. The first failure was in 1993 (PSLV-D1) due to software
issues, causing the IRS-1E satellite to crash into the ocean.
The second was in 2017 (PSLV-C39), when a heat shield separation failure trapped the IRNSS-1H satellite,
preventing its deployment into orbit.

What is Earth Observation Satellite-09 (EOS-09)?

¾ About: EOS-09, also called RISAT-1B, is an advanced Indian remote sensing satellite equipped with a C-band
Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) for all-weather, day-and-night Earth imaging.
It is designed for diverse applications including land-use mapping, hydrology, disaster management, agriculture,
forestry, and coastal security.

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¾ Key Features:
All-weather capability: SAR penetrates clouds, rain, fog, and darkness, ensuring continuous surveillance.

High resolution: Offers up to 1-meter resolution and wide swath coverage (10 to 225 km).

Multiple Imaging modes: Supports five modes like High-Resolution Spotlight and Medium Resolution ScanSAR
for varied uses.
Dual-use: Supports both civilian applications and defence surveillance, including monitoring military activity
and maritime security.
Orbit: Intended for a sun-synchronous polar orbit for consistent daily coverage.

Bharat 6G Vision
Why in News?
India reaffirmed its commitment to lead the global race in 6G technology during the ‘Bharat 6G 2025’ International
Conference, highlighting 6G as a civilisation-scale opportunity with transformative potential, aligning with Bharat 6G
Vision.
What is Bharat 6G Vision?
¾ About: Launched in 2023, the Bharat 6G Vision is based on the principles of affordability, sustainability, and ubiquity.
It aims to position India as a global leader in sixth-generation (6G) telecommunications technology by 2030.

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¾ Significance: It builds upon India’s strong 5G foundation with over 4.35 lakh 5G base stations deployed by 2024.
It aims to transform not just communication, but the entire digital ecosystem with future-proof, secure, and
green networks (energy-efficient networking technologies).
¾ Features of the Vision:
Timeline: It is a 9-year phased mission from 2022 to 2031, targeting major milestones such as R&D breakthroughs,
field trials, and contributions to international 6G standards.
Infrastructure: Establishment of two advanced testbeds, the 6G Terahertz (THz) Testbed and the Advanced
Optical Communication Testbed to drive research and innovation domestically.
z Sanctioned 100 5G labs at academic institutions in FY 2023-24, across India for capacity building & for building
a 6G ready academic and start-up ecosystem in the country.
Bharat 6G Alliance: It is a national platform bringing together academia, startups, research institutions, industries,
and policymakers to drive the development and deployment of 6G technologies.
¾ ITU 2030 Alignment: India’s 6G vision is aligned with the International Telecommunication Union’s (ITU) International
Mobile Technology (IMT) 2030 framework, contributing to global capabilities like ubiquitous connectivity,
interoperability, and sustainability.

What is 6G Technology?
¾ About: 6G refers to the sixth generation of wireless communication technology, the successor to 5G.
It aims to build upon 5G’s advancements, offering even faster data speeds (potentially reaching 1 Terabits per
second) and lower latency (down to 100 microseconds).
6G is expected to enable new applications and transform how we live and work by enabling hyper-connectivity,
immersive experiences, and intelligent automation.
¾ IMT 2030: The 6G Technology has been named ‘IMT 2030’ by ITU, the specialised agency for Information and
Communication Technologies of the United Nations.
The ITU 6G Framework has been formulated with collaborative efforts of member countries of UNs in which
India has played the front-runner role from the very beginning.
Note:

nnn

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Environment and Ecology

Highlights
z WMO Global Annual to Decadal Climate Update 2025-2029 z Climate Physical Risks in India
z World Dugong Day z World Hydrogen Summit 2025
z Strengthening Urban Biodiversity z World Turtle Day 2025
z Oil Spills z Gangetic Dolphins
z Sagarmatha Sambaad and Preserving Himalayas z 16th Asiatic Lion Census 2025
z Environmental Costs of Electric Vehicles

¾ Paris Agreement Threshold: 2024 was the first full

WMO Global Annual year to record temperatures above 1.5°C.
The 1.5°C threshold is a temporary breach, but a
to Decadal Climate long-term (20–30 years) exceedance would mean
Update 2025-2029 failure of the Paris Agreement.
¾ Urgency for Policy Action: Despite the urgency, 180
Why in News? of 195 United Nations Framework Convention on
The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) has Climate Change (UNFCCC) countries have not yet
released a report titled “WMO Global Annual to Decadal submitted their updated Nationally Determined
Climate Update (2025–2029)”, warning that the Earth’s Contributions (NDCs) for 2031–2035.
These plans are critical to staying within the 1.5°C
average temperature is likely to exceed 1.5°C above
pre-industrial levels during this period. limit set in the Paris Agreement.
WMO stresses the importance of continued climate
What are the Key Takeaways from WMO monitoring to inform decision-making and boost
Global Annual to Decadal Climate Update? adaptation efforts.
¾ Global Temperature Trends: WMO projects that the World Meteorological Organization
annual global average temperature between 2025 ¾ The WMO is an intergovernmental body comprising
and 2029 will range from 1.2°C to 1.9°C above the 192 Member States and Territories, including India.
1850–1900 pre-industrial average. It evolved from the International Meteorological
There is a 70% chance that the average temperature Organization (IMO), founded following the 1873
for this five-year period will exceed the critical Vienna International Meteorological Congress.
1.5°C threshold. ¾ In 1950, the IMO formally became the World
Additionally, there is an 86% chance that at least Meteorological Organization (WMO) through the
one year within this timeframe will temporarily ratification of the WMO Convention.
surpass the 1.5°C limit, and an 80% chance that It serves as the United Nations’ specialized agency
one of these years will be hotter than 2024, which for meteorology (weather and climate), operational
is currently the warmest year on record. hydrology, and related geophysical sciences.
¾ Regional Climate Projections: ¾ The Secretariat, based in Geneva, Switzerland and
South Asia: Expected to remain wetter than average. led by the Secretary-General, is overseen by the
Amazon: Likely to experience drier-than-average
World Meteorological Congress.
conditions. ¾ WMO publishes reports such as the State of the
Global Climate, the State of Global Water Resources,
Arctic: Expected to warm 2.4°C above normal, 3.5
and the State of Climate Services.
times the global average.

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What are Key International ¾ About: Dugongs (Dugong dugon), also called “sea
Conventions/Protocols Aimed cows,” are marine mammals that graze on seagrass
at Limiting Global Warming? beds, earning them the nickname “farmers of the
sea.” They are the only herbivorous marine mammals
Conventions/
Objective found in Indian waters.
Protocols
It aimed to reduce the emission of ¾ Distribution: Dugongs are distributed throughout the
Kyoto Protocol
gases that contribute to global Indo-Pacific region, and along the Indian coastline,
(1997)
warming. they primarily inhabit the warm waters around the
Limit global temperature rise to well Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the Gulf of Mannar,
Paris Agreement below 2°C above pre-industrial Palk Bay, and the Gulf of Kutch.
(2015) levels, and pursue efforts to limit the
The Palk Bay is considered their last stronghold
increase to 1.5°C.
in Indian waters.
Glasgow Climate Secure global net-zero emissions by
Pact (COP26) mid-century and keep warming ¾ Behaviour: The dugong is a long-lived species, capable
(2021) within 1.5°C within reach. of living up to 70 years. Typically solitary or found
Focus on implementation and climate in small mother-calf pairs, large herds common in
Sharm El-Sheikh
justice; established the Loss and Australian waters are rare in India.
Plan (COP27)
Damage Fund, emphasized adaptation,
(2022) Dugongs reach reproductive maturity at nine to
and reinforced the 1.5°C goal.
ten years and give birth every three to five years.
Reaffirmed the 1.5°C target;
governments agreed to raise their This slow reproductive cycle, combined with
Global Stocktake
2025 climate commitments to align extended maturity and infrequent calving, limits
(COP28) (2023)
with this goal, covering all sectors and the population’s maximum growth rate to about
greenhouse gases. 5% per year.
Read more: State of Global Climate Report 2024 They are closely related to manatees but are strictly
marine and shy in nature.
World Dugong Day z Manatees are large, herbivorous aquatic
mammals of the Sirenia group, found in coastal
Why in News? regions of South America, West Africa, and the
As the world observed World Dugong Day on 28th Caribbean.
May, attention turned toward India’s dwindling dugong ¾ Diet: Dugongs feed on seagrass species such as
population. With only around 200 individuals remaining Cymodocea, Halophila, Thalassia, and Halodule,
in the wild, making their conservation a pressing national
consuming 20-30 kg per day. Their feeding stirs up
priority.
the seabed, helping maintain seagrass health and
What are Dugongs? biodiversity.
¾ Protection: The Dugong is listed as Vulnerable on
the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
Appendix I of Convention on International Trade
in Endangered Species (CITES) bans international
trade of dugongs or their parts, ensuring strict
protection.

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In India, Dugongs are protected under Schedule 1 Seagrass

of the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972.
¾ Seagrass is an underwater flowering plant, not to
India is a signatory to the Convention on Migratory be confused with seaweed (macroalgae). Classified
Species (CMS) since 1983 and to the CMS Dugong as wetland ecosystems, seagrass meadows stabilize
Memorandum of Understanding since 2008. the seafloor, support fisheries, capture carbon, and
z A national Task Force has been set up to address shelter marine life.
dugong conservation and CMS implementation. Healthy seagrass is essential for dugongs and
marine life such as turtles and fish.
The Dugong Conservation Reserve, established in
A 2022 study by the National Centre for
2022 in Palk Bay, Tamil Nadu, protects about 122
Sustainable Coastal Management documented
sq km of seagrass along the coasts of Thanjavur 516.59 sq. km of seagrass habitat in India. This
and Pudukottai districts. translates to a carbon dioxide sequestration
¾ Threats: Habitat loss is a major concern, as seagrass potential of up to 434.9 tonnes per sq. km
meadows are being destroyed by port construction, each year.
dredging, land reclamation, and pollution from ¾ India’s most extensive seagrass meadows occur
agricultural runoff, sewage, and industrial waste. along the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay, off the
coast of Tamil Nadu, and together support more
Mechanised fishing has degraded dugong habitats
than 13 species of seagrass (the highest diversity
and increased accidental entanglement in nets,
in the Indian Ocean).
often causing fatal drownings.
Seagrass in Lakshadweep and Kachchh is patchy
Climate change has added another layer of and threatened by port activities and pollution.
vulnerability, with rising sea temperatures, ocean Andhra Pradesh and Odisha have minor, limited
acidification, and extreme weather events affecting seagrass habitats unsuitable for dugongs.
both food availability and breeding grounds.
Illegal hunting also persists, especially in remote Strengthening
regions like the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Urban Biodiversity
Additionally, their slow reproductive cycle (maturing
at 9–10 years and reproducing only once every Why in News?
3–5 years) severely limits their ability to recover. Urban biodiversity is vital for a healthy planet and
¾ Dugong Conservation: Protecting and restoring seagrass human well-being but faces severe threats, from habitat
habitats is vital for dugong conservation. This involves loss and climate change. On International Day for
mapping and monitoring seagrass meadows, restricting Biological Diversity (22nd May), the theme “Harmony
with nature and sustainable development” stresses the
damaging activities, and promoting community-led
urgent need to integrate ecological conservation into
stewardship, especially with local fishers. urban growth.
Regulating harmful fishing methods like gill nets
What is Urban Biodiversity?
and trawling in dugong areas reduces accidental
harm. ¾ About: Urban Biodiversity refers to the variety of living
organisms (plants, animals, fungi, and microorganisms)
More research funding is needed for long-term found within cities and urban areas.
dugong studies, supported by citizen science and It includes all life forms in human-dominated
traditional knowledge. Technologies like tagging and environments, such as parks, gardens, green
drones aid in tracking and habitat identification. roofs, wetlands, and built structures.

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¾ Key Components: Proximity to parks and water bodies also raises

Green spaces: Parks, gardens, green belts, lawns, property values, boosting local economies.
roadside trees. ¾ Global Commitments: The Kunming-Montreal
Blue spaces: Lakes, rivers, canals, ponds, wetlands. Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) Target 12
Built structures: Walls, roofs, and abandoned emphasizes integrating green and blue spaces into
buildings that provide habitats (e.g., bats in attics, urban planning.
birds nesting on buildings). The UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
Wildlife corridors: Paths that allow animals to move Goal 11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities)
between green patches (e.g., tree-lined streets) highlights the need to make cities inclusive, safe,
¾ Prominent Examples: resilient, and sustainable.
Wetlands within cities, e.g., the Okhla Bird Sanctuary What are the Key Issues Affecting
in Delhi, Varthur Lake in Bengaluru. Urban Biodiversity in India?
Urban forests and biodiversity parks, e.g., the ¾ Rising Urban Sprawl: In 2025, nearly 50% of the
Arignar Anna Zoological Park in Chennai.
global population lives in urban areas, projected
Rivers and lakes passing through cities, supporting to reach 70% by 2050 pressurising natural green
aquatic biodiversity (e.g., In Pune, the Mutha and spaces.
Mula rivers demonstrate high biodiversity, with
The Forest Survey of India (2023) shows major
many freshwater invertebrate species).
cities have an average forest cover of just 10.26%,
What is the Significance of Urban with Mumbai highest at 25.43% and Ahmedabad
Biodiversity Conservation for India? lowest at 3.27%.
¾ Mitigating Climate Change & Pollution: Urban green From 2021 to 2023, Chennai and Hyderabad
spaces reduce urban heat island effect e.g., Frankfurt’s lost 2.6 and 1.6 sq. km of forest, reflecting urban
green belts lowered temperatures by 3.5°C. growth at the expense of biodiversity.
Trees sequester carbon, filter air pollutants, and ¾ Heat Island Effect: Concrete-dominated cities like
reduce noise pollution (a 10m-wide tree line cuts Delhi are 4–6°C hotter than rural areas, stressing
noise by 5 decibels). urban wildlife.
Wetlands and urban forests help in flood control
The surface urban heat island effect drives birds
and groundwater recharge.
to suburban areas, impacting their breeding and
¾ Health & Well-being Benefits: Parks and green foraging.
spaces offer a vital escape from “concrete jungles,”
¾ Loss of Urban Wetlands & Water Bodies: The East
enhancing mental health, reducing stress, and providing
Kolkata Wetlands, a Ramsar site, are under increasing
recreational opportunities, while also supporting
important pollinators like bees and butterflies that threat from encroachment, endangering critical habitats
help secure food supply. for migratory birds such as the Northern Pintail.
E.g., Green walls shield Delhi from the hot desert Alarmingly, just 15% of Chennai’s wetlands survive
winds blowing in from Rajasthan to the west. today—a steep drop from 80% in earlier decades
¾ Economic Benefits: Urban trees in mega cities deliver when the city’s urban footprint was much smaller.
ecosystem services valued at Rs 8 crore per sq. km ¾ Pollution: Urban pollution—air, water, soil, and
annually, including air purification, temperature noise—harms biodiversity by disrupting animal health,
moderation, stormwater management, and aesthetic communication, and ecosystems, as seen in Delhi’s
benefits. toxic air and Bangalore’s polluted Bellandur Lake.

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International Day for Biological Diversity

¾ About: The United Nations declared 22nd May as the International Day for Biological Diversity (IDB) to raise
awareness about biodiversity.
Originally, the day was celebrated on 29th December, marking the entry into force of the Convention on
Biological Diversity (CBD).
However, in 2000, the UN moved the date to 22nd May to honor the adoption of the CBD’s text on that day
in 1992.
¾ Biological Diversity: Biodiversity as a concept, first coined by Walter G. Rosen in 1985 and includes the wide
variety of plants, animals, and microorganisms, as well as the genetic differences within species (like different
crop varieties and livestock breeds) and the variety of ecosystems (lakes, forests, deserts, agricultural landscapes)
where many living beings interact.
These resources are the foundation of human civilization e.g.,

z Fish provide 20% of animal protein for about 3 billion people,

z Plants make up over 80% of the human diet, and

z About 80% of people in rural areas of developing countries rely on traditional plant-based medicines for
basic healthcare.
The United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) designated the years 2011-2020 as the United Nations Decade
on Biodiversity, aiming to advance the implementation of a strategic plan for biodiversity.

Oil Spills
Why in News?
A Liberian-flagged cargo vessel carrying hazardous materials, including calcium carbide and diesel, sank off the
Kerala coast, raising serious concerns over oil spills.
¾ Calcium carbide (CaC2) is a chemical that reacts with seawater to release acetylene gas, which is highly flammable
and hazardous.
What are Oil Spills?
¾ About: Oil Spills refer to the release of liquid petroleum hydrocarbons into the environment, particularly into
oceans, rivers, or coastal waters as a result of human activities.
¾ Impact: Diesel, petroleum, crude oil, and other hydrocarbons may be released from sources such as tankers,
offshore platforms, drilling rigs, or wells which have harmful effects on marine ecosystems, coastal livelihoods,
and human health.
Marine Ecosystem: Oil coats the feathers of seabirds and fur of marine mammals, leading to hypothermia
and death. It clogs fish gills, impairs reproduction, and becomes toxic when ingested by marine life..
z Oil films block sunlight, affecting phytoplankton and reducing oxygen levels. Coral reefs, mangroves, estuaries
(e.g., Sunderbans) get smothered, disrupting ecosystems.
Coastal Livelihood: Oil spills disrupt fishing, aquaculture, and coastal industries, causing economic hardship
for local communities.
z Contaminated beaches and dead marine life reduce tourism, affecting livelihoods and regional economies.

z Cleanup and restoration efforts lead to significant financial burdens on governments and industries.

Human Health: Health and livelihood risks for indigenous communities due to seafood contamination and
reduced fish catches.

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What are the Measures to Clean Oil Spills?

Method Description
Uses oil-degrading bacteria (e.g., Cycloclasticus, Oleispira) to break down hydrocarbons;
Bioremediation
eco-friendly and accelerates natural detoxification.
Containment Floating barriers that restrict oil spread, aiding in containment, recovery, and minimizing
Booms environmental impact.
Mechanical devices that collect oil from the water surface for safe disposal or recycling;
Skimmers
effective when deployed quickly.
They absorb or adsorb oil from water and are particularly useful for small spills or residual
Sorbents oil after primary cleanup.
Natural sorbents (Straw, Volcanic ash), Synthetic (Polyester-derived plastic shavings).
Surfactant-based chemicals that break oil into droplets for faster biodegradation. It is effective
Dispersing Agents
but may harm marine life due to its potential toxicity.

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What are the Legal and Institutional collaborative efforts to protect the Himalayas and
Frameworks on Oil Pollution Control? mountain ecosystems.
¾ Indian Legal Framework: ¾ The Himalayan ecosystem is vital to sustaining India’s
environmental integrity and driving its economic
Merchant Shipping Act, 1958: Serves as the primary
resilience.
maritime legislation. Incorporates provisions of
the International Convention for the Prevention What is Sagarmatha Sambaad?
of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) Convention ¾ About: It is a biennial global dialogue forum initiated
to regulate ship-borne pollution, including oil by the Government of Nepal, named after Sagarmatha
discharges.
(Mount Everest), to deliberate on pressing global
National Oil Spill Disaster Contingency Plan (NOS- issues, with an emphasis on mountain ecosystems
DCP), 1993: Implemented by the Indian Coast and climate resilience.
Guard, as a key framework for coordinated oil
It coincided with the ”International Year of Glaciers’
spill response.
Preservation 2025”.
z Though not legally binding, it ensures timely
¾ Theme and Focus: The theme of first edition (2025)
and integrated action among stakeholders.
was “Climate Change, Mountains and the Future of
National Green Tribunal (NGT) Act, 2010: NGT
Humanity.”
provides a judicial mechanism for swift adjudication
The focus areas include the impact of climate
of environmental disputes, including marine
change on mountain ecosystems, particularly
pollution, and awards compensation for damages.
glacial melt, lake outbursts, biodiversity loss,
¾ International Frameworks:
and downstream effects on water cycles and
Bunker Oil Convention (2001): Ratified by India
natural disasters.
in 2015 under the IMO, this convention ensures
¾ India’s Stand: India outlined a 5-point call for global
prompt and adequate compensation for damage
action to address the shared ecological challenges of
caused by fuel oil spills from ships’ bunkers,
mountainous regions.
protecting those affected by such pollution incidents.
Enhanced Scientific Cooperation: Joint monitoring of
MARPOL 73/78 (Annex I): India is a party to this
climate and biodiversity in high-altitude ecosystems.
key international convention aimed at preventing
z India stressed regional cooperation via the
marine pollution from ships, covering both
operational discharges and accidental oil spills. International Big Cats Alliance to conserve
snow leopards, tigers, and leopards, and lauded
Civil Liability Convention (CLC), 1969 & International
its success with 718 snow leopards recorded
Oil Pollution Compensation Fund (IOPC), 1992:
under Project Snow Leopard (2019–2023).
Establish liability and compensation mechanisms
for oil spill damage. Facilitate financial recovery Building Climate Resilience: Develop early warning

and legal recourse for victims and governments systems and adaptation infrastructure for mountain
in the event of tanker spills. hazards like glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF).
Empowering Mountain Communities: Prioritize
local welfare, integrate traditional knowledge,
Sagarmatha Sambaad and and support green livelihoods.
Preserving Himalayas Providing Green Finance: Urged for adequate
and predictable climate finance aligned with the
Why in News? Paris Agreement.
Union Environment Minister represented India at Recognizing Mountain Perspectives: Advocate for

the inaugural Sagarmatha Sambaad in Nepal, reaffirming mountain-specific concerns in global climate and
India’s commitment to climate action and calling for development forums

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What is the Significance of Himalayan Ecosystem for India?

¾ Hydrological Significance: The Himalayas, known as Asia’s water towers, is a major source of rivers like the Ganga,
Brahmaputra, and Indus, with vast snow and ice deposits supplying around 1.2 trillion cubic meters of water
annually to support agriculture, drinking water, and hydropower.
¾ Ecological Significance: The Himalayas, a biodiversity hotspot, host over 10,000 vascular plants, 979 birds, and
300 mammals—including the snow leopard, red panda, Himalayan tahr, and Himalayan monal—across diverse
climate zones from tropical to alpine.

¾ Cultural Significance: The Himalayas hold spiritual significance in Tibetan Buddhism and Hinduism, featuring
sacred sites like Kailash Mansarovar, Kedarnath and Badrinath, attracting millions of pilgrims annually.
¾ Economic Significance: The Himalayas support millions through tourism, agriculture, and forestry, with sustainable
growth driven by organic farming, eco-tourism, and renewable energy.
In states like Uttarakhand, West Bengal, Tripura, Assam, and Meghalaya, the tourism sector has been contributing
more than 10% to the state GDP.
The Ganges river basin supports around 40% of India’s population and is vital for agriculture and industry.
¾ Renewable Energy: Himalayan rivers offer vast hydropower potential, vital for India’s energy security and green
transition.
The Northeastern states, especially Arunachal Pradesh with its 13,000 MW Lohit Basin project (2023), lead in
hydropower development.

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¾ Climate Regulation: Acting as a colossal natural For instance, over the last 25 years, Gangotri glacier

shield, the Himalayas block frigid winds from Central has retreated more than 850 meters.
Asia, thus preventing extreme cold in northern India. ¾ Biodiversity Loss: Deforestation, encroachment, and
Their towering presence also influences the Indian climate change drive significant biodiversity loss in the
monsoon by forcing moist oceanic air to rise, Himalayas, also fueling invasive species like crofton
causing heavy rainfall vital for crops. weed that threaten native pine trees.
Without the Himalayas, much of India could face Also, it is leading to displacement of species, for

harsher winters and erratic monsoons, disrupting instance, about 90% of the endemic species in the
food security. Sikkim Himalayas have been displaced.
¾ Carbon Sink: The vast forests and alpine meadows ¾ Unregulated Tourism: Tourism growth, while
of the Himalayan region act as an important carbon economically beneficial, often leads to littering,
sink, absorbing significant amounts of atmospheric pollution, and strain on local resources.
carbon dioxide and helping to mitigate climate change. Overcrowding in pilgrimage sites like Kedarnath and

These ecosystems store carbon in their dense trekking trails damages fragile alpine ecosystems.
vegetation and soil, reducing greenhouse gas levels The Himalayan Clean-Up (2022) waste audit

and buffering global warming impacts. revealed that 92.7% of the trash was plastic, with
72% consisting of non-recyclable plastic.
Protecting Himalayan forests from deforestation
and degradation is crucial to maintain their carbon
sequestration capacity and preserve regional Environmental Costs
climate stability.
of Electric Vehicles
What are the Key Issues Related
to India’s Himalayan Ecosystem? Why in News?
¾ Climate-Driven Disasters: The Himalayas face increasing A recent study reveals that while electric vehicles
disasters like avalanches, landslides, and flash floods (EVs) reduce greenhouse gas emissions, their heavier
due to rising temperatures, glacier retreat, and erratic weight leads to increased tyre wear, releasing more
weather, including more frequent cloudbursts. microplastic pollution—challenging the notion that EVs
are fully eco-friendly.
Recent events like the 2025 Uttarakhand avalanche
and 2023 Sikkim Glacial Lake Outburst Flood What are the Environmental
highlight rising disaster risks. Concerns Regarding EVs?
¾ Fragile Economic Development: Slope cutting, ¾ Tyre Microplastic Pollution: EVs are typically 15–20%
deforestation, and blasting weaken mountain stability, heavier than internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles
causing landslides and subsidence. due to battery packs weighing 300–900 kg, leading
Heightened seismic activity in the Indus–Tsangpo to increased tyre stress and wear.
zone combined with unsustainable projects led to Primary fragmentation, caused by sudden braking
crises like the 2023 Joshimath land subsidence or road impacts, releases micro-sized particles,
linked to the Char Dham Project. while sequential fragmentation from routine wear
¾ Retreating of Glacier: Himalayan glaciers, key to produces larger particles.
India’s rivers, are rapidly melting due to global Smaller fragments (1–10 μm) remain airborne,
warming, risking water scarcity, droughts, reduced contributing to air pollution, while larger ones
hydropower, and conflicts; (>100 μm) settle on roads, affecting soil and water.
A 2023 report warns Hindu Kush glaciers may lose z Rapid acceleration in EVs further increases friction
75% volume by century’s end if trends continue. and heat, intensifying microplastic emissions.

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While EVs cut tailpipe emissions, they increase non-exhaust pollution, presenting a complex environmental

trade-off.
¾ Lithium-Ion Battery Hazards: Manufacturing a single EV releases 16–19 tonnes of CO₂, almost double that of an
ICE vehicle (7–10 tonnes).
Producing 1 tonne of lithium requires approximately 1.89 million liters of freshwater affecting groundwater
and ecosystems.
¾ Recycling and Waste Management Deficit: Often EV batteries end up in landfills after damage or end-of-life. Proper
recycling infrastructure is inadequate.
Cobalt and lithium residues can take centuries to break down and pose lasting risks to human and environmental
health.
¾ Grid Dependency & Fossil Fuels: EVs are only as green as the grid that powers them. India’s grid is still coal-
dominated. Coal-fired power plants emit 800–850g of CO₂/kWh, which powers most EVs in India.
Many public charging stations run on diesel generators, ironically increasing emissions.

What are the Gaps in EV Regulation in India?

¾ Inconsistent and Fragmented Policy Implementation: Existing air pollution standards focus on particulate matter
(PM) 2.5 and PM10, but tyre particles are often smaller and unregulated. No current standards adequately address
non-exhaust emissions such as tyre and brake wear.
India is currently woefully underprepared to manage the massive volume of EV battery waste expected over
the coming decade.
Critically, India lacks robust legislation to prevent the illegal dumping of spent lithium-ion batteries. The existing
legal framework including the E-waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2011, E-waste (Management) Rules,
2016, and the 2018 amendment has evolved in terms of the range of materials covered. However, it fails to
provide a cohesive, dedicated framework for the safe disposal and recycling of EV batteries.

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z This regulatory gap risks turning India into a ¾ Limited Consumer Awareness and Adoption Support:
dumping ground for domestic and imported Consumer adoption remains low due to limited
battery waste. awareness of EV benefits, range anxiety and battery
EV schemes like FAME-I and II have had limited concerns, and poor promotion of home or decentralized
impact due to inconsistent implementation. While charging options.
states like Gujarat and Delhi have strong policies, What are India’s Key Initiatives to
many lack even a basic EV roadmap. Promote EV Adoption?
The absence of uniform standards across states ¾ PM E-DRIVE Scheme
hinders nationwide scalability and integration. ¾ New Electric Vehicle Policy 2024
¾ Limited Scope of Government Incentives: The EV ¾ Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Electric
efforts focus mostly on 3-wheelers and buses in Vehicles (FAME) Scheme II
select urban areas, leaving out rural and semi-urban ¾ National Electric Mobility Mission Plan (NEMMP)
adoption potential. ¾ National Mission on Transformative Mobility and
EV efforts are mainly limited to intra-city transport, Battery Storage
and long-distance inter-city electrification lacks ¾ Production Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme
a viable roadmap. ¾ Go Electric campaign
¾ Charging Infrastructure Gaps: The current charging
infrastructure is insufficient and underdeveloped,
especially outside metro cities.
Climate Physical
There is no national standardisation of charging Risks in India
equipment and battery technologies, resulting in
compatibility issues across EV brands and stations. Why in News?
High cost (investment ranging around Rs 1 crore Recent reports, including from the World Bank,
or more) for setting up a charging station is a confirm India’s climate crisis, with Climate Physical Risks
major deterrent, especially without guaranteed (CPRs) like rising temperatures, erratic monsoons, and
demand or utilization. severe disasters threatening over 80% of its population
and economy.
¾ Lack of Dedicated Regulatory Authority: There is
currently no single agency or department dedicated What are Climate Physical Risks?
to EV regulation and coordination across ministries ¾ About: Climate Physical Risks (CPRs) refer to the direct
(Transport, Power, Renewable Energy, Environment, and indirect impacts of climate change on natural
etc.). ecosystems, human societies, and economic systems.
The absence of a unified institutional mechanism These risks arise from extreme weather events
hampers efficient decision-making, monitoring, and long-term climatic shifts, leading to financial
and rapid response to industry needs. losses, operational disruptions, and threats to lives
¾ Inadequate Focus on Supply Chain Security: India and livelihoods.
lacks a secure and diversified supply of critical raw ¾ Types: CPRs are categorized into two main types:
materials like lithium (India imported 70% of its Acute Physical Risks: They are short-term, high-
lithium-ion cells in 2023 ), cobalt, and rare earth impact events caused by extreme weather, such as
elements needed for EV batteries. hurricanes, cyclones, floods, heatwaves, droughts,
There is no comprehensive national strategy and severe storms.
to build domestic reserves, create international z Impacts include infrastructure damage, supply
partnerships, or incentivize local alternatives (e.g., chain disruptions, loss of lives, and community
sodium-ion batteries). displacement.

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Chronic Physical Risks: They are long-term, gradual ¾ Economic & Infrastructure Damage: Climate-
changes in climate patterns, including rising induced events like floods and heatwaves damage
sea levels, increasing temperatures, changing infrastructure. India lost USD 3 billion to floods in
precipitation, and ocean acidification. the last decade—10% of global losses.
z These lead to reduced agricultural productivity,
What are the Challenges
water scarcity, health risks, and biodiversity loss.
in Tackling CPRs for India?
What are Climate Physical ¾ Fossil fuel-centric Energy Model: Despite renewable
Risks (CPRs) for India? gains, 77% of India’s electricity (FY23) still comes
¾ Rising Temperatures & Heatwaves: India’s average from coal.
temperature increased by approximately 0.7˚C ¾ Lack of Climate Finance: India needs USD 10.1 trillion
between 1901 and 2018, while the tropical Indian by 2070 for net-zero, but green financing falls short.
Ocean’s sea-surface temperature rose by about 1˚C ¾ Technological Lags: India’s green tech sector—especially
from 1951 to 2015. battery storage and solar panels—depends heavily
The IPCC warns that each 0.5°C rise will worsen on imports, with over half (USD 3.89 billion of USD
heat, rainfall, and drought extremes. Heatwaves 7 billion in FY24) coming from China.
in India could last 25 times longer by 2036–2065 Limited domestic manufacturing hampers the
if temperatures rise to 4oC by 2100. Production Linked Initiative (PLI) Scheme and
¾ Erratic Monsoons: Analysis of long-term data shows a slows green self-reliance.
27% increase in dry spells during 1981–2011 compared ¾ Vulnerability to Renewable Projects: Ironically, climate
to 1951–1980, alongside more intense wet spells in impacts hinder renewable energy.
the summer monsoon. Wind power in Tamil Nadu may drop 5% in
In central India, extreme daily rainfall (>150mm) 2024–25 due to erratic winds. High temperatures
increased by 75% from 1950 to 2015. reduce solar PV efficiency by 0.4–0.5 % per degree
¾ Droughts & Water Scarcity: According to NITI Celsius. Dust can reduce PV output by up to 60
Aayog’s 2019 Composite Water Management %, especially in desert regions.
Index, approximately 600 million Indians face high ¾ Limited R&D Investment in Green Technologies:
to extreme water stress. India spends just 0.7% of GDP on R&D, lagging behind
12% of India’s population faces ‘Day Zero’ conditions global leaders like Israel (4.6%), South Korea (4.5%).
(water supply is nearly depleted). By 2030, water This limits innovation in green hydrogen, energy
demand may double supply, risking severe scarcity storage, and carbon capture, where India trails
for millions and a 6% GDP loss. despite being the third-largest CO₂ emitter.
¾ Rising Sea Levels: According to the Global Assessment ¾ Challenges in Electric Vehicles (EVs): The transport
Report on Disaster Risk Reduction 2022, by 2100, sector, responsible for 14% of emissions, struggles
around 27 million people in India could be impacted with EV adoption due to limited charging infrastructure
by global sea-level rise (projected to rise a foot by (25,000 stations in 2024) and high costs.
2100). ¾ Fragmented Data: India’s CPR assessments remain
¾ Food Security Crisis: Climate change could reduce fragmented, with efforts dispersed among various
wheat yields by 19.3% by 2050 and 40% by 2080, agencies and institutions employing different
while kharif maize yields may decline by 18% and methodologies, lacking a unified system despite
23% in the same periods. resources like IIT Gandhinagar’s flood maps and
Rising CO₂ levels may lower iron, zinc, and protein IMD’s vulnerability atlases.
in staple crops like rice, wheat, maize, and legumes, Reliable CPR projections are limited by global
risking nutritional deficiencies for over a billion climate models that overlook India’s hyper-local
people globally. climate.

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What are Government Initiatives to Tackle CPRs?

¾ National Adaptation Plan (NAP)
¾ National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC)
¾ Atal Bhujal Yojana
¾ Sovereign Green Bonds
¾ Mangrove Initiative for Shoreline Habitats & Tangible Incomes (MISHTI)
¾ Mission LiFE (Lifestyle for Environment)

World Hydrogen Summit 2025

Why in News?
At the World Hydrogen Summit 2025 in Rotterdam, Netherlands, the Ministry of New & Renewable Energy
outlined India’s initiatives to emerge as a global hub for green hydrogen production.
What is Green Hydrogen (GH2)?
¾ About: Green hydrogen is produced by splitting water into hydrogen (H₂) and oxygen (O₂) through electrolysis
powered by renewable energy sources like solar power, or via biomass gasification.
¾ Applications: Its uses include fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs), industrial uses such as fertilizers and refineries
sector, and transportation sectors like road and rail.
¾ Other Types of Hydrogen:

What are India’s Initiatives to Promote Green Hydrogen?

¾ National Green Hydrogen Mission: National Green Hydrogen Mission is India’s flagship policy to scale up green
hydrogen, with a target of establishing 5 million tonnes of annual green hydrogen production capacity by 2030.
Phase I of the mission spans from 2022-23 to 2025-26, followed by Phase II from 2026-27 to 2029-30.

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¾ Green Hydrogen Certification Scheme (GHCI): GHCI is an initiative to certify green hydrogen production, ensuring
transparency and market credibility while promoting India’s green hydrogen market.
It will be verified by the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) Accredited Carbon Verification (ACV) Agency to
ensure compliance.
¾ Environmental Clearance Exemptions: Green Hydrogen and Green Ammonia plants are exempt from mandatory
Environmental Clearance, reducing delays and easing project implementation.

¾ Green Hydrogen Hubs: Ministry of Ports, Shipping and Waterways (MoPSW) has identified three major ports—
Kandla, Paradip, and Tuticorin—to be developed as Green Hydrogen hubs.
¾ International Collaboration: India has partnerships with Japan, Australia, and the UAE for technology transfer
and investment for green hydrogen production.

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Hydrogen
¾ Hydrogen is the lightest and most abundant element in the universe. It is a colorless, odorless, and highly
flammable gas at room temperature.
¾ Need of Hydrogen-based Fuel: They are crucial for India’s energy independence (reduces reliance on fossil fuel
imports), offering a stable, local energy source from renewables.
Production from waste biomass also creates additional income for farmers and local communities.

World Turtle Day 2025

World Turtle Day is observed annually on 23rd May to highlight the importance of conserving turtles and tortoises.
¾ The day was established in 2000 to raise awareness and promote conservation of turtles and tortoises globally.

What are the Key Facts Related to Turtles?

¾ About: Turtles (Order Testudines) are reptiles distinguished by a cartilaginous shell developed from their ribs,
forming a protective shield.
Unlike other animals with shells, turtles cannot shed or exit their shell, as it is an integral part of their skeleton.

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¾ Habitat: Turtles can live in both freshwater and Green Turtle: Endangered
marine (sea) environments. Hawksbill Turtle: Critically Endangered
¾ Different From Tortoise: Tortoises differ from other ¾ Threats: Turtles face severe threats from habitat
turtles primarily by being strictly terrestrial, while destruction, climate change, plastic pollution, and
many turtle species are partially aquatic. illegal wildlife trade for meat, pets, and traditional
Although all tortoises are turtles, not all turtles medicine, with Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal being
major trafficking hotspots.
are tortoises.
¾ Conservation Efforts: UP leads in conserving turtles
Both are generally shy, solitary animals that lay
by establishing turtle conservation centres in Kukrail
eggs on land by burying them in nests.
(Lucknow), Sarnath (Varanasi), Chambal (Etawah),
¾ Key Features: Turtles are cold-blooded (ectothermic) and a 30 km Turtle Sanctuary in Prayagraj.
species, i.e they can regulate their body tempera- The Forest Department actively curbs illegal trade,
ture by moving between warmer and cooler especially in Pilibhit, a major trafficking hotspot
environments. identified in WCCB’s Operation Kurma.
Like other ectotherms such as insects, fish, and To enhance efforts, a Turtle Conservation and
amphibians, they exhibit slow metabolism and Research Centre is being set up in Pilibhit Tiger
can survive extended periods without food or Reserve along River Mala, funded by CAMPA.
water. Read More: Olive Ridley Turtles in India, Illicit Trade
¾ Key Species: of Tortoises and Hard-Shell Turtles
Sea Turtles: Loggerhead Turtle, Green Turtle,
Hawksbill Turtle, Leatherback Turtle, Olive Ridley Gangetic Dolphins
Turtle, and Flatback Turtle.
Freshwater Turtles: Snapping Turtle, Painted Turtle, Why in News?
Red-eared sliderTurtle, Spiny Softshell Turtle and A recent study by the Wildlife Institute of India (WII)
Musk Turtle etc. has highlighted severe chemical pollution risks posing
threats to the endangered Gangetic dolphins (Platanista
What is the State of Turtle Species in India?
gangetica).
¾ Species in India: India is home to 30 species of
What are the Key Facts
freshwater turtles, 26 of which are listed under
Related to Gangetic Dolphins?
Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972.
¾ About: The Ganga River Dolphin, also known as the
Assam, West Bengal & Uttar Pradesh have high
“Tiger of the Ganges,” was officially discovered in 1801.
turtle diversity.
It is India’s National Aquatic Animal (declared in
India also hosts 5 sea turtle species: Olive Ridley, 2009) and State Aquatic Animal of Assam.
Green, Loggerhead, Hawksbill, and Leatherback.
It acts as a reliable indicator of river ecosystem
All of which are protected under Schedule I of the
health, highlighting biodiversity and water quality.
Wildlife Protection Act, 1972.
¾ Habitat: Historically found in the Ganges-Brahmaputra-
¾ Protection Status (as per the IUCN Red List): Meghna and Karnaphuli-Sangu river systems across
Olive Ridley, Loggerhead, and Leatherback: India, Nepal, and Bangladesh. But the species is extinct
Vulnerable from most of its early distribution ranges.

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¾ Features: Exclusively a freshwater species, they are functionally blind and rely on ultrasonic echolocation to
locate prey.
Generally solitary or in small groups, often seen as mother-calf pairs.
It is locally called ‘Susu’ due to the sound it makes while exhaling.
¾ Population: There are 6,327 river dolphins in India, according to the first nationwide survey under Project Dolphin
(2020).
The population of Ganges dolphins has declined by over 50% since 1957, with a 25% shrinkage in range.
¾ Threat: A WII study has found high levels of harmful Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs) in fish consumed by
Gangetic dolphins.
Pollutants such as industrial chemicals (DEHP, DnBP), banned pesticides (DDT, Lindane), and heavy metals
(arsenic, mercury, cadmium), mainly from agricultural runoff, untreated industrial effluents, vehicular emissions,
and poor waste management, damage hormonal and reproductive systems.
Additional threats include fishing gear entanglement, poaching, habitat loss from dams and water extraction,
and vessel noise.
¾ Protection Status:
IUCN: Endangered
Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972 : Schedule I
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES): Appendix I
Convention on Migratory Species (CMS): Appendix 1

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India’s Initiatives for Gangetic Dolphins Protection

¾ Project Dolphin: Implements special conservation measures for Gangetic River Dolphins, recognized as umbrella species.
The project aims to protect both marine and riverine dolphins along with related cetaceans. Funded by the
Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change,
¾ Vikramshila Ganges Dolphin Sanctuary has been established in Bihar. It is India’s only dedicated dolphin sanctuary.
¾ National Ganga River Dolphin Day (5th October)

16th Asiatic Lion Census 2025

Why in News?
Asiatic lion (Panthera leo persica) population in Gujarat goes up from 674 to 891 in 5 years, according to the 16th
census 2025 released by the Gujarat Forest Department.
What are the Key Findings of 16th Asiatic Lion Census 2025?
¾ Total Population: 891 Asiatic lions recorded in Gujarat, a 32.2% increase from 674 lions in 2020 (15th census).
¾ Population Distribution: 384 lions live inside protected forest and sanctuary areas. Lions in non-forested areas
have risen from 340 in 2020 to 507 in 2025.
44.22% of the lion population now resides outside traditional protected habitats.
Gir National Park and adjoining sanctuaries (Gir Wildlife Sanctuary, and Pania Wildlife Sanctuary) house 394
lions, forming the core population.
z Amreli district has the highest count with 257 lions, while Mityala Wildlife Sanctuary doubled its population
to 32 lions.

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Barda Wildlife Sanctuary near Porbandar has become a newly established lion population area, with 17 lions

recorded, the first since 1879.
The 2025 census also identified new satellite populations around Jetpur and Babra-Jasdan.
¾ Adult Females: 330 adult females recorded, a 27% rise since 2020, indicating strong potential for further growth.
¾ Reasons of Population Boom: Project Lion has helped in restoring habitats, strengthening the prey base, and
mitigating conflicts to support Asiatic lion conservation.
¾ Census methodology: Conducted using direct beat verification (the area was divided into regions, zones, and
sub-zones with designated officials, enumerators, supervisors, and volunteers), a more scientific and statistically
robust method compared to pugmark-based tiger surveys.
Completed in just three days, unlike the tiger census which takes two years.

What is Project Lion?

¾ Project Lion: Announced in 2020, Project Lion is a long-term initiative aimed at securing the future of Asiatic lions
by creating a sustainable environment that enhances the overall health of their ecosystems.
The project, being implemented in the Gir landscape in Gujarat, focuses on habitat improvement, the use of
advanced technologies such as radio-collaring and camera traps for monitoring, and the mitigation of human-
wildlife conflict.
The Gujarat Forest Department plays a central role in implementing these conservation measures, conducting
regular lion censuses to track population trends and health.

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¾ Technologies in Lion Conservation: Advanced tools such as Global Positioning System-based tracking are used
to monitor lions and vehicles, ensuring efficient surveillance.
An automated sensor grid, which includes magnetic, movement, and infrared heat sensors, helps detect and
track wildlife activity.
Geographic Information System (GIS)-based real-time monitoring enables timely analysis, report generation,
and effective management of conservation efforts.

Note: The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) released the first Green Status Assessment for
lions in 2025, providing a global standard to measure species recovery and conservation impact.
¾ IUCN Green Status of Species covers all species except microorganisms and uses eight categories (Extinct in
the Wild, Critically Depleted, Largely Depleted, Moderately Depleted, Slightly Depleted, Fully Recovered, Non-
Depleted and Indeterminate).
¾ Unlike the IUCN Red List, which focuses on extinction risk, the Green Status highlights recovery potential and
necessary conservation actions. Lions have been placed in the Largely Depleted category.
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History

Highlights
z Veer Savarkar Jayanti

zSavarkar sometimes wrote using the pen-name

Veer Savarkar Jayanti “Mahratta” for some of his writings.
¾ Trial & Sentence:
Why in News? He was arrested in 1909 on charges of plotting
On 28th May, the Prime Minister paid tribute to Vinayak armed revolt against the Morley-Minto reform
Damodar Savarkar (Veer Savarkar) on his birth anniversary. (Indian Councils Act 1909), later extradited and
sentenced to life imprisonment and deported
to the Cellular Jail in the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands (also known as Kala Pani).
z He was later interned at Ratnagiri until 1937.
He attempted to escape while being transported
via Marseilles but was recaptured by British
authorities.
¾ Political Career and Ideology:
After his release, Savarkar served as President of
the Hindu Mahasabha (1937–1943) and opposed
Who was Vinayak Damodar Savarkar and the Quit India Movement (1942), considering it
What were his Major Contributions? impractical.
He engaged in discussions on the Cripps Mission
¾ Early Life:
Born on 28th May, 1883, in Nashik, Maharashtra, VD
and Wavell Plan, promoting national unity.
Influenced by Tilak, Lajpat Rai, and Bipin Chandra
Savarkar (also known as Swatantryaveer Savarkar)
was a freedom fighter, politician, lawyer, writer, Pal, Savarkar envisioned a unified nation with equal
and social reformer. rights for all, rooted in loyalty to India.
¾ Related Organisations and Work: A strong advocate of civil liberties and social reform,

Founded Mitra Mela in 1899, later, it was renamed he fought against casteism, promoted inter-caste
as the Abhinav Bharat Society in 1904. marriages, Dalit temple entry (e.g., Patit-Pavan
Established Free India Society in London in 1906 Mandir), sea-crossing, and reconversion to Hinduism.
to foster revolutionary nationalism among Indian ¾ Death & Legacy:
students abroad. Played a key role in the India In 1964, feeling that his mission was complete
House in London (founded by Shyamji Krishna after India’s independence, Savarkar began a
Verma), a hub for revolutionary activities. hunger strike on 1st February and died on 26th
Advocated guerrilla warfare, allegedly involved February 1966.
in making handmade bombs, and provided legal In recognition of his contributions, Port Blair Airport
aid to Madan Lal Dhingra. in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands was renamed
Authored the influential book “Hindutva: Who is
Veer Savarkar International Airport in 2002.
a Hindu?” (1923) and also wrote “The History of
the First War of Indian Independence”. Read More: Veer Savarkar Jayanti
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Geography

Highlights
z Early Monsoon Onset 2025 z Rising Cyclone Threats and Mangrove Vulnerability
z Geographical and Climatic Factors Influencing Heatwaves

square meter (W/m²) in the region between 5°N

Early Monsoon Onset 2025 and 10°N latitude and 70°E and 75°E longitude,
indicating sufficient atmospheric heat conducive
Why in News? to rainfall.
The India Meteorological Department (IMD) declared ¾ Once these conditions are met on two consecutive
the southwest monsoon onset over Kerala earlier than days, IMD declares the monsoon onset.
usual. This early arrival is significant as the monsoon
What Factors Caused the
provides over 70% of India’s annual rainfall, crucial for
Early Monsoon Onset 2025?
agriculture and the economy. The last early onset before
2025 was in 2009. ¾ Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO): The MJO is a
transient eastward-moving system of winds, clouds,
What are the Criteria for Declaring and pressure disturbances that travels around the
the Onset of the Monsoon? equator.
¾ Essential criteria: IMD declares monsoon onset It was identified in 1971 by Roland Madden and
anytime after May 10 based on key criteria: Paul Julian, scientists at the National Centre for
Rainfall Criteria: After 10th May, if 60% of 14 Atmospheric Research in Colorado.
designated weather stations in Kerala and The MJO typically travels eastward at 4–8 m/s, and
surrounding areas (e.g., Thiruvananthapuram, completes one global cycle in 30–60 days, though
Kochi, Mangalore) record ≥2.5 mm rainfall for sometimes it takes up to 90 days.
two consecutive days, onset can be considered It influences weather in tropical regions, especially
on the second day. between 30°N and 30°S, which includes India.
Wind Field: Westerly winds blow from West to MJO has two distinct phases: an active phase,
East in the 30 to 60 degree latitudes, both in the which brings enhanced convection and increased
northern and southern hemispheres. rainfall, and a suppressed phase, which leads to
z For the onset, the depth of westerly winds should reduced convection and drier conditions.
be maintained at up to 600 hectoPascals or hPa, It can trigger cyclones and cause brief but intense
which is the unit for measuring atmospheric rainfall spells, even during dry periods.
pressure, and wind speeds must range between ¾ Mascarene High: The IMD describes the Mascarene
15-20 knots (27-37km/hr) at 925 hPa. High as a high-pressure area found around the
Outgoing Longwave Radiation (OLR): The INSAT- Mascarene Islands (in the south Indian Ocean) during
derived OLR value, which measures the energy the monsoon period.
emitted to space by the Earth’s surface, oceans, The variation in the intensity of high pressure is
and atmosphere, should be below 200 watts per responsible for heavy rains along India’s west coast.

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¾ Convection: An increase in the convective activity, that is, the vertical transport of heat and moisture in the
atmosphere, also brings rainfall.
¾ Somali Jet: It is a low-level, inter-hemispheric cross-equatorial wind band originating near Mauritius and north
Madagascar.
During May, after crossing the east coast of Africa, it reaches the Arabian Sea and the west coast of India. A
strong Somali jet is associated with the strengthening of monsoon winds.
¾ Heat-low: As the Sun moves northward, a low-pressure zone forms over the Arabian Sea and Pakistan, acting like
a suction pump to draw moist air along the monsoon trough, boosting monsoon rainfall.

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¾ Monsoon Trough: It is an elongated low-pressure area extending from the heat low to the north Bay of Bengal. The
north-south swinging of this trough causes rainfall during the June–September period across the core monsoon
zone.
¾ Cyclonic Monsoon Vortex: It is also known as a Monsoon Onset Vortex (MOV), is a synoptic-scale cyclonic
circulation that forms over the Arabian Sea during the Indian summer monsoon.
These vortices can intensify into tropical cyclones and play a crucial role in the onset and advance of the monsoon.

¾ Pressure gradients: It is the rate of change of pressure over a given distance. It also supports the strong monsoon
onset.
Other Factors Influencing Monsoon
¾ Monsoon low: It is a type of low-pressure area (LPA) characterized by the lowest pressure at its center with
winds blowing anticlockwise in the Northern Hemisphere.
It causes air to converge and rise, leading to cloud formation and rainfall. During the monsoon season, these
LPAs are known as monsoon lows and can intensify into monsoon depressions, which are the main rain-
bearing systems of the southwest monsoon over India.
¾ Tibetan High: It is a warm anticyclone located over the Tibetan Plateau in the middle to upper troposphere
during the monsoon season.
It produces an outflow of easterly winds that form a jet stream near Chennai. The position of this Easterly
Jetstream influences the monsoon rainfall pattern over India.
How are Rainfall alerts Categorised?
Alert Colour Rainfall Category (24 hrs) Weather Description Advisory / Action
Green No advisory: Weather is generally safe; no
Less than 64 mm Light rain
action needed.
Be aware: Minor disruptions possible; stay
Yellow 64.5 – 115.5 mm Moderate rain
informed and updated.
Heavy to very heavy Be prepared: Likely disruptions in transport,
Orange 115.6 – 204.4 mm
rain power; take necessary precautions.
Take action: High risk to life and property;
Red 204.5 mm and above Extremely heavy rain
follow emergency measures immediately.
What is the Impact of Early Onset of Monsoon?
¾ Boost to Kharif Crop Sowing: Early monsoon facilitates timely sowing of major Kharif crops like rice, maize, millets,
toor, and moong, ensuring higher productivity.
¾ Vegetable and Mushroom Cultivation: Pre-monsoon rains benefit vegetable farmers (e.g., tomatoes, okra, beans)
and mushroom growers by creating a cool, moist environment favorable for cultivation.
¾ Water Resource Management: Early rainfall recharges groundwater, fills reservoirs, and improves irrigation,
essential for both agriculture and hydropower generation.
¾ Increased Spoilage & Inflation Pressure: Unanticipated rains have led to farm-level spoilage, pushing up vegetable
prices in cities like Mumbai.
¾ Weather Extremes and Flood Risks: Heavy downpours, lightning, and gusty winds in parts of Kerala, Karnataka,
and Maharashtra raise concerns over localized flooding and damage to standing crops.
¾ Enhanced Export Potential: Increased crop production could improve farm incomes, boost agri-exports, and
support India’s GDP growth.

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Why do Cyclones not occur in India during the Peak Monsoon Months?
¾ Conditions Required for Cyclone Formation: Tropical cyclogenesis (cyclone formation) requires a combination of
the following environmental factors:
Warm ocean waters with temperatures of at least 26.5°C, extending to a depth of 50 meters or more.

High humidity in the mid-troposphere, around 5 km altitude, to support cloud development.

Low vertical wind shear, meaning there should be minimal difference in wind speed and direction between
the surface and the upper atmosphere, allowing the system to remain vertically aligned.
A pre-existing low-pressure disturbance near the surface to initiate cyclonic rotation.

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¾ Atmospheric Conditions During Monsoon: Despite According to the Clausius-Clapeyron Relation

warm seas and high moisture (both crucial for cyclone principle, the moisture-holding capacity of air
formation) India rarely experiences cyclones during increases by approximately 7% for every 1°C rise
July and August, the peak monsoon months. in temperature.
This is primarily due to unfavorable atmospheric As the atmosphere holds more moisture, heavy
conditions, especially strong vertical wind shear rainfall events are expected to become more
that prevents cyclones from developing and frequent and intense under changing climate
sustaining. conditions.
Westerly winds peak at 20–25 knots between 900 Withdrawal of Monsoon
and 800 hPa, while easterly winds reach 60–80 ¾ The withdrawal of monsoon is defined as the
knots at 150–100 hPa over peninsular India. gradual retreat of the southwest (SW) monsoon
z This results in high vertical wind shear, disrupting from different parts of India. It marks the end of
cyclone formation and making conditions the rainy season and is characterized by:
unfavorable for tropical cyclogenesis during Cessation of rainfall for at least 5 consecutive
these months. days.

What is the Impact of Climate Change in wind patterns, especially a shift from
Change on Indian Monsoon? southwesterly to northeasterly directions.
Reduction in atmospheric moisture as seen in
¾ Increasing Extreme Rainfall Events: Rising trend in
satellite water vapour imagery and tephigrams.
both the frequency and magnitude of extreme rainfall
events during the monsoon season, particularly over Formation of anticyclonic circulation in the lower
central India. This is attributed to climate change troposphere (850 hPa and below).
combined with natural variability.
Alongside more extreme events, there is a decreasing Geographical and Climatic
trend in moderate rainfall occurrences during the Factors Influencing
monsoon season over central India.
Heatwaves
¾ Overall Monsoon Rainfall Decline: Over the last
50 years, summer monsoon precipitation (June to Why in News?
September) over India has declined by approximately
Andhra Pradesh and Telangana experience intense
6%, with significant reductions noted over the Indo-
heat waves during summer due to a combination of
Gangetic Plains and the Western Ghats.
unique geographical features and climatic conditions.
¾ Increase in Heavy Rainfall Frequency: Central India has
experienced about a 75% increase in the frequency of
How do Geographical and Climatic
daily extreme precipitation events, defined as rainfall Factors Influence Heat Waves?
exceeding 150 mm per day. ¾ Geographical Factors:
¾ Warming Atmosphere and Moisture Capacity: The Latitude and Solar Intensity: Areas near the Tropic
Earth’s rising temperature due to anthropogenic of Cancer, such as Andhra Pradesh and Telangana,
greenhouse gas emissions increases the atmosphere’s receive intense solar radiation during summer
capacity to hold moisture. when the sun is nearly overhead.

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z This vertical solar incidence increases ground z High humidity worsens heat stress by reducing
heating and raises temperatures significantly. sweat evaporation, raising the heat index.
Terrain and Surface Characteristics: Rocky and Wind and Atmospheric Conditions: Weak winds
barren landscapes, such as the Deccan plateau during heat waves prevent heat from dispersing,
in Telangana, absorb more heat compared to causing it to build up near the ground and intensify
vegetated or moist surfaces. surface temperatures.
z Black soils prevalent in these regions also retain z Stable atmospheric conditions can trap heat
heat longer, contributing to elevated daytime close to the ground (temperature inversion),
temperatures. prolonging and intensifying heatwaves.
z Conversely, regions with dense vegetation or z High atmospheric conditions, such as anti-
irrigated agricultural land experience cooling cyclonic flows (high-pressure systems), promote
due to evapotranspiration (sum of all processes clear skies, dry air, and sinking air masses
by which water moves from the land surface that enhance surface heating and heatwave
to the atmosphere via evaporation and development.
transpiration) . z El Niño effect, and phenomena like the “Loo”
Landlocked Regions: Landlocked regions, such as wind contribute to the frequency and intensity
most of Telangana, experience higher heatwave of heat waves.
risks due to the absence of nearby water bodies, El Niño weakens the monsoon-driving trade
leading to greater temperature variations, a winds. This leads to reduced cloud cover
pattern also observed in north-central and and lower rainfall, causing dry soils and
northwest India. higher surface temperatures creating ideal
z The coastal regions experience moderated conditions for heatwave formation and
temperatures due to cooling effects from large intensification.
water bodies, which have higher heat capacity “Loo,” is a hot, dry, and dusty wind that blows
and promote evaporative cooling. during the summer months
z Urban Heat Islands, characterized by high
population density, extensive concrete and
What are Heat Waves?
asphalt surfaces, and limited vegetation, absorb ¾ About: Heat waves are periods of unusually high
and retain more heat, creating localized zones temperatures relative to the normal climate of a
of elevated temperatures, which lead to more region.
intense heat waves. The threshold for declaring a heat wave varies
¾ Climatic Factors: by location, depending on the region’s historical
Rainfall and Humidity: Low pre-monsoon rainfall temperature patterns.
leads to dry soils and reduced moisture, limiting In India, Heat Waves occur mainly from March
evaporative cooling (process of removing heat to June and in some rare cases even in July. The
from a surface due to the evaporation of water). peak month of the heat wave over India is May.
z Minimal cloud cover increases solar radiation, Heat Waves are not officially classified as natural
raising surface temperatures leading to intense disasters under the Disaster Management (DM)
heat waves. Act of 2005 despite their severe impacts.

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¾ India Meteorological Department (IMD) Criteria for prolonged heat exposure, increasing health risks and
Declaring Heat Wave: reducing efficiency.
High heat exposure results in the loss of up to
Region/Condition Heat Wave
162 working hours annually for laborers engaged
Plains Max temperature ≥ 40°C in heavy physical work, significantly impacting
Hilly Regions Max temperature ≥ 30°C economic productivity.
Heatwaves reduce air density, requiring aircraft
When the maximum
to use longer take-off distances, simulating high-
temperature departure is
altitude conditions and increasing operational
4.5°C or more from normal,
Coastal Stations expenses and energy consumption.
and provided the actual
¾ Environmental Damage: Increased forest fires due to
maximum temperature is
heat waves harm ecosystems and human settlements.
37°C or above.
Forest Survey of India has estimated that 21.4%
Heat Wave: Departure from area under forest is vulnerable to forest fires
normal is 4.5°C to 6.4°C Heatwaves accelerate evaporation, reducing water
Based on Departure
Severe Heat Wave: availability and affecting agriculture, livestock,
from Normal
Departure from normal is > and livelihoods.
6.4°C ¾ Agricultural Impact: Extreme heat stresses plants,
Heat Wave: When actual stunts their growth, and can cause plant mortality,
maximum temperature ≥ leading to lower yields and poor-quality produce,
Based on Actual especially impacting Kharif crops like rice and
45°C
Maximum threatening food security in affected states.
Severe Heat Wave: When
Temperature 1 % increase in heatwaves led to a
actual maximum
15% reduction in crop yield in 2022, and
temperature ≥ 47°C
Every 1°C rise in temperature beyond 30°C during
To declare as a heatwave the the grain filling period reduces wheat yield by
criteria must be met at 3–4%. In 2022, a 1% increase in heatwave events
Spatial & Temporal minimum 2 stations in a led to a 15% reduction in crop yield.
Condition Meteorological subdivision
What are India’s Initiatives
for at least 2 consecutive
days. to tackle Heat Waves Issue?
¾ Heat Action Plans (HAPs): The Indian government has
What is the Impact of the Heat Waves? updated HAPS across 23 states, aiming to strategically
¾ Impact on Human Health: Heatwaves lead to a surge combat and manage heatwaves.
in illnesses such as heat cramps, edema (swelling), HAPs typically include a region’s heat profile,
syncope (fainting), heat exhaustion, and life-threatening past heatwave data, temperature trends, and
heat stroke. vulnerability assessments to identify high-risk areas.
The elderly, outdoor laborers, low-income groups, They provide response plans with recommendations
and people with pre-existing health conditions are for mitigating heat wave impacts before, during,
especially at risk. and after events, specifying roles for departments
According to the “Heat Watch 2024” report, 733 like disaster management, labor, and police.
heatstroke deaths were reported across 17 Indian ¾ IMD Heat Wave Warnings: India Meteorological
states between March and June. Department issues following colour code impact-
¾ Economy: Workers in industries like construction, based heat warning jointly with National Disaster
mining, power plants, and refineries experience Management Authority.

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¾ Jal Shakti Abhiyan: Focuses on water conservation and restoring water bodies, crucial during heatwaves for
hydration and urban cooling.
¾ Smart Cities Mission: Promote green cover, water-sensitive urban design, and climate-resilient infrastructure.
Encourages creation of urban green spaces and cool zones.
¾ Cool Roof and Urban Cooling Initiatives: Cool Roof programs (e.g., in Hyderabad) promote the use of reflective
paints or materials to reduce indoor temperatures.
States like Telangana, Gujarat, and Maharashtra have included cool roofs in building codes and public housing schemes.

Rising Cyclone Threats and Mangrove Vulnerability

Why in News?
A new study revealed that climate change is making cyclones more intense and expanding their reach into
previously unaffected regions.
¾ It also revealed that half of the world’s mangroves could face severe risks by 2100, threatening coastal protection,
carbon storage, and biodiversity.
Note: Climate change is complex, so experts use Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSPs) to understand its effects.
Each SSP shows a different future.
¾ SSP3 describes a divided world with little focus on the environment.
¾ SSP5 shows a world with rapid fossil fuel use and heavy resource depletion.
¾ SSP5-8.5 is the SSP5 pathway plus a radiative forcing, the amount of extra energy being added to the planet’s surface.

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What are Key Findings of the Study on Cyclones and Mangroves?

¾ Increased Cyclone Intensity and Range: Under the SSP5-8.5 scenario (high emissions and fossil fuel use), tropical
cyclone belts may shift away from the equator, increasing risks to higher-latitude ecosystems.
East Asia, Central America, the Caribbean, Madagascar, and Oceania face rising cyclone exposure.

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¾ Shorter Recovery Time for Ecosystems: In resilient ¾ Degraded Ecosystems: Human activity and climate
ecoregions (historically adapted to cyclones), the stress have weakened natural buffers like mangroves,
recovery time between high-intensity storms could coral reefs, and wetlands, which protect against
drop from 19 years (1980-2017) to 12 years (2015- storm surge, absorb wave energy, and aid recovery.
2050). Losing them exposes inland areas more and makes
Some ecosystems may shift into irreversible states vulnerability worse over time.
due to frequent disturbances.
Why is the Mangroves
¾ Mangroves Under Threat: By 2100, up to 56% of
Ecosystem Under Severe Risk?
global mangroves could face high to severe risk
under SSP5-8.5. ¾ Climate Change:
Southeast Asia is especially vulnerable with 52–78% More Powerful Cyclones: Warmer oceans

mangroves at risk. fuel stronger cyclones and storms that uproot

mangroves, erode soils, and increase saltwater
Why is Cyclone Intensity intrusion, harming freshwater species.
and Range Increasing? z E.g., Amphan (1st super cyclone in the Bay

¾ Warmer Ocean Temperatures: Cyclones draw energy of Bengal since 1999), damaged around 28%
from warm ocean waters (≥26.5°C), and climate of Sundarban mangroves and harmed floral
change raises sea surface temperatures, supplying diversity by increasing soil salinity.
more heat and moisture. Rising Sea Levels: Mangroves face a dual threat as
they are unable to shift inland due to farmlands,
It leads to higher wind speeds (increased intensity),
urban expansion, and flood-control structures,
more rapid intensification (storms strengthening
while rising sea levels flood them from the coast,
quickly), and heavier rainfall (warmer air holds
causing a coastal squeeze.
more moisture).
z When sea levels rise faster than 7 mm per
¾ Changing Wind Patterns: As global temperatures year, mangroves struggle to adapt and risk
rise, the Hadley Cell (atmospheric circulation near dying from prolonged submersion.
the equator) expands, pushing storm tracks toward
Extreme Weather: Coral reef die-offs (from
higher latitudes, while changes in wind patterns
warming) remove natural wave barriers, exposing
(e.g., jet streams) shift cyclone paths, exposing mangroves to stronger waves.
regions like Madagascar, East Asia, and parts of the
¾ Human Induced Destruction:
Mediterranean to new risks.
Deforestation for Aquaculture: Since 1980, 35%
¾ Rising Sea Levels: Higher sea levels from melting ice
of the world’s mangroves have vanished due
and warming oceans worsen coastal flooding during to aquaculture, unchecked development, and
storms, even without an increase in cyclone frequency. climate stress.
¾ Changes in Atmospheric Stability: Lower wind shear z In Southeast Asia, home to a third of global
in some regions (e.g., tropics) helps cyclones grow mangroves, cover declined by 3.4% between
stronger, while higher shear in areas like the Atlantic 2000 and 2016, with palm oil and rice farms
can weaken storms, causing cyclones to shift to new also replacing mangroves.
regions. Coastal Development: Tourism resorts, ports, and
Wind shear is the change in wind speed or direction road development lead to habitat fragmentation.
over a short distance in the atmosphere—either z E.g., Mumbai lost 40% of its mangroves to
horizontally or vertically. urban expansion over the past 20 years.
¾ Polar Warming: Warming in the polar regions, which Pollution & Overharvesting: Oil spills (e.g., 2020
is faster than in the tropics, reduces the equator-to- Mauritius) suffocate mangrove roots, plastic waste
pole temperature gradient, shifting cyclone activity blocks waterways, sewage triggers algal blooms,
away from the equator. and illegal logging persists in Africa and Asia.

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Consequences of Losing Mangroves Ecosystem

What are the Implications of Increasing Cyclone Intensity and Geographic Spread?
¾ Ecological Devastation:
Stronger cyclones uproot mangroves while saltwater intrusion kills freshwater-dependent plants. E.g., 62%
of mangroves in southwest Florida suffered canopy damage from Hurricane Irma.
Coral Reef Destruction: Cyclones damage coral reefs that protect shorelines, while warmer seas and storms
trigger mass bleaching (e.g., Great Barrier Reef).
Biodiversity Loss: Coastal ecosystems (seagrass, estuaries) face habitat fragmentation. Endangered species
(e.g., Bengal tigers in Sundarbans) lose refuge.
¾ Human & Economic Crises:
Deadlier Storms & Flooding: Storms with higher wind speeds destroy homes and infrastructure, while heavier
rainfall causes inland flooding. E..g, Cyclone Idai (2019) killed over 1,300 people in Mozambique.
Mass Displacement & Migration: Small island nations (e.g., Fiji, Bahamas) face existential threats, with a 2021
World Bank report warning that +200 million people could be displaced by 2050 due to the climate crisis.
Economic Losses: Climate-related damage rose from USD 450 billion (2000–2004) to over USD 1 trillion
(2020–2024). E.g., Hurricane Helene (2024) alone caused USD 100+ billion in damage, making it one of the
costliest US hurricanes.
¾ Food Security Risks: Rice paddies & crops in cyclone-prone Asia (India, Bangladesh) face salinization.
E.g., Cyclone Amphan washed away about 1.7 million hectares of productive cropland and aquaculture farms
and killed 2.1 million animals in India (West Bengal and Odisha).
¾ New Regions at Risk: Mediterranean, South Atlantic, and higher latitudes (e.g., Japan, New Zealand) may face
first-ever cyclones.
Mega-cities like Miami, Shanghai, and Lagos, built for past climates, face catastrophic damage.

nnn

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Security

Highlights
z Inter-Services Organisations Rules 2025 z India’s Rising Defence Innovation & Export Capability
z INSV Kaundinya

The Centre retains overall control and sets eligibility

Inter-Services for leadership roles, while Commanding Officers
manage unit-level discipline and administration
Organisations Rules 2025 within ISOs.
Why in News? ¾ ISO Rules 2025: Notified under the Section 11 of the
ISO Act, 2023. These rules aim to ensure efficient
India has notified the Inter-services Organisations management of discipline and administration across
(Command, Control and Discipline) Rules, 2025 under the Army, Navy, and Air Force when operating under
the Inter-Services Organisations (Command, Control and ISOs, such as joint commands or theatre commands.
Discipline) Act, 2023.
As per the 2025 rules, both the Joint Services
¾ These rules aim to strengthen the command, control, Command and the Inter-Services Establishment
and administrative efficiency of Inter-Services comprise personnel from any two or all three
Organisations (ISOs), following the coordinated tri- armed forces.
service response during Operation Sindoor.
z The Joint Services Command is headed by
What are Inter-Services Organisations? a Commander-in-Chief holding the rank of
¾ About: ISOs are units or commands composed of Lieutenant General, Air Marshal, or Vice Admiral.
personnel from two or more branches of the Armed z An Inter-Services Establishment is commanded

Forces (Army, Navy, and Air Force). They are designed to by an Officer-in-Command with the rank of
facilitate integrated planning, operations, and logistics. Major General, Air Vice Marshal, Rear Admiral,
Examples include tri-service commands like the
or higher.
Andaman and Nicobar Command or upcoming Under the ISO Rules 2025, if a Commander-in-Chief,
theatre commands under India’s theaterisation plan. Officer-in-Command, or Commanding Officer is
¾ ISO Act 2023: The act addresses challenges arising on leave or absent, a replacement will be formally
from separate service laws, the Army Act (1950), Navy designated in the Inter-services unit’s orders.
Act (1957), and Air Force Act (1950) which often hinder z In emergencies without prior orders, the next higher
coordination and discipline in joint-service settings. formation will appoint a temporary substitute.
While it does not amend these existing laws, the Matters not covered by existing rules or Acts
Act empowers ISO Commanders-in-Chief and regarding command and control in Inter-services
Officers-in-Command with administrative and Organisations shall be referred to the Central
disciplinary authority over all personnel under Government for a decision.
their command, regardless of service.
What is the Significance of
It formally recognises joint services command
organisations like the Andaman and Nicobar Inter-Services Organisations?
Command and Defence Space Agency and allows ¾ Enhanced Operational Synergy: Integration under
the creation of new ISOs and Joint Services unified commands allows for joint planning and
Commands and placed under the command of a real-time coordination among Army, Navy, and Air
Commander-in-Chief. Force units.

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The Kargil Review Committee (1999) highlighted the lack of coordination among the three armed services during
the Kargil War and emphasized the urgent need for structural reforms. It recommended integrated commands
to enhance joint operational effectiveness.
This synergy is crucial to handle complex, multi-domain threats in the modern battlefield, particularly along
the two-front scenario involving China and Pakistan.

¾ Optimal Use of Resources: ISOs enable pooling of logistics, maintenance, and support functions, preventing
duplication and saving resources.
The establishment of the first Tri-Service Common Defence Station in Mumbai (2024) reflects the move toward
integrated infrastructure.
¾ Improved Combat Readiness: Joint training and planning enhance interoperability and preparedness for multi-
domain operations including cyber and space warfare.
¾ Strategic Reform and Modernisation: Integration reflects a shift towards modern military doctrine and international
best practices (e.g., U.S. and China).
It aligns India’s military structure with evolving geopolitical challenges and encourages technological integration
and doctrinal evolution to prepare for future warfare.

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INSV Kaundinya
Why in News?
The Indian Navy recently inducted the Indian Naval Sailing Vessel (INSV) Kaundinya, the 1st ‘stitched ship’ using
ancient stitched shipbuilding method (Tankai method) to revive forgotten shipbuilding techniques.
¾ It is named after Kaundinya, a legendary Indian mariner, and set to embark on a historic voyage to Oman by the
end of 2025, retracing ancient trade routes.
¾ It is executed through a tripartite agreement between the Indian Navy, Ministry of Culture, and a Goa-based
shipbuilding company.
What are Key Facts About INSV Kaundinya?
¾ About INSV Kaundinya: It is a stitched ship modeled after a vessel depicted in the 5th-century Ajanta cave paintings.
It is inspired by Ajanta murals, the ancient text Yuktikalpataru (written by King Bhoja in 9th century CE), and
accounts of foreign travellers who described stitched Indian ships.
It features symbolic motifs like:

z Gandabherunda, two-headed eagle of the Kadamba dynasty who ruled the Konkan coast

z Sun motifs on sails

z Simha Yali (mythical lion) on the bow

z Harappan-style stone anchor.

¾ About Kaundinya: Kaundinya was a 1st-century Indian mariner, known for sailing to the Mekong Delta, where he
married warrior queen Soma and co-founded the Kingdom of Funan (modern-day Cambodia), one of the earliest
Indianised states in Southeast Asia.
The Khmer and Cham dynasties of modern-day Cambodia and Vietnam trace their origins to this union.

His story is preserved in Cambodian and Vietnamese sources, though not in Indian records, and he is regarded
as the first named Indian mariner to make overseas voyages with global historical impact.
¾ Tankai Method: It is a 2,000-year-old traditional Indian shipbuilding technique known for its manual craftsmanship,
indigenous materials, and non-industrial techniques. Key Features include:

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Stitched Plank Technique: Teak, sal, or mango wood planks are drilled and stitched with coir ropes, then sealed
with cotton, resin, and fish oil for waterproofing.
No Metal Fasteners: Unlike European methods using iron nails, the Tankai method avoided metal to prevent
rust, making ships lighter, more flexible, and easier to repair.
Unique Construction: The hull is built first, then added ribs, allowing greater flexibility and durability in rough
seas, unlike Western frame-first methods.
Indigenous Materials: Uses coir rope, dammar resin, and animal fat, all resistant to seawater.

India’s Rising Defence Innovation & Export Capability

Why in News?
India’s defence sector is shifting from import dependence to export competence, driven by initiatives like iDEX
(Innovations for Defence Excellence) and a surge in domestic production and exports, aligning with the goal of
achieving self-reliance in defence.
What are the Key Developments in India’s Defence Sector?
¾ Surge in Indigenous Defence Production: India’s domestic defence production rose from 30–35% in 2014–15 to 65%
in 2024-25, reaching an all-time high of Rs 1.27 lakh crore in FY 2023–24, with a target of Rs 3 lakh crore by 2029.
The private sector plays a crucial role, contributing 21% to total defence production, fostering innovation
and efficiency. In FY 2024–25, over 92% of capital procurement contracts were awarded to domestic firms,
witnessing strong policy support through initiatives like Make in India.

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¾ Defence Exports Expansion: India’s defence exports bombs, and loitering munitions were effectively
grew over 34 times between FY 2013–14 and FY used in Operation Sindoor.
2024–25, reaching Rs 23,622 crore in 2024–25, with Modernisation also focuses on domestically
the private sector contributing nearly twice as much developed platforms such as Tejas Light Combat
as the Defence Public Sector Undertakings (DPSUs). Aircraft, Arjun Mk-1A tanks, Astra air-to-air
India exports Dornier Do-228 aircraft, Chetak missiles, and Pinaka rocket systems.
helicopters, bulletproof jackets, lightweight DRDO is advancing in hypersonic tech, Unmanned
torpedoes, and interceptor boats to over 100 Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), and anti-satellite weapons,
countries, including the US, France, and Armenia. while AI, robotics, and space-based Intelligence,
India aims for Rs 50,000 crore in defence exports Surveillance, and Reconnaissance (ISR) tools are
by 2029 to strengthen global influence. shaping India’s preparedness for future warfare.
¾ Technological Advancements in Defence R&D: ¾ Policy Reforms: India allowed up to 74% Foreign
India’s defence R&D has advanced through iDEX and Direct Investment (FDI) via automatic route (100%
Technology Development Fund (TDF). via government approval), attracting Rs 5,516 crore
iDEX offers funding up to Rs 1.5 crore through investment since 2000.
Support for Prototype and Research Kickstart The Defence Procurement Procedure (DPP) 2012,
(SPARK), up to Rs 10 crore through iDEX Prime reformed procurement process to promote industry
and up to Rs 25 crore through Acing Development participation and streamline processes.
of Innovative Technologies with iDEX (ADITI) ‘Make’ projects and the Defence Acquisition
(2024) scheme Procedure (DAP) 2020 focused on indigenisation
z Key outcomes such as the SkyStriker loitering and promoting ‘Make in India’ in defence
munition and AI-powered surveillance robots, manufacturing.
deployed during Operation Sindoor, reflect its Initiatives like Self-Reliant Initiatives through Joint
impact. Action (SRIJAN) linked the Armed Forces, DPSUs,
Recognised with the Prime Minister’s Award for private industry, to boost indigenous defence
Innovation in 2021, iDEX has become central to production, and accelerate the development of
India’s push for defence self-reliance. critical technologies.
¾ Defence Industrial Corridors (DICs) Development: Positive Indigenisation Lists (PILs) require defence
India has set up 2 Defence Industrial Corridors in items to be sourced domestically. The fifth PIL
Uttar Pradesh and Tamil Nadu to boost indigenous included 346 items for DPSUs, resulting in an
defence production and attract investment. import substitution value of Rs 1,048 crore and
These corridors offer infrastructure, incentives, promoting the local industry.
and support for MSMEs. What are the Key Challenges
¾ Modernisation of Armed Forces: India is rapidly to India’s Defence Sector?
modernising its armed forces through a mix of
¾ Technological Gaps & Import Dependence: India
indigenous and advanced imported systems.
faces major gaps in key defence technologies like
In 2025, contracts were signed for 156 Light
fighter jet engines, Active Electronically Scanned
Combat Helicopters (LCH) Prachand, boosting
Array (AESA) radars, semiconductors, and precision
aerial capabilities.
electronics.
Precision weapons like SCALP missiles, HAMMER

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¾ Slow & Complex Procurement Process: Bureaucratic procurement risks, low R&D support, and weak
delays hinder defence acquisitions, impacting readiness. collaboration with public units.
For instance, the Tejas program took almost 20 Further, uncertain global events like trade tensions
years from approval to prototype, and deals like further dampen investor confidence and hinder
Rafale fighters and Scorpene submarines faced long-term private sector participation in the
long delays. defence ecosystem.
Though new Defence Acquisition Council ¾ Testing and Certification Challenges: India lacks
guidelines seek to speed up procurement, effective sufficient facilities for testing advanced defence tech
implementation remains challenging. like UAVs, electronic warfare, and electro-optics.
Despite plans for 6-8 new centres under Defence ¾ Cybersecurity & Internal Security Challenges: India’s
Testing Infrastructure Scheme (DTIS), delays slow cybersecurity and electronic warfare capabilities lag
validation and deployment of indigenous projects. behind countries like China, as seen in the 2020
¾ Low R&D Budget: In 2025-26, only Rs 1.8 lakh Mumbai power grid cyberattack.
crore of the Rs 6.81 lakh crore defence budget is Moreover, despite the creation of the Chief of
for modernisation, with DRDO receiving just 3.94%. Defence Staff (CDS), lack of integrated planning
Overall R&D spending in India is about 0.7% of and delayed implementation of Integrated Theatre
GDP, much below global peers such as China (2.4%), Commands hamper joint operational effectiveness.
the US (3.5%), and Israel (5.4%). ¾ Outdated Equipment: Legacy systems like MiG-21s
¾ Limited Private Sector Role: Private firms contribute still operate without upgrades, reflecting deeper
just 21% to defence production, hindered by procurement and planning flaws.
nnn

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Disaster Management
Highlights
z Urban Flooding in India z Global Report on Internal Displacements 2025

Urban Flooding in India

Why in News?
Bengaluru experienced intense pre-monsoon rains leading to severe waterlogging, lake overflows, and significant
damage to life and property. With the early onset of the monsoon this year, the risk of urban flooding in the city is
expected to escalate further.
What is Urban Flooding?
¾ Urban flooding refers to the inundation of land or property in densely populated areas due to heavy rainfall,
overflowing rivers, poor drainage systems, or other water-related incidents.
It leads to waterlogging, disrupting transportation, damaging infrastructure, and posing health hazards to
urban populations.
¾ Examples: Bengaluru floods (2024), Delhi Floods (2023), Mumbai floods (2020), Chennai floods (2015).

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What are the Key Reasons for Urban Flooding in India?

¾ Natural Causes:
Heavy Monsoon Rainfall: The Indian subcontinent experiences intense monsoon precipitation from Southwest
Monsoon, especially in the Western Ghats and northeastern regions. Cities like Mumbai often receive heavy
downpours in short durations, overwhelming drainage systems.
z Eg: The 2015 Chennai floods were triggered by record-breaking monsoon rains linked to cyclonic circulation
over the Bay of Bengal.
Topography: Many Indian cities are located in floodplains or low-lying coastal zones (e.g., Mumbai on the
Konkan coast, Kolkata in the Ganga-Brahmaputra delta). These areas naturally accumulate runoff due to flat
terrain and slow drainage, exacerbated by high tidal influence in coastal cities.
z Also, cities like Bengaluru, at an elevation of about 900 metres, lack major rivers to naturally channel excess water.
Climate Change & Extreme Weather Events: Climate change has led to more frequent and intense rainfall,
triggering flash floods.
z For example, the 2023 Delhi floods resulted from record rainfall causing the Yamuna River to overflow
into urban areas.

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¾ Anthropogenic Causes: dengue. Contaminated drinking water also causes

Rapid Urbanization & Poor Planning: Unplanned outbreaks of cholera, typhoid, and hepatitis.
urban growth has led to the concretization of Eg: 2020 Kerala floods saw a rise in leptospirosis
natural drainage channels and encroachment on and other waterborne diseases.
wetlands and floodplains. ¾ Displacement and Social Vulnerability: Urban flooding
z For instance, Bengaluru once had over 1,000 disproportionately impacts vulnerable groups,
lakes, but around 80% have been lost or degraded especially residents of informal settlements and low-
due to encroachment and construction, reducing lying areas. Thousands are displaced, losing homes
natural water retention and increasing runoff. and access to basic services, worsening poverty and
Inadequate Drainage Infrastructure: Many Indian inequality.
cities depend on outdated, undersized drainage The 2022 Mumbai floods led to slum dwellers
systems that cannot manage intense rainfall. facing severe displacement and livelihood loss.
z For instance, Mumbai’s British-era drainage, ¾ Ecological Degradation and Water Pollution: Urban
designed for 25 mm/hr, is frequently floods carry pollutants, sewage, and industrial waste
overwhelmed during heavy monsoons, as into lakes and rivers, harming aquatic ecosystems
seen in the 2023 floods. and reducing biodiversity. This contamination, seen
Solid Waste Mismanagement: Unregulated in Bengaluru’s lakes, disrupts groundwater recharge
dumping of solid waste blocks drains, nullahs, and and natural flood control.
stormwater systems, aggravating urban flooding. Also, rapid runoff causes soil erosion and damages
z For instance, in Himachal Pradesh in 2023, green spaces, worsening urban water scarcity.
plastic waste clogged both natural and artificial ¾ Overburdened Infrastructure: Recurring urban floods
waterways, worsening the flood impact. expose failures in drainage, waste management, and
z Also, 2015 Chennai floods were worsened city planning. Blocked drains, inadequate stormwater
due to silt and waste blocking estuary canals, systems, and encroachment on water bodies worsen
along with unchecked urban development that flooding.
blocked natural water flow. Mumbai’s outdated drainage, seen during the 2023
Deforestation: Deforestation and improper land floods, often collapses, causing severe waterlogging
use caused by shifting cultivation (Jhum) and and costly emergency responses.
grazing in hill tracts increase surface runoff and silt
buildup, leading to urban flooding downstream.
What Measures Can be Adopted to
z For example, Assam’s Guwahati faces recurring
Enhance Resilience Against Urban Floods?
floods due to such deforestation. ¾ Integrated Watershed Management: Comprehensive
management of entire river basins helps control
What are the Major flooding at the source by considering upstream and
Impacts of Urban Flooding? downstream impacts.
¾ Economic Loss and Infrastructure Damage: Urban For example, the Netherlands’ “Room for the
flooding causes severe damage to critical infrastructure River” project, which creates designated spaces
like roads, bridges, power, and water systems, leading for rivers to safely overflow, can be adapted to
to huge repair costs and economic disruption. Indian urban contexts to reduce flood hazards.
Eg: 2015 Chennai floods resulted in damages ¾ Promote Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems (SUDS):
exceeding Rs 15,000 crore, severely impacting Integrate permeable pavements, rain gardens,
transport and power supply. bio-swales, and detention basins to manage runoff
¾ Public Health Crisis: Urban flooding leads to public at source and reduce pressure on drainage. This
health crises by creating stagnant water that breeds mimics natural hydrological processes and enhances
mosquitoes, increasing diseases like malaria and infiltration.

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¾ Adopt the Sponge City Concept: The Sponge City What are Key Findings of the Global Report
approach involves designing urban landscapes that on Internal Displacements 2025?
absorb, store, and purify rainwater through natural and
¾ Global Displacements: Total global internal
engineered solutions, reducing runoff and flood peaks.
displacements reached 45.8 million, the highest
Shanghai, China has adopted green roofs,
since records began in 2008 and more than double
permeable surfaces, and green spaces under
the annual average over the past decade.
this model.
Similarly, Mumbai’s is also adopting this model
¾ Disasters as Displacement Drivers: Disasters drove
to enhance flood resilience and groundwater most displacements, with 99.5% linked to climate-
recharge. related extreme weather worsened by climate change.
¾ Restoration of Water Bodies: Reviving urban lakes, ¾ India Related Findings: India saw 5.4 million
wetlands, and natural water retention zones enhances displacements in 2024, the highest in 12 years, with
flood absorption capacity. floods causing two-thirds of them.
Bengaluru’s Jakkur Lake restoration showcases Violence caused 1,700 displacements, with Manipur
effective flood mitigation through eco-restoration. accounting for 1,000, remaining the main hotspot
¾ Community Engagement & Early Warning Systems: for such movements.
Active involvement of local communities in flood ¾ Conflict and Climate Relation: 20.1 million were
preparedness and response strengthens resilience. displaced by conflict, mostly in climate-vulnerable
Establishing robust early warning systems, similar countries, with the number of nations facing both
to Ahmedabad’s heat action plan which includes disaster and conflict displacement tripling since 2009.
community outreach, can be adapted to improve
urban flood management. Who are Climate Refugees?
Singapore’s Smart Water Assessment Network ¾ About: Climate refugees (environmentally displaced
(SWAN) uses remote sensors to track water levels persons or climate-induced migrants) are individuals
in real time, issuing alerts via SMS to ensure quick or communities who are forced to leave their homes
public response and flood preparedness. India and regions due to the adverse effects of climate
can learn from the same. change and environmental degradation.
These impacts make living conditions unviable,
Global Report on Internal driving internal displacement and cross-border
Displacements 2025 movement.
¾ Causes:
Why in News? Rising Sea Levels: Low-lying coasts, small islands,
The Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC) and deltas face rising seas, forcing communities to
released the Global Report on Internal Displacements relocate as land and homes become uninhabitable.
2025 highlighting the number of disaster-related internal z E.g., sea level rise could displace somewhere
displacements and climate refugees globally in 2024. between 2–110 million people in Bangladesh.
Note: IDMC is the world’s leading source of data and Extreme Weather Events: More frequent and
analysis on internal displacement. It was established severe disasters like storms, floods, and wildfires
in 1998 as part of the Norwegian Refugee Council (NRC). are displacing people by destroying homes,
¾ Internal displacement is the forced movement of infrastructure, and livelihoods.
people within their own country due to conflict, z E.g., In 2022, disasters caused 32.6 million
disasters, or climate change, without crossing displacements, 98% due to weather-related
international borders. hazards.

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Desertification and Land Degradation:

India is not a signatory to the 1951 Refugee
Desertification in regions like sub-Saharan Africa Convention or its 1967 Protocol on refugee
and the Middle East force pastoralists and farmers protection.
to migrate in search of fertile land and water. ¾ Gaps in Migration Plans: The Global Compact on
z E.g., From 2015 to 2019, land degradation in Migration (2018) mentions climate displacement
India doubled from 4.42% to 9.45%, affecting but is non-binding.
30.51 million hectares.
¾ Statelessness Risks: Climate refugees may become
Water Scarcity: Climate changes reduce freshwater
stateless if they can’t gain residency or citizenship,
and agriculture, driving migration for stability and facing challenges like lack of asylum rights, poor
food security. living conditions, limited access to healthcare and
z Over 1 billion migrants exist, with water education, and potential detention or deportation.
shortages driving 10% of global migration. 17
¾ Strict Border Controls: The European Border and
countries, home to 25% of the population, face
Coast Guard Agency often blocks climate migrants,
extreme water stress.
while Australia’s Pacific Solution detains asylum
¾ Consequences:
seekers offshore, including those from climate-
Humanitarian Crises: Climate displacement can
vulnerable islands.
cause food and water shortages, health crises,
¾ Funding Disputes: The Loss and Damage Fund, agreed
and overcrowded camps.
at COP27 (2022), became operational in 2025 amid
Urban Strain: Climate refugees add pressure to
funding disputes. The Green Climate Fund focuses
already overburdened cities.
on mitigation, not relocation or asylum.
Social Conflicts and Tensions: Resource competition
can lead to unrest between displaced persons and What are Current Provisions
host communities. for Protection of Climate Refugees?
National Security Concerns: Unmanaged ¾ Limited Applicability of 1951 Refugee Convention:
displacement poses security risks, particularly in A drought-related famine can cause conflict and
fragile regions. displacement, potentially qualifying affected
What are Legal and Policy individuals for refugee protection under the 1951
Challenges for Climate Refugees? Convention.
¾ Regional Refugee Instruments: Some regional
¾ Lack of Legal Recognition: Under international law,
including the 1951 Refugee Convention, climate frameworks include more flexible refugee definitions
refugees aren’t recognized, as it only covers those that could cover climate-related displacement. E..g,
fleeing persecution for reasons like race, religion, or Organization of African Unity Convention 1969: It
political beliefs. protects those fleeing “events seriously disturbing
Most countries, including the US, European Union, public order,” which can include climate-induced
and Australia, don’t recognize climate displacement conflicts, such as floods, droughts, or climate-
as grounds for asylum. related displacement, especially when civil unrest
z In the US, Temporary Protected Status (TPS) follows such events.
offers limited, discretionary relief for disaster- Cartagena Declaration 1984 (Latin America): It
hit countries. expands the refugee definition to include those
The Principle of Non-Refoulement doesn’t cover fleeing “massive human rights violations” or
climate refugees, allowing states to remove events “seriously disturbing public order,” which
individuals despite risks of serious harm or rights could encompass climate-related events causing
violations. social and political disruption.
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Miscellaneous
Highlights
z Gallantry Awards 2025 z State of the World’s Animal Health Report

Gallantry Awards 2025

Why in News?
The President of India conferred Gallantry Awards, including 6 Kirti Chakras (4 posthumously) and 33 Shaurya
Chakras (7 posthumously), to personnel from the Armed Forces, Central Armed Police Forces, and State/UT Police
that were announced on the eve of the 76th Republic day 2025.

What are the Gallantry Awards?

¾ About Gallantry awards: They are given to the personnel for displaying raw courage, unparalleled bravery and
total disregard to personal safety in the line of duty.
These gallantry awards are announced twice in a year, first on the occasion of the Republic Day and then on
the occasion of the Independence Day.
¾ Types:
Gallantry Award in the Face of Enemy:
z Param Vir Chakra (PVC): It shall have embossed on the obverse four replicas of “Indra’s Vajra” with the
State Emblem embossed in the centre.
It is awarded for most conspicuous bravery or some daring or pre-eminent act of valour or self sacrifice,
in the presence of the enemy.
z Mahavir Chakra (MVC): It shall have embossed on the obverse a five-pointed heraldic star with the points
of the star just touching the rim. The star shall have in the centre a domed gilded State Emblem.
It is awarded for acts of gallantry in the presence of the enemy.
z Vir Chakra: The star will feature a Chakra at its centre, with a domed centerpiece inside the Chakra bearing
the gilded State Emblem.
It is awarded for acts of gallantry in the presence of the enemy on land, at sea or in the air. The decoration
may be awarded posthumously.
Gallantry Award Other than in the Face of Enemy:
z Medals: It includes Ashok Chakra, Kirti Chakra, and Shaurya Chakra, on which the obverse of the medal
shall be embossed a replica of the respective chakra in the centre, surrounded by a lotus wreath.
Along the rim, on the inner side, shall be a pattern of lotus leaves, flowers, and buds.
On its reverse shall be embossed the respective words both in Hindi and English the two versions being
separated by two lotus flowers.

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¾ Order of precedence of the Award:

Param Vir Chakra

Ashoka Chakra

Mahavir Chakra

Kirti Chakra

Vir Chakra

Shaurya Chakra

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¾ Eligibility:
Param Vir Chakra, the Maha Vir Chakra and the Vir Chakra: All ranks of the Naval, Military, Air, Reserve, and
Territorial Forces, including medical and nursing staff, and civilians serving under their direction.
Ashoka Chakra, Kirti Chakra & Shaurya Chakra: All ranks of the Armed Forces, Reserve and Territorial Forces,
Nursing Services, Police, Central Para-Military Forces, Railway Protection Force, and civilian citizens.
Note: For each subsequent act of similar bravery, recipients are recognized by a Bar to the Chakra.
¾ Also, both Chakra and Bar to the chakra for additional bravery may be awarded posthumously.

State of the World’s Animal Health Report

Why in News?
The World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH) released its first-ever State of the World’s Animal Health
report, warning of the growing spread of infectious diseases like African Swine Fever, avian influenza, and Lumpy
skin disease, which threaten agrifood system stability.
What are the Key Concerns Raised by the State of the World’s Animal Health Report?
¾ High Zoonotic Risk: 47% of reported diseases are zoonotic, capable of infecting humans.
¾ Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) Threat: Without urgent action, AMR could impact 2 billion people and cause
economic losses of USD 100 trillion by 2050.
¾ Cross-Species Transmission Increasing: The spread of infectious diseases like avian influenza is increasingly crossing
species barriers, affecting a wider range of animals beyond their traditional hosts, as outbreaks in mammals doubled.
¾ Drivers of Zoonotic Disease: Climate change is altering ecosystems and enabling the spread of pathogens into
new regions and species.
Global trade and the increased movement of animals and animal products have amplified the risk of disease
transmission across borders.
Expanding human-wildlife contact increases zoonotic spillover risk, worsened by weak veterinary systems and
poor vaccine access in developing nations.

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What are the Key Diseases Affecting Animals Across the Globe?
Disease Cause Description
Influenza virus It is a highly contagious viral disease affecting domestic and wild
Avian Influenza (Orthomyxoviridae birds, and occasionally mammals including humans. It is caused by
family) multiple virus subtypes (e.g., H5N1, H5N3, H5N8).
African Swine Fever ASF virus (Asfarviridae It is a highly contagious viral disease of domestic and wild pigs,
(ASF) family) whose mortality rate can reach 100%.
Foot and Mouth Aphthovirus It is a highly contagious viral disease affecting cloven-hoofed animals
Disease (FMD) (Picornaviridae family) like cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs, causing fever and blister-like sores.
It affects goats, sheep, and some wild relatives of domesticated
Peste des Petits Morbillivirus
small ruminants, as well as camels. It was first reported in Ivory
Ruminants (Paramyxoviridae family)
Coast in 1942.
Lumpy skin disease virus It is a cattle disease causing fever, skin nodules, weight loss, and
Lumpy Skin Disease
(Poxviridae family). swollen lymph nodes.
It is an infectious, non-contagious, vector-borne viral disease affecting
Bluetongue virus
Bluetongue wild and domestic ruminants like sheep, goats, cattle, buffaloes,
(Reoviridae family)
deer, African antelope, and camels.
New World NWS fly larvae It infests the living flesh of warm-blooded animals, most commonly
Screwworm (Calliphoridae family ) livestock and less commonly birds, pets, and humans.
It was first detected in pigs in Malaysia and Singapore. It affects
Nipah virus
Nipah Virus animals like pigs and horses, causing respiratory and neurological
(Paramyxoviridae family)
symptoms, with serious potential for human transmission.
It is also known as cattle plague, is a highly contagious viral disease
Morbillivirus that primarily affected cattle, buffalo, and other even-toed ungulates.
Rinderpest
(Paramyxoviridae family) Rinderpest was the first animal disease to be globally eradicated
by vaccination.
What is the World Organization for Animal Health?
¾ About: The WOAH, originally founded as the Office International des Epizooties (OIE) in 1924, is an intergovernmental
organization headquartered in Paris, France.
It was founded in response to the global rinderpest outbreak.
The World Assembly of Delegates is WOAH’s top decision-making body, comprising representatives from all
183 member countries, including India.
z It meets annually in Paris, with each country having one vote.
¾ WOAH’s Standards and Guidelines: WOAH develops and maintains a comprehensive set of reference documents,
including:
The Terrestrial Animal Health Code and its Manual of Diagnostic Tests and Vaccines for Terrestrial Animals
(covering mammals, birds, reptiles, bees).
The Aquatic Animal Health Code and its diagnostic manual (covering fish, amphibians, molluscs, crustaceans).
¾ WOAH’s and WTO: WOAH is formally recognized under the World Trade Organisation (WTO) Agreement on the
Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS Agreement) as the international standard-setting body
for animal health.
WTO members are encouraged to base their sanitary measures on WOAH’s standards to harmonize regulations
globally and facilitate trade.
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Rapid Fire Current Affairs

Highlights

z Mount Augustus Snail z Metrology and India’s Initiatives

z Extension of Modified Interest Subvention Scheme z Shirui Lily Festival
z China’s Tianwen-2 Mission z Indian Yak Genomics
z Mount Khangchendzonga z e-Zero FIR
z RoDTEP Scheme z Operation Olivia
z Maternity Benefits for Third Child z Suggi Migration
z Death Anniversary of Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru z Suez Canal
z Dholes z Tsarap Chu Conservation Reserve
z Dark Patterns
z Yala Glacier Declared Dead
z Cave-Dwelling Fish Discovered in Meghalaya
z World Food Prize 2025
z DoP Launched New Digital Platforms
z India’s Commitment to UN Peacekeeping
z INTERPOL Silver Notice
z SC Strikes Down Ex-Post Facto Environmental Clearances
z India’s First Gene-Edited Sheep
z Kandha Tribe
z Viksit Krishi Sankalp Abhiyan
z Dispute over Parasnath Hill
z Asian Productivity Organization
z Shingles Diseases
z Sugar Boards
z 58th Jnanpith Award
z NASA’s GRAIL Mission
z Nicaragua Withdrawal from UNESCO
z Charaka and Sushruta Legacy
z Mhadei River Water Dispute
z Jarosite
z Nipah Virus
z India Becomes World’s 4th Largest Economy
z Bharat Forecast System z Algal Bloom Devastates Marine Life

z Bird-Wing Solar Event z North-East India’s First Geothermal Well in Dirang

z Official Secrets Act 1923 z E-Passport

z Xenon Gas z Repairability Index

z Weather Balloons z Quantum Dots and 2D Metals

z KVIC’s Honey Mission z Revamped PLFS
z Sagar Mein Samman Initiative z Chandrayaan-5 (LUPEX)
z Judicial Accountability and the K Veeraswami Judgment, 1991 z Illegal Killing of Migratory Birds
z Golden Dome Missile Defence Project z Bhutan Launched First Crypto-Tourism Payment
z iGOT Karmayogi z MSP for Jute
z Heart Lamp wins 2025 International Booker Prize z Anamalai Tiger Reserve
z Guttala Drought Inscription z Parali Protection Force

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Mount Augustus Snail

For the first time, the rare Mount Augustus Snail (Powelliphanta augusta snail) has been filmed laying an egg
from its neck, revealing unique reproductive behavior.

¾ Biology & Characteristics: Endemic to New Zealand, it is among the world’s largest carnivorous land snails. It is
distinguished by its vibrant, swirling shell patterns.
This slow-growing species preys on slugs and earthworms. In captivity, it has a lifespan of 25 to 35 years.
¾ Reproduction: It is hermaphroditic (have both male and female organs), mating through mutual sperm exchange
via a genital pore on the neck.
It reaches sexual maturity at 8 years, lays around 5 eggs annually, and each egg takes over a year to hatch.
¾ Threats & Habitat Loss: Native only to Mount Augustus (New Zealand), its habitat was destroyed by coal mining
in the early 2000s.

Snails:
¾ Snails are mollusks belonging to the gastropod class, easily identifiable by their spiral shells, which they retract
into for protection or when resting.
¾ They are one of the two primary species in this class, with the other being slugs. The key difference between snails
and slugs is the presence of an external shell in snails, while slugs lack one.
Read More: New Species of Land Snail in Maharashtra.

Extension of Modified Interest Subvention Scheme

The Union Cabinet has approved the continuation of the Modified Interest Subvention Scheme (MISS) for FY
2025–26.
¾ Under this scheme, 1.5% interest subvention will continue to be provided to banks for short-term crop loans up
to Rs 3 lakh issued through the Kisan Credit Card (KCC) platform.

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Modified Interest Subvention Scheme (MISS) ¾ About Tianwen-2 Mission: It is a near-Earth asteroid
¾ About: Launched in 2006–07 as Interest Subvention (NEAs) sample return and main asteroid belt comet
orbiter mission that aims to demonstrate China’s
Scheme.
capabilities in complex deep space operations.
MISS is a Central Sector Scheme under the Ministry
NEAs are asteroids with orbits that bring them
of Agriculture and Farmers’ Welfare (MoA&FW).
close to Earth. Those whose paths cross Earth’s
It provides concessional short-term credit for orbit are called Earth-crossers.
agriculture and allied activities via KCC. ¾ Significance: It will make China one of the few nations
While loans are sanctioned at 7% interest, a 3% after the US (OSIRIS-Rex) and Japan (Hayabusa 2) to
Prompt Repayment Incentive (PRI), given for retrieve asteroid samples and return them to Earth.
prompt and timely repayment of loans reduces the ¾ Objectives: It aims to investigate Kamo‘oalewa’s
effective rate to 4%, making credit more affordable. unusual orbit and potential lunar origin, testing the
¾ Implementation: Jointly implemented and monitored hypothesis that it may be a lunar fragment from an
by RBI and NABARD with Public Sector Banks, RRBs, ancient Earth-Moon collision.
Cooperative Banks and Private Sector Banks. Discovered in 2016, Kamo'oalewa is one of only

¾ Key Features: seven known quasi-satellites of Earth.

Revolving credit facility under KCC for up to 5 Quasi satellites orbit the Sun but because of their

years with flexible withdrawals. close distance to the planet, they are gravitationally
influenced by the planet.
Collateral-free loans up to Rs 2 lakh.
Quasi-satellites like Kamoʻoalewa are known to
Interest relief up to 1 year during natural calamities,
shift their orbits in 100-300 years.
extendable to 5 years for severe disasters.
¾ Sampling Techniques: It will use a “touch-and-go”
Targets small and marginal farmers, who account
technique (robotic arm propels fragments into chamber)
for 76% of agri-credit accounts. to collect asteroid samples, with an optional “anchor
The government launched the Kisan Rin Portal and attach” method for drilling if needed.
(KRP) to digitally track interest subvention claims. ¾ Future Plans: After Kamo’oalewa, Tianwen-2 will orbit
Kisan Rin Portal (KRP) and analyze a comet in the asteroid belt (between
Mars and Jupiter).
¾ Launched in 2023 collaboratively by MoA&FW, Ministry
Tianwen-3 (2028) aims to return samples from
of Finance, RBI, and NABARD.
Mars for the first time.
¾ KRP aims to track interest subvention claims digitally,
ensuring faster disbursement, greater transparency, Read More: NASA’s OSIRIS-REx Mission, Dust Samples
and accountability, benefiting both farmers and banks. from Hayabusa 2

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Dzoe-Nga is recognized as guardians of the land by Ugyen Guru Rinpoche (Guru Padmasambhava), Sikkim’s
Patron Saint.
z The indigenous Lepcha community traditionally followed the Mun faith, led by priests called Bongthings,
and have a rich oral tradition of poetry, songs, and myths.
Climbing is prohibited on the Sikkim side but permitted from the Nepal side. The mountain was first successfully
climbed in 1955 by Charles Band and Joe Brown.

¾ About Khangchendzonga National Park: It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site (2016) and a part of the UNESCO
World Network of Biosphere Reserves (2018).
It is India’s first Mixed World Heritage Site, renowned for its diverse ecosystem comprising plains, valleys,
mountains, glaciers, lakes, and forests.
It is part of the Eastern Himalayan biodiversity hotspot and the Dzongu Valley in North Sikkim is especially
rich in medicinal plants.
Fauna: Blood Pheasant (State Bird of Sikkim), Red Panda, Snow Leopard, Musk Deer etc.

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¾ RoDTEP Scheme: Launched in 2021 by the Ministry of Commerce and Industry, the RoDTEP scheme is designed
to reimburse exporters for embedded duties, taxes, and levies that are not otherwise refunded under any other
existing scheme.
The RoDTEP scheme, which replaced the Merchandise Export from India Scheme (MEIS), is fully aligned with
World Trade Organization norms.
Rebates under RoDTEP Scheme will be issued as transferable duty credits or electronic scrips (e-scrips), maintained
in an electronic ledger by the Central Board of Indirect Taxes and Customs (CBIC).
As of March 2025, total disbursements under the RoDTEP scheme exceeded Rs 57,976 crore, highlighting its
critical support for India’s exports.
Read more: RoDTEP Scheme

Maternity Benefits for Third Child

In the K. Umadevi v. Government of Tamil Nadu Case, 2022, the Supreme Court (SC) granted maternity benefits
to a woman for her third child, under the Maternity Benefit (Amendment) Act, 2017 calling it a constitutional right.
¾ The SC affirmed that the right to health, dignity, privacy, and non-discrimination are integral to the Right to Life
under Article 21 of the Constitution.
It emphasized that reproductive rights form part of international human rights law, including rights to health,
equality, and dignity.

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¾ Right to reproductive choices is protected under passing the historic Purna Swaraj resolution for
Article 21 (Right to Life and Personal Liberty), as complete independence, and later presided over
reaffirmed in the Suchita Srivastava v. Chandigarh the 1936 Lucknow and 1937 Faizpur sessions,
Administration Case, 2009. promoting socialism.
¾ Maternity Benefit (Amendment) Act, 2017: The z He drafted Fundamental Rights and Economic
Maternity Benefit Act, 1961, as amended in 2017, Policy (1929-31), adopted at the 1931 Karachi
provides paid maternity leave and related benefits to Session under Sardar Patel, and advocated legal
women employees both before and after childbirth. defence for Indian National Army (INA) soldiers.
Applicability: The Act applies to factories, mines, z He led the Interim Government in 1946.
plantations, government establishments, shops, Post-Independence: In 1953, he formed the
and other workplaces with 10 or more employees. States Reorganisation Commission, promoted
z Women covered under the Employees’ State industrialisation through Five-Year Plans, and led
Insurance Act, 1948 are also entitled to maternity the Non-Alignment Movement.
benefits. Awards: He was awarded the Bharat Ratna (1955)
Maternity Leave: Women are entitled to 26 weeks and World Peace Council Prize (posthumously, 1970).
of paid maternity leave for up to two children, Literary Contributions: The Discovery of India, An
and 12 weeks for with more than two i.e., the Act Autobiography, Glimpses of World History and
does not prohibit maternity leave for women with Letters from a Father to His Daughter.
more than two children; it only limits the duration
Read More: Jawaharlal Nehru
based on the number of children.
Read More: The Maternity Benefit (Amendment) Act
2017 Dholes
28th May is celebrated as World Dhole Day to promote
Death Anniversary of the conservation of dholes—endangered Asian wild
dogs—who play a crucial role as apex predators in
Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru maintaining forest ecosystem balance.
On 27th May 2025, the Prime Minister paid homage ¾ About Dholes: Dholes (Cuon alpinus) are wild dogs
to India’s first Prime Minister, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru— native to southern and eastern Asia, including India’s
who died on 27th May 1964 and is remembered as the Western Ghats (e.g., Valparai plateau).
Architect of Modern India. ¾ Characteristics: Dholes have auburn fur, black tails,
¾ About JL Nehru: amber eyes, and upright rounded ears, living socially
Early Life: Born on 14th November 1889, in Prayagraj,
in packs of 2 to 25.
he attended his first Congress session in 1912 at
Bankipore (Patna) as a delegate and joined Annie
Besant’s Home Rule League in 1916, becoming its
Allahabad Secretary in 1919.

¾ Habitat: Adaptable to forests, shrublands, and high

mountain steppes.
In India, dholes are found in three main areas i.e.,
Contribution in Freedom Struggle: He was elected the Western and Eastern Ghats, the central Indian
Congress President at the 1929 Lahore session, landscape, and Northeast India.

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¾ Diet and Hunting: Dholes are carnivores that hunt cooperatively in groups of 3-5, and communicate with yaps,
growls, and distinctive whistles, earning them the nickname “whistling dogs.”
Dholes do not have the jaw strength to deliver a fatal bite to their prey, so the pack eats the prey alive.
¾ Reproduction: A pack usually has one dominant monogamous breeding pair, while the non-breeding members
support by bringing food and caring for the pups.
¾ Conservation Status:
IUCN: Endangered.
CITES: Appendix II.
Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972: Schedule II.

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¾ Related Government Measures: The Central Consumer Protection Authority (CCPA), under the Consumer
Protection Act, 2019, issued guidelines in 2023 to curb dark patterns.
Apps like Jago Grahak Jago and the Jagriti Dashboard were launched to enable the CCPA to take suo motu
action against such unfair trade practices.

Cave-Dwelling Fish Discovered in Meghalaya

A new species of cave-adapted fish, Schistura densiclava, has been discovered in Krem Mawjymbuin cave in
Meghalaya (East Khasi Hills).
¾ About: Schistura densiclava is a troglophile species, meaning it can live in both underground (subterranean) and
aboveground (epigean) habitats.

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It belongs to the Nemacheilidae family, and is the 6th cave fish species recorded from Meghalaya.

¾ Habitat: It is found 60 meters inside Krem Mawjymbuin cave, in a cool, fast-flowing stream (18°C, low oxygen).
The species’ presence is restricted to the cave, indicating it is endemic to this cave system.

¾ Adaptation: Unlike fully blind cavefish, it retains pigmentation and eyesight.

¾ Morphology: It has a pale yellow-green body with 14–20 grey-black bars, a thick dorsal stripe (densiclava), and
shows sexual dimorphism with slimmer males and sturdier females.
¾ Krem Mawjymbuin (limestone cave) is carved out of calcareous sandstone and adorned with elegant stalactites
and stalagmites formed by mineral-rich calcium carbonate.
Inside the cave lies Symper Rock, a striking dome-shaped structure characterized by its unusually flat summit.

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DoP Launched New INTERPOL Silver Notice

Digital Platforms India has successfully leveraged INTERPOL’s newly
The Department of Posts (DoP) launched two digital introduced Silver Notice system to trace assets and seek
platforms-‘Know Your DIGIPIN’ and ‘Know Your PIN international cooperation in tracking down economic
Code’, marking a significant stride in India’s efforts to fugitives.
modernise its address system and geospatial governance ¾ INTERPOL Silver Notice: Launched in 2025, it helps
under the framework of the National Geospatial Policy trace and recover criminal assets, combat transnational
2022. organized crime, and enhance international police
¾ Know Your DIGIPIN: cooperation.
DIGIPIN (Digital Postal Index Number) is an It is currently in a pilot phase involving 51 countries,
open-source, geo-coded, grid-based digital which will run until November 2025. During this
addressing system developed to enable precise period, each country can request up to nine
location identification using latitude and longitude Silver Notices.
coordinates.
In India, the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI)
DIGIPIN links addresses to exact latitude-longitude
acts as India’s nodal agency for Interpol-related
coordinates, enabling high-resolution geospatial
matters. It coordinates requests from all Indian
identification.
law enforcement agencies seeking Interpol’s
It facilitates Address-as-a-Service (AaaS) by
international assistance.
providing secure, standardised digital address
solutions. z BHARATPOL, developed by the CBI, gives both
central and state agencies real-time access to
Incorporates Geographic Information System (GIS)
tools to enhance logistics, emergency response, INTERPOL data. It streamlines cooperation
and digital governance. against transnational crimes like cybercrime
It enables digital address access in remote and and trafficking, and simplifies Red Notice
underserved regions. processing.
¾ Know Your PIN Code: ¾ Interpol’s Colour-coded Notices System: INTERPOL
Digitally defines boundaries of over 1.5 lakh PIN notices are requests for cooperation or alerts shared
Codes by geo-fencing of PIN zones to improve among police in 196 member countries.
location accuracy. Interpol issues nine colour-coded notices for
Enables users to find the correct PIN Code using various purposes; it is issued by INTERPOL’s General
real-time GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System) Secretariat on request from a country’s National
location data. Central Bureau (NCB).
Includes a public feedback system for continuous It can also be issued at the request of International
improvement of the PIN Code database. Criminal Tribunals and the International Criminal
Enhances delivery networks, emergency services, Court to seek persons wanted for committing
and postal logistics, especially for e-commerce crimes within their jurisdiction, notably genocide,
and rural areas. war crimes, and crimes against humanity.
Read More: National Geospatial Policy 2022, Digital They may also be issued on behalf of the UN
Public Infrastructure. Security Council to enforce its sanctions.

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India’s First Gene-Edited Sheep

Researchers from Kashmir have successfully developed India’s first gene-edited sheep using CRISPR-Cas9 technology,
under a project funded by the ICAR.
¾ They edited the myostatin gene in a local Merino lamb, increasing muscle mass by 30%, similar to European Texel
sheep. It contains no foreign DNA, making it non-transgenic.
Gene Editing
¾ About: Gene Editing (or Genome Editing) is a biotechnology that enables the precise modification of an organism’s
genetic material (DNA or RNA).
It allows scientists to add, delete, or alter specific gene sequences within the genome using specialised tools.

¾ Key Gene Editing Methods:

CRISPR-Cas9: CRISPR-Cas9 (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats) is a widely used
gene-editing tool that uses a guide RNA (gRNA) to direct the Cas9 enzyme to a specific DNA sequence, where
it makes a double-strand cut; the cell then repairs the DNA, enabling gene disruption or insertion.
z The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2020 was awarded jointly to Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer A. Doudna
for the development of a method for genome editing.

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Zinc Finger Nucleases (ZFNs): ZFNs are artificial ¾ India promotes tech-driven farming through the
gene-editing tools composed of a DNA-binding Digital Agriculture Mission, AgriStack (Farmer IDs),
domain (zinc finger proteins) and a DNA-cleaving and Namo Drone Didi.
domain (FokI endonuclease). Apps like Kisan Suvidha and AI-based irrigation
z The zinc finger proteins are engineered to under “Per Drop More Crop” enhance farm advice
recognize and bind specific DNA sequences, and water efficiency.
while the FokI enzyme cuts the DNA at the Read more:Advancing Indian Farms with Digital
target site. Solutions
¾ Gene Knockout is a genetic technique where a specific
gene is deliberately disabled or deleted to stop its Asian Productivity
protein expression. It helps study gene function by
Organization
comparing traits in organisms with and without the
gene. India has officially assumed the Chairmanship of the
Asian Productivity Organization (APO) for the 2025–26
Read More: Genome Sequencing
term during the 67th Governing Body Meeting (GBM).

Viksit Krishi Asian Productivity Organization (APO)

Sankalp Abhiyan ¾ About: The APO, is an intergovernmental body
established in 1961 with headquarters at Tokyo.
The Viksit Krishi Sankalp Abhiyan is a nationwide It aims to improve productivity through regional
campaign launched to modernize Indian agriculture cooperation and capacity building across the
through scientific outreach, sustainable practices, and Asia-Pacific region.
farmer empowerment. It contributes to the sustainable socioeconomic
¾ About: Viksit Krishi Sankalp Abhiyan is conducted development of the region through policy advisory
biannually before the Kharif and Rabi sowing seasons services, and undertaking smart initiatives in the
to provide timely field-level guidance on improving crop industry, agriculture, service, and public sectors.
production, soil health, and resource management. ¾ Members & Organisation Structure: APO membership
is open to Asia-Pacific countries that are also members
It aims to cover over 65,000 villages across 723
of the United Nations Economic and Social Commission
districts and is expected to directly engage more
for Asia and the Pacific (UN ESCAP).
than 1.3 crore farmers, fostering the adoption
UNESCAP is the regional development arm of the
of scientific farming practices and promoting
UN for the Asia-Pacific region.
sustainable agricultural growth.
It currently has 21 member economies, including
It aligns with the vision of making India the “Food
India (a founding member).
Basket of the World” through science-backed,
Member countries collaborate through their
climate-resilient, and farmer-centric agriculture.
respective National Productivity Organizations
¾ Organizers: The campaign is organized by the Ministry (NPOs).
of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare, Indian Council z National Productivity Council (NPC), an
of Agricultural Research (ICAR), State Agriculture autonomous body under the Ministry of
Departments, Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs), and Commerce and Industry, is the designated
Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs). NPO for India.

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APO includes the Governing Body, which is the the highest-resolution gravity map of the moon by
highest decision-making authority and meets mapping lunar gravitational variations.
annually to set strategic direction, and review ¾ Key Findings of GRAIL Mission:
performance.
Tidal Locking: The Moon’s rotation period equals
Read More: National Productivity Council, Significance its orbit period, so one side always faces Earth
of Indo-Pacific and the other permanently hidden.
Temperature Difference: The Moon’s near side
Sugar Boards (facing Earth) is warmer, softer, and was once
partly molten, while the far side (hidden from
To combat the rising health risks associated with Earth) is colder with a thicker crust that blocks
excessive sugar consumption among school children, the
magma eruptions.
Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) has
mandated the establishment of ‘sugar boards’ in over Volcanic History: The Moon’s near side features
24,000 affiliated schools across India. dark lava plains (maria), while the far side has a
¾ ‘Sugar boards’ visually display the sugar content in
thicker crust with fewer lava flows.
common beverages and snacks, educating children Thermal Asymmetry: It estimated a temperature
about the health risks of high sugar intake using difference of 100–200°C between hemispheres. It
simple, relatable comparisons like teaspoons of sugar. found that the Moon’s crust is more porous and
¾ The National Commission for Protection of Child thinner than previously believed.
Rights (NCPCR) has urged all schools, including state ¾ The phenomenon helps explain the Moon’s Janus-
boards, to implement sugar boards, highlighting a faced appearance i.e., one side bright and heavily
significant increase in Type-2 diabetes. cratered, the other dark and smooth.
¾ Studies show Indian children consume sugar
amounts (13-15% of daily calories) far exceeding Read More: NASA’s Artemis Program
the recommended 5% limit, increasing their risk of
lifestyle diseases. Charaka and
¾ The Food Standards and Safety Authority of India
(FSSAI) is yet to finalize High Fat, Salt, and Sugar (HFSS) Sushruta Legacy
standards for school meals and front-of-pack labelling.
The Vice-President commissioned the statues of
¾ India follows World Health Organization (WHO)
Charaka and Sushruta at Raj Bhavan, Goa and recalled
guidelines recommending adults and children limit
their contributions.
free sugar intake to under 10% of daily energy.
¾ Charaka: Charaka (around 2nd century BCE and the
Experts urge stricter limits due to higher local
heart disease risk. A nationwide study is needed 2nd century CE), known as the father of medicine,
to set suitable standards. served as the royal physician of Kanishka (Kushan
Kingdom).
Read more: Curbing Intake of Processed Foods
He authored the Charaka Samhita, a foundational
text of Ayurveda.
NASA’s GRAIL Mission The Agnivesha Samhita, written by Agnivesa in
NASA’s Gravity Recovery and Interior Laboratory the 7th century BCE under the guidance of Atreya,
(GRAIL) mission has revealed notable contrasts between was revised and renamed the Charaka Samhita by
the Moon’s near side and far side due to temperature Charaka, and divided it into eight sections known
variations, crust thickness, and ancient volcanic activity. as Ashtanga Sthanas.
¾ GRAIL used twin spacecraft, Ebb and Flow, to study z Dhabala (scholar of Ayurveda) later added 17
the Moon’s internal structure in detail and to produce chapters to the Charaka Samhita.

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Jarosite
A new study highlights jarosite as a natural
luminescent mineral capable of recording the timing of
ancient Martian events such as dust storms, flooding,
and volcanic activity. The mineral, also present in Gujarat’s
Kutch region, offers crucial insights due to its presence
both on Earth and Mars.
¾ It is a yellow-brown mineral rich in potassium, iron,
and sulphate, found in arid, salty environments like
those on Mars.
It exhibits radiation-induced luminescence, serving
as a geological clock that can record events up to
¾ Sushruta: Sushruta (7th–6th century BCE), an ancient
Indian physician, is called the “Father of Surgery” and 25,000 years ago.
“Father of Plastic Surgery.” ¾ Occurrence:
Sushruta was a disciple of Dhanvantari, one of the Earth: It is found in acid mine drainage, sulfur-rich
Navratnas of King Vikramaditya (Chandragupta II). volcanic zones, and arid, sulfate-rich sedimentary
He authored the Sushruta Samhita, one of the rocks.
earliest texts on plastic surgery. Mars: It was detected by NASA’s Opportunity
z The Sushruta Samhita is a part of Ayurveda’s and Curiosity rovers in Meridiani Planum and
Great Trilogy alongside Charaka Samhita and Gale Crater.
Astanga Hridaya.
¾ It has been successfully used to date weathering
He performed and documented over 300
processes, particularly with the Potassium-Argon
surgical procedures, including plastic surgery
(K-Ar) dating method.
(e.g., rhinoplasty i.e., rebuilding of the nose),
gutter removal, fracture management, and even Potassium-Argon (K-Ar) dating method is a

caesarean delivery. radiometric technique used to determine the

z He treated numerous cases of Oshtha Sandhan age of rocks and minerals based on the decay of
(lobuloplasty) and Karna Sandhan (otoplasty) radioactive potassium-40 into argon-40.
as well. Read More: NASA’s Mars Sample Return Program

India Becomes World’s

4th Largest Economy
At the 10th NITI Aayog (National Institution for
Transforming India) Governing Council Meeting, NITI
Aayog CEO announced that India has overtaken Japan
to become the world’s 4th largest economy, with its GDP
crossing USD 4 trillion.
¾ India remains the world’s fastest-growing major
economy and is the only country projected to grow
over 6% annually for the next two years.
This sustained growth is expected to raise India’s
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) to USD 5.58
trillion by 2028, enabling it to surpass Germany
Read More: Surgery and Ayurveda and become the third-largest economy globally.

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¾ Earlier, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in its 2025 World Economic Outlook Report projected that India
would become the fourth-largest economy in 2025 with a nominal GDP of USD 4.187 trillion, overtaking Japan’s
USD 4.186 trillion.
¾ NITI Aayog: NITI Aayog was established on 1st January 2015 as the successor to the Planning Commission of India.
It was created to serve as the premier policy think tank of the Government of India, focusing on inclusive and
sustainable development through cooperative federalism and a bottom-up approach.

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The Prime Minister of India serves as the

Chairperson, while the Vice-Chairperson is Bird-Wing Solar Event
appointed by the Prime Minister.
NASA has observed a massive solar eruption, named
The Governing Council comprises the Chief Ministers
as the “Bird-Wing” event due to its bird wing-like plasma
of all States and the Lieutenant Governors of Union
structure. Though it raised concerns of a severe
Territories, ensuring representation from across
geomagnetic storm, Earth escaped a direct hit,
the country.
experiencing only minimal impact.
Read more: 2025 World Economic Outlook Report

Bharat Forecast System

The India Meteorological Department (IMD) is set
to adopt the indigenously developed Bharat Forecast
System (BFS), India’s first high-resolution weather model
capable of forecasting at a 6 km x 6 km spatial resolution.
¾ Bharat Forecast System (BFS) has been developed by
the Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (IITM),
Pune, and will be operationalised by IMD.
¾ BFS significantly improves upon IMD’s existing
Bird-Wing Solar Event
resolution of 12 km x 12 km, allowing for more
accurate detection of localised extreme weather ¾ Origin: The eruption originated from the Sun’s northern
events, such as cloudbursts and flash floods. hemisphere, with its plasma (eruption) structure
The current limitation of a 144 sq km unit of extending over one million kilometres, i.e. more
analysis will be reduced to 36 sq km, enabling than twice the Earth-Moon distance.
better micro-level weather predictions. ¾ Components Involved:
¾ The BFS model is expected to enhance forecasting The event involved both a Solar Flare and a Coronal
precision for cyclones, heavy rainfall, and monsoon Mass Ejection (CME).
variability, especially at the district and sub-district
z Solar Flares are sudden, intense bursts of
levels.
electromagnetic radiation from the Sun’s surface
¾ The BFS has been tested in experimental mode
caused by the snapping and realignment of
since 2022 and is now being scaled for nationwide
magnetic field lines.
operational use with high-performance computing
support. They are classified from A to X based on
¾ Currently, IMD uses the Coupled Forecasting System X-ray brightness.
(CFS), developed under the Monsoon Mission and They often occur alongside CMEs and travel
adapted from a US-based model for Indian monsoon at the speed of light and can reach Earth in
forecasting. about 8 minutes.
It also operates the Global Forecasting System z Coronal Mass Ejection (CME) is an explosive
(GFS), a coupled ocean-atmosphere model, for ejection of charged solar plasma into space,
forecasts ranging from hours to seasonal scales. travelling at speeds of 250 to 3000 km/s (slower
Read more: India Developing Early Warning Systems than solar flares) and taking 1–3 days to reach
in Partner Nations Earth.

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¾ Impact on Earth:
Solar flares can cause geomagnetic storms that disrupt Earth’s magnetic field, leading to radio blackouts,
power grid failures, and visible auroras at lower latitudes.
High-energy particles may damage satellites, GPS, and communication systems.

Official Secrets Act 1923

A travel blogger from Haryana was arrested for alleged espionage and promoting pro-Pakistan content under
Sections 3 and 5 of the Official Secrets Act, 1923 & Section 152 of the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS).
Official Secrets Act (OSA), 1923
¾ About: It originated during the colonial-era Indian Official Secrets Act, 1889, aimed at suppressing press dissent
and made more stringent in 1904 under Lord Curzon and finally revised in 1923.
¾ Purpose: To prevent espionage and unauthorized disclosure of classified sensitive information, protecting India’s
sovereignty, integrity, and strategic interests, especially from foreign threats.
¾ Applicability: Applicable to all Indian citizens, including government officials, both in India and abroad, and to
non-citizens if they are involved in acts of espionage.
¾ Sections of OSA, 1923:
Section 3 of the Act criminalises espionage and acts against national security, including the possession of
sensitive documents or the sharing of secret codes, with a punishment of imprisonment for up to 14 years.
Section 5 penalises unauthorised disclosure, possession, retention, or failure to return official documents,
including those who knowingly receive such information.
Section 10 deals with penalty for harboring spies

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Section 152 of the BNS Space Exploration: Used as fuel for ion propulsion

¾ Section 152 of BNS (deals with sedition) criminalizes systems in satellites and deep-space missions.
intentional acts—by words, signs, electronic means, or ¾ Toxicity: Xenon compounds are strong oxidizing
finance—that incite secession, rebellion, or threaten agents that are highly toxic and explosive.
India’s sovereignty and integrity, while exempting Read More: 150 years of the Periodic Table
legitimate and lawful criticism of the government.
Read More: Arrest Under Official Secrets Act, Sedition Weather Balloons
Charges.
The US has reduced its weather balloon launches
following budget cuts by the administration, causing
Xenon Gas concerns globally among meteorologists about the impact
on weather forecasting accuracy.
Four British climbers are the first to reach Mount
Everest’s summit using Xenon gas by speeding up their Weather Balloons:
acclimatisation. ¾ About: Léon Teisserenc de Bort, a French meteorologist,
¾ About Xenon Gas: Xenon (stranger gas) is a rare, pioneered weather balloon use in 1896 and discovered
colourless, odourless, chemically stable, and the tropopause and stratosphere.
non-reactive gas found in trace amounts in Earth’s Weather balloons are large latex balloons filled
atmosphere. It is available in solid, liquid, and with helium or hydrogen, used by meteorologists
gaseous states. to study the upper atmosphere (above 5,000 feet).
Commercially, xenon is obtained as a by-product of Modern weather balloons can rise up to 1,15,000
the air separation process, where air is fractionally feet (35 km) in about 2 hours.
distilled into oxygen and nitrogen. ¾ Key Components: They carry a radiosonde, a small
Xenon is a noble gas (inert gas) and therefore they battery-powered radio-transmitter suspended about
do not react with any other elements. However, 66 feet below, which collects and transmits real-time
xenon can form compounds with fluorine and data on temperature, pressure, humidity, and wind
oxygen. to ground stations via radio signals.
¾ Applications of Xenon: High-tech radiosondes are lighter, more energy-
efficient, and use Global Positioning System (GPS)
Mountaineering: It has neuroprotective properties
for accurate tracking and wind measurement,
that enhances oxygen delivery, supports
though they are still launched using weather
acclimatisation, and guards against altitude
balloons.
sickness and hypoxia-related damage.
¾ Significance: Helps fill the gap between surface
Medical: It acts as a natural anesthetic and,
observations and satellite data, offering detailed
when inhaled with oxygen, stimulates hormone vertical profiles of the atmosphere essential for
production that increases red blood cell count. accurate weather prediction.
It is also used to measure blood flow and image
¾ India’s Scenario: The National Balloon Facility
the brain, heart, and lungs. (NBF), Hyderabad, was established in the 1960s as
Lighting: Used in high-intensity lighting such as a collaborative initiative between the Tata Institute
flash lamps, strobe lights, and car headlights of Fundamental Research (TIFR) and the ISRO to
because it emits bright white light. enable high-altitude scientific balloon launches for
Industry: Xenon is used in nuclear energy plants, atmospheric and space research.
as filling gas in tubes for televisions and radios, The India Meteorological Department (IMD) and
and for etching silicon microprocessors using over 900 global weather stations launch balloons
xenon difluoride. twice daily to maintain forecasting accuracy.

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KVIC’s Honey Mission

The Khadi and Village Industries Commission (KVIC) celebrated World Bee Day 2025 with the theme “Bee inspired
by nature to nourish us all,” highlighting the transformative impact of the Honey Mission.
¾ World Bee Day: Observed on 20th May, World Bee Day was established by the UN in 2018, to raise awareness of
the critical role of bees and pollinators in maintaining ecosystem and human health.
¾ Honey Mission: The Honey Mission, launched by KVIC in 2017-18 under the Ministry of Micro,Small & Medium
Enterprises, promotes beekeeping to generate self-employment in rural and remote areas.
Beneficiaries receive bee boxes, colonies, toolkits, and training. As of 2025 KVIC has distributed over 2.29 lakh
bee boxes, leading to the production of 20,000 metric tonnes of honey and generating Rs 325 crore income for
beekeepers. In FY 2024-25, honey exports under KVIC touched Rs 25 crore.

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¾ Other Initiatives to Boost Beekeeping: The Scheme of Fund for Regeneration of Traditional Industries (SFURTI)
and the National Beekeeping & Honey Mission (NBHM) support traditional beekeepers by forming clusters and
providing training and modern machinery for sustainable employment.
NBHM aims to achieve the goal of ‘Sweet Revolution’ as part of Atmanirbhar Bharat Abhiyaan.

Sagar Mein Samman Initiative

The Government of India launched the Sagar Mein Samman (SMS) initiative during the International Day for
Women in Maritime, to train more women as seafarers, and to power India’s goal of a Global Maritime Powerhouse.
¾ The International Day for Women in Maritime, observed annually on 18th May by the International Maritime
Organisation’s (IMO), promotes gender balance and inclusive growth in the maritime sector.
¾ Theme 2025: “An Ocean of Opportunities for Women.”

Sagar Mein Samman:

¾ About: It aims to build a gender-equitable maritime workforce by promoting women’s inclusion, safety, skill
development, leadership, and equal opportunities across maritime operations.
It is aligned with the IMO mission for gender inclusion and broader vision of the UN SDG-5 (gender equality).
It is also aligned with India’s Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion (DEI) agenda and Maritime India Vision 2030,, it
covers planning, training, research, governance, and outreach.

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¾ Impact & Targets: India witnessed a 649% rise in FIR), protecting the judiciary from executive
women seafarers, from 341 in 2014 to 2,557 in 2024, interference with built-in immunity.
and nearly 3,000 women received financial assistance. ¾ Immunity Under the Constitution: Unlike the President
The initiative sets a target of 12% female and Governors (Article 361), there is no immunity
representation in technical maritime roles by 2030. for judges under the Constitution.

India’s Key Initiatives in The Vice President argues that sanction for
India’s Maritime Sector: prosecution must come from the authority that
appoints the public servant i.e., the President of
¾ Security and Growth for All in the Region (SAGAR)
India, vested with executive power under Article 53.
¾ Maritime AmritKaal Vision 2047
Read More: Judicial Transfers and In-House Inquiry
Read More: Developments in India’s Maritime Sector

Golden Dome Missile

Judicial Accountability
Defence Project
and the K Veeraswami
The US President announced the creation of a ‘Golden
Judgment, 1991
Dome’ missile defence programme to counter advanced
The Vice President challenged the constitutional aerial threats, including missiles launched from space.
basis of in-house inquiries and called for a review of the ¾ About: It is a missile defense project with space-
K Veeraswami judgment, 1991 following the seizure of based sensors and interceptors, designed to create a
cash at Justice Varma’s residence, as the SC rejected FIR multilayered shield, neutralize hypersonic, ballistic,
petitions against Justice Varma and allowed the in-house cruise missiles, and drones from anywhere in the
inquiry to continue. world—including space.
¾ In-House Inquiry: An in-house inquiry is conducted Thousands of satellites will orbit Earth to intercept
by a panel of judges appointed by the Chief Justice missiles shortly after launch—a concept first
of India (CJI) to determine if there is a prima facie explored by Nazi Germany during World War II,
case against a judge. and by the Soviet Union and the US during the
The CJI’s powers over errant judges are limited Cold War.
to transferring or withdrawing work assigned It draws inspiration from Israel’s Iron Dome and
to them and recommend impeachment for the Ronald Reagan’s Strategic Defense Initiative (Star
concerned judge. Wars project), aiming to deploy a multi-layered
Under the Constitution, impeachment under Article missile shield.
124 is the only constitutional removal process but ¾ Comparison with Iron Dome: The Golden Dome
has never succeeded in 75 years. is an ambitious next-generation defense system
In 2019, then CJI Ranjan Gogoi permitted the CBI covering land, sea, and space, while the Iron Dome
to register an FIR against Justice S N Shukla while is a short-range, ground-based system that relies
CJI Dipak Misra had recommended impeachment, only on radar, not satellites.
which the government ignored. ¾ Similar Initiatives: Few countries like the US, China,
¾ K Veeraswami Judgment, 1991: It classified judges as France, Japan, Russia, the United Kingdom have a
public servants under the Prevention of Corruption Act Space Force (military branch responsible for conducting
but requires CJI approval for prosecution (registering operations in outer space).

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Karmayogi Bharat, a 100% government-owned not-for-profit Special Purpose Vehicle, incorporated under the
Companies Act, 2013.
¾ Mission Karmayogi: It is aimed at creating a professional, well-trained, and future-ready civil service aligned with
India’s developmental priorities and national programs.
The mission promotes a shift from rule-based to role-based training, and embraces a competency-driven
approach that focuses on the right blend of Attitude, Skills, and Knowledge (ASK).
It follows the 70-20-10 model (70% learning through experience, 20% via peers, and 10% from formal training).
It also links learning with career goals and ensures objective performance evaluation.

Heart Lamp wins 2025 International Booker Prize

“Heart Lamp,” a short story collection by Banu Mushtaq, translated into English by Deepa Bhasthi, became the
first Kannada work to win the 2025 International Booker Prize, marking a historic moment for Indian regional literature.
¾ Heart Lamp features stories portraying women’s struggles under patriarchy, echoing the Bandaya Sahitya
movement and highlighting universal themes of gender discrimination.
The 1970s Bandaya movement ignited literary and social activism around women’s rights, and Dalit issues,
influencing politics and literature across Karnataka and India.

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¾ International Booker Prize: Formerly known as the Man Booker International Prize, it is a prestigious annual award
for translated fiction, honoring the best long-form works or short story collections published in the UK or Ireland.
It is awarded by the Booker Prize Foundation, UK.
The prize awards Great Britain Pound (GBP) 50,000, equally shared between the author and the translator.
Additionally, each shortlisted author and translator receives GBP 2,500.
¾ Indian International Booker Prize Laureates:

Guttala Drought Inscription

A rare Kannada inscription discovered in Haveri, Karnataka, marks the first known historical record in India to
document a mass humanitarian disaster (6,307 deaths) due to bara” (drought), dating back to 18th August 1539 CE.
¾ The bodies were buried after paying respects to God Basaveshwara. It is India’s earliest known inscription explicitly
recording the human toll of a natural disaster.
Inscriptions are texts carved on durable materials like stone or metal, serving as historical records to commemorate
events, royal decrees, donations, or victories.
¾ Notable Inscriptions in Karnataka:
Maski Rock Edict (3rd Century BCE): One of Ashoka’s minor edicts, it first uses the title “Devanampriya”
(Beloved of the Gods) for Ashoka.
Aihole Inscription (634 CE): Composed by Ravikirti in Sanskrit, it records Pulakeshin II victories, including over
Harshavardhana.
Halmidi Inscription (450 CE): It is the oldest known Kannada inscription, and written in early Kannada script
and poetic form.
z It mentions Kadamba king Kakusthavarma and has 16 lines carved on a sandstone slab.

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Metrology and India’s Initiatives

The Department of Consumer Affairs, Government of India, celebrated World Metrology Day 2025.
¾ World Metrology Day 2025: The day commemorates the 150th anniversary of the Metre Convention signed in
Paris on 20th May 1875, which established the metric system to standardize units globally.
The celebration was first initiated in 1999 by the International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM).

The theme for 2025 is “Measurements for all times, for all people,” highlighting measurement’s continuous
impact across history, present, and future.

¾ Metrology: It is the scientific study of measurement, establishes common standards for units and instruments. It
plays a vital role in various fields such as navigation, construction, product development, environmental monitoring,
medicine, and food processing.
Metrology aligns with UNESCO’s vision of advancing science for a better world.

¾ India’s Initiatives in Metrology: India joined the Metre Convention in 1957 following the enactment of the
Standards of Weights and Measures Act, 1956.

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India became the 13th country globally to issue OIML (International Organization of Legal Metrology) certificates,
boosting global trust in its measurement systems.
The eMaap portal, digitizes legal metrology processes across 18 states for easier licensing, registration, and
enforcement.
The launch of the “One Nation, One Time” initiative under Draft IST Rules 2025 aims to provide millisecond-
accurate Indian Standard Time through Regional Reference Standard Laboratories, benefiting critical sectors
like telecom and banking.
Read more: India Authorised to Issue OIML Certificates

Shirui Lily Festival

After a two-year hiatus due to ethnic conflict, Manipur’s Shirui Lily Festival returns in 2025, symbolizing both a
cultural revival and a cautious attempt at restoring inter-community movement and peace in the state.
¾ Shirui Lily: The Shirui Lily (Lilium mackliniae), Manipur’s State Flower, is a rare pinkish-white bloom found only
in the Shirui Hills of Ukhrul district.
It was discovered in 1946 by Dr. Frank Kingdon Ward, and was named after his wife, Jean Macklin. The flower
received the Royal Horticultural Society’s merit award in 1948.
It blooms from April to June, grows about a foot tall, and has a bell-shaped flower.
The Shirui Lily is endangered, with climate change, habitat loss, and invasive species like wild dwarf bamboo
contributing to its decline.
¾ Shirui Lily Festival: First held in 2017, the festival is one of Manipur’s two major tourism events (the other being
the Sangai Festival).
The Shirui Lily Festival celebrates ecotourism, Tangkhul Naga culture, and conservation. It features music
concerts, cultural performances, and other community events.

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e-Zero FIR is the electronic version of Zero FIR

Indian Yak Genomics and is enabled under Section 173(1) and 1(ii) of
the BNSS.
For the first time, Indian scientists have successfully
assembled a chromosome-level genome of the Indian ¾ Key Features of e-Zero FIR:
yak (Bos grunniens), an essential high-altitude bovine Automatic FIR Registration: Cyber financial fraud

species. complaints above Rs 10 lakh, filed via National

¾ Indian Yak Genomics: The project used long-read Cybercrime Reporting Portal (NCRP) or Helpline
sequencing technology and advanced bioinformatics, 1930, will be automatically converted into Zero FIRs.
enabling precise mapping of genes to specific z Complainants must visit the concerned police
chromosomes. station within 3 days to get the Zero FIR
Long-read sequencing is a DNA sequencing method converted into a regular FIR.
that reads long stretches of DNA, thousands to Systems Integration: Combines I4C’s NCRP system,
millions of base pairs, unlike short-read sequencing, Delhi Police’s e-FIR system, and NCRB’s Crime and
which reads shorter fragments (typically 100–300 Criminal Tracking Network & Systems (CCTNS) into
base pairs). a unified cybercrime reporting and investigation
Bioinformatics combines biology, computer framework.
science, and math to analyze and interpret large ¾ FIR (First Information Report): An FIR is the first
biological datasets, such as DNA, RNA, and protein formal report of a cognizable offence (police can
sequences. arrest without a warrant and begin investigation
Moreover, this genomics study will help in allele without magistrate approval) filed by an individual
mining, enhancing scientific research and local and recorded by the police.
livestock management.
It initiates the criminal justice process.
z Allele mining identifies genetic variations linked
They are regulated under Section 173 of the
to desirable traits like disease resistance, drought
BNSS, 2023.
tolerance, or high yield within or across species.
¾ Indian Yak: In India, yaks are found above 7,000 feet Read More: FIR and General Diary, Cyber Commandos
in Ladakh, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, and Himachal
Pradesh.
Operation Olivia
¾ Food Animal: In 2022, Food Safety and Standard
Authority of India (FSSAI) approved the Himalayan Yak Indian Coast Guard (ICG)’s annual operation,
as a ‘food animal’, allowing its use in food production ‘Operation Olivia’ has achieved major success by
or consumption to help arrest its declining population. protecting over 6.98 lakh Olive Ridley turtles nesting at
Read More: Himalayan Yak the Rushikulya river mouth in Odisha.
Operation Olivia:
¾ It was launched in the early 1980s to protect Olive
e-Zero FIR Ridley turtles during their breeding and nesting
The Union Home Minister has launched the e-Zero season along the Odisha coast.
FIR initiative as a pilot project in Delhi under the Indian ¾ It aims to ensure safe nesting grounds for these
Cyber Crime Coordination Centre (I4C) to improve the turtles, by preventing unlawful trawling, particularly at
efficiency of investigating cyber financial frauds, Gahirmatha Beach and nearby coastal area of Odisha.
supporting the vision of a Cyber Secure Bharat.
Olive Ridley Turtles (Lepidochelys olivacea):
¾ Zero FIR: An Zero FIR can be filed at any police
station, regardless of the jurisdiction, for a cognisable ¾ About: It is the smallest sea turtle species in the family
offence and is transferred to the proper jurisdiction Cheloniidae, identified by its olive or grayish-green
for investigation. color and heart-shaped carapace.

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¾ Nesting:They are omnivorous and known for the mass nesting event called arribada, where thousands of females
nest together, migrating up to 9,000 km over Pacific, Indian, and Atlantic Oceans.
Major nesting sites include Gahirmatha, Rushikulya and Devi River mouth in Odisha and the Andaman Islands.

¾ Threats: It includes bycatch, poaching, habitat loss, plastic pollution, and climate change effects.
¾ Protection Status: Protected under the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 (Schedule 1), IUCN Red List (Vulnerable),
and CITES (Appendix I).

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z In contrast, migrant work like chilli harvesting pays around Rs 1,000/day, making it a more attractive option.
Suggi reflects a rural economy trapped in cycles of drought, underdevelopment, and migration.
¾ Solutions: Irrigation infrastructure is seen as the key to breaking this cycle of seasonal distress. Experts suggest
building a weir (low-head dam) to divert 50 thousand million cubic feet of Krishna water to Rayalaseema
¾ Rayalaseema: It is a semi-arid zone in southern Andhra Pradesh comprising Anantapur, Chittoor, Kadapa, and
Kurnool districts. Rivers like Penna and its tributary, the Papagni flow through the region.

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¾ Suez Canal: The Suez Canal is an artificial sea-level waterway running north–south across Egypt’s Isthmus of Suez.
It is a vital international shipping route, connecting the Mediterranean Sea to the Indian Ocean via the city of
Suez on the Red Sea.
Geographically, the canal lies in northeastern Egypt, spanning the Isthmus of Suez.

It stretches from Port Said in the north to Gulf of Suez in the south, effectively separating the African continent
from the Sinai Peninsula, and forms the shortest maritime route between Europe and the Indian and Pacific
Oceans.
¾ Significance: The canal accounts for approximately 12-15% of global trade and nearly 30% of global container
traffic before the crisis. It serves as a key passage for 8-9% of global energy flows.
¾ India and Suez Canal: India relies heavily on the Red Sea route, with nearly 80% of export volumes to Europe
transiting the canal.

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Tsarap Chu Conservation Reserve

Himachal Pradesh (HP) has notified the Tsarap Chu Conservation Reserve under section 36A(1) of Wildlife
(Protection) Act, 1972, to protect high-altitude biodiversity and strengthen snow leopard habitats.

Tsarap Chu Conservation Reserve:

¾ About: It is India’s largest conservation reserve (1585 sq km area), located in Spiti Valley, and the state’s fifth,
joining Darlaghat, Naina Devi, Potter Hill, and Shilli reserves.
It is bounded by the UT of Ladakh (north), Kibber Wildlife Sanctuary and Malang Nala (east), Kabjima Nala
(south), and Chandratal Wildlife Sanctuary (west).
¾ Significance:The area is ecologically significant as it lies in the catchment of the Charap Nala and serves as a vital
wildlife corridor between Kibber Wildlife Sanctuary & Chandratal Wildlife Sanctuary (Himachal Pradesh).
¾ Flora & Fauna:
It hosts a high density of Snow Leopard (“Ghost of the Mountains”), and other key fauna include Tibetan wolf,
bharal (blue sheep), Himalayan ibex, kiang (wild ass) and Tibetan argali.
z Rare birds like Rose Finch, Tibetan Raven, and Yellow-billed Chough are also found.

Conservation Reserve:
¾ Conservation Reserves are Protected Areas (PAs) established on government land that function as corridors or
buffer zones connecting national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, or other protected regions.
¾ Notified under Section 36A of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, these reserves are managed collaboratively
with local communities, Panchayats, and conservation partners.

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Yala Glacier Declared Dead

The International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) held a ceremony to commemorate the
rapid retreat of Nepal’s Yala Glacier in Langtang Valley, which is threatened to vanish by 2040 due to climate change.
¾ This tribute is part of Nepal’s role in the UN International Year for Glaciers Preservation 2025 and part of the
inaugural Sagarmatha Sambad (mountain dialogue) summit 2025 by Nepal.
¾ Yala Glacier: Yala Glacier, situated in Langtang Valley, Nepal, within the Hindu Kush Himalayan (HKH) region, is
the first glacier in Nepal to be declared “dead” as it has shrunk by 66% since the 1970s.
Glaciers are declared “dead” when they no longer show movement or flow under their own weight.

It is the first glacier in Asia to bear a climate memorial plaque, with messages in English, Nepali, and Tibetan languages.

¾ Glaciers: A glacier is a large, long-lasting mass of ice and debris that forms on land and slowly moves downhill
due to gravity.
Glaciers are distributed mainly in Antarctica (91%) and Greenland (8%), with less than 1% in North America,
Asia, Europe, Africa, New Zealand, and Indonesia; Australia has none.
Between 2000 and 2023, glaciers lost 6,542 billion tons of ice, causing an 18 mm rise in global sea levels,
exposing an additional 2–3 lakh people to flooding per millimeter rise.
Glacier melt is the second-largest contributor to sea-level rise after ocean warming.

World Food Prize 2025

Brazilian microbiologist Mariangela Hungria has been awarded the World Food Prize 2025 for her pioneering work
in Biological Nitrogen Fixation (BNF) and development of microbial technologies that reduce chemical fertiliser use.
¾ Mariangela pioneered rhizobia-based nitrogen fixation in legumes, this innovation reduced chemical fertilizer
use, saving Brazilian farmers USD 40 billion annually, and boosted soybean production from 15 million tonnes in
1979 to an estimated 173 million tonnes by 2025.

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¾ Her work drove Brazil’s “Micro Green Revolution” They are deployed by the UN Security Council to
through sustainable, low-cost microbial technologies. support ceasefires and peace agreements and
are called Blue Helmets due to the light blue color
Biological Nitrogen Fixation (BNF): symbolizing peace on the UN flag.
¾ Biological nitrogen fixation is a natural process where Currently, over 61,000 military and police
certain microorganisms convert atmospheric nitrogen peacekeepers from 119 countries and more
(N₂) into ammonia (NH₃), a form usable by plants. than 7,000 civilian personnel serve in 11 UN
This improves soil fertility and lessens the need Peacekeeping Missions.
for chemical fertilizers.
Read More: India’s Commitment to UN Peacekeeping
Key nitrogen-fixing bacteria include Rhizobium,
Anabaena, Nostoc, Azotobacter, and Clostridium
pasteurianum. SC Strikes Down Ex-Post Facto
World Food Prize: Environmental Clearances
¾ It was founded in 1986 by Nobel Laureate Norman The Supreme Court (SC) of India has declared ex-post
Borlaug, is a top global award recognizing contributions facto environmental clearances (ECs) (granted after a
in improving food quantity, quality and accessibility project has already commenced) as illegal, and has
and agriculture. invalidated the 2017 Environment Ministry notification
¾ It awards USD 500,000 annually to innovators in and the 2021 Office Memorandum (OM) that permitted
agriculture, nutrition, food technology, and hunger retrospective clearances for projects.
alleviation. ¾ SC noted that the concept of post-clearance approval
¾ The first recipient was India’s M.S. Swaminathan is in derogation of Article 21 (Right to life in a
(1987), father of Indian green revolution. pollution-free environment) and Article 14 (right
to equality before law), as the OM applied to all
Read More: World Food Day 2024
project proponents who “were fully aware” of the
consequences of violations.
India’s Commitment to However, the judgment allowed ECs already granted
under the 2017 and 2021 regime to remain valid,
UN Peacekeeping avoiding retroactive disruption.
At the United Nations Peacekeeping (UNPK) ¾ The SC criticized the post-facto clearance regime,
Ministerial 2025 meeting in Berlin, 74 member states citing past judgments (Common Cause v. Union of
pledged to enhance the effectiveness and adaptability India (2017) and Alembic Pharmaceuticals v. Rohit
of peace operations amid evolving global challenges. Prajapati (2020)) to reaffirm that ex-post facto
¾ India pledged a Quick Reaction Force (QRF), One
approvals violate environmental law.
It held that the 2021 OM effectively legalized
male armed police (Central Reserve Police Force
(CRPF) or mixed armed police (CRPF), Women-led starting projects without prior clearance, defying
Police Unit, among others. earlier rulings and fundamental principles of
environmental jurisprudence.
¾ As per UNPK data, India is currently the 4th largest
The SC noted that prior clearance is mandatory
troop-contributing nation with 5,375 personnel after
under the Environment Impact Assessment
Nepal, Rwanda and Bangladesh.
Notification, 2006, to scrutinize a project’s impact
Nearly 180 Indian peacekeepers have died in
on the environment, natural resources, human
action—the highest of any troop contributor. India health, and social infrastructure.
deployed the first all-female unit to Liberia in 2007.
¾ The Court emphasized that development cannot
¾ About UNPK: The first UNPK mission, United Nations come at the cost of environmental degradation
Truce Supervision Organization (UNTSO), was and reaffirmed the constitutional duty under Article
established in May 1948 to monitor the Armistice 51A(g) to protect nature.
Agreement between Israel and its Arab neighbors
with a small team of military observers. Read more: Post-Facto Environmental Clearances

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Kandha Tribe
Facial tattooing among Kandha tribal women in Odisha’s Kandhamal district is a fading tradition, reflecting both
past trauma and present-day empowerment.
¾ Facial tattoos among Kandha women, applied from age 10 in geometric patterns, served as a form of protection
against sexual exploitation (not decorative) by landlords, royals, and British colonizers.

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¾ About Kandha Tribe: It is numerically highest among Lo Bir Baisi, the traditional Santal tribal council,
z

all the 62 tribes of Odisha, making up 17.13% of the convenes at the base of the hill to resolve inter-
state’s tribal population according to the 2001 Census. village disputes.
z The Santal Hul of 1855, led by Sidhu and Kanhu
They speak Kui or Kuvi (Dravidian languages) and
Murmu, was a major tribal uprising launched
call themselves ‘Kui loku’, ‘Kui enju’, or ‘Kuinga’
from Marang Buru.
from the Dravidian Kui and Kuvi languages.
¾ Parasnath Hill Dispute: A major flashpoint is the
Nuclear families are common and joint families Sendra festival, a traditional ritual hunt held by the
are rarely found. Santals on the hill.
Their population is concentrated mainly in south This practice, a rite of passage for Santal men,

and central Odisha, especially in Kandhamal, starkly contrasts with Jain values of non-violence
Rayagada, Koraput, and Kalahandi districts. and vegetarianism, leading to a legal battle between
the Santals and the Jains.
Among Kandha communities, Kutia Kandha and
¾ Santals: The Santal tribe, one of India’s largest
Dongria Kandha are recognized as Particularly
indigenous communities, primarily resides in Jharkhand,
Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs). West Bengal, Bihar, Odisha, and Assam.
z PVTG is a more vulnerable sub-group of They speak Santali, a constitutionally recognized
Scheduled Tribes. India has 75 PVTGs, with language (Eighth Schedule) with its own script
Odisha having the most (13), followed by Olchiki, created by Pandit Raghunath Murmu.
Andhra Pradesh (12). Dance (enej) and music (sereng) remain core

Dongria Kandha are recognized for opposing mining to their cultural expression during festivals and
in the Niyamgiri hills, while Kutia Kandha reside social gatherings.
in distinct homes with floors situated about 2 ft Read more:Santhal Hul of 1855
below the village road level.
Read More: Dongria Kondh Tribe Shingles Diseases
Recent studies show the shingles vaccine, primarily
Dispute over Parasnath Hill designed to prevent viral reactivation, may reduce risks
of cardiovascular diseases by 23% and lower dementia
The Jharkhand High Court directed the state risk.
government to enforce a pre-existing ban on the sale ¾ About Shingles Diseases: It is caused by the varicella-
and consumption of meat, alcohol, and intoxicants on zoster virus, which also causes chickenpox.
Parasnath Hill, a site sacred to both Jains and the Santal After childhood chickenpox, the virus stays dormant
Adivasi community. in nerve cells and can reactivate as shingles when
¾ Significance of Parasnath Hill: It is known as Parasnath immunity weakens.
to Jains and Marang Buru (literally “the Great ¾ Symptoms: Shingles causes painful rashes and
blisters, usually on one side of the torso. If close to
Mountain”) to Santals.
the eye, it can cause vision loss, facial paralysis, or
For Jains: It is the site where 20 of 24 tirthankaras, brain inflammation.
including Parshvanatha, attained nirvana, many ¾ Transmission: People without prior chickenpox can
Jain temples and dhams are situated on the hill. contract the virus by touching fluid from shingles
For Santals: Marang Buru is the supreme animist blisters or inhaling airborne virus particles.
deity and seat of justice. The Jug Jaher Than (sacred ¾ Vaccine: It is recommended for individuals aged
grove) on the hill is the most sacred dhorom garh 50 years and above, and for adults with weakened
(religious site) of the Santals. immune systems (e.g., HIV patients).

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There are treatments for shingles symptoms, but Recipients of the Jnanpith Award receive a cash
there is no cure. prize of Rs 11 lakh, a statue of Vagdevi/Saraswati,
¾ Dementia: It is a condition that slowly worsens thinking and a citation, celebrating their literary excellence.
abilities beyond normal aging. It affects memory, Note: Vinod Kumar Shukla has been named the recipient
thinking, understanding, learning, language, and of the 59th Jnanpith Award (2024), becoming the first
judgment, but does not affect consciousness. writer from Chhattisgarh to receive the honor.

58th Jnanpith Award Nicaragua Withdrawal

The President conferred the 58th Jnanpith Award for from UNESCO
the year 2023 upon Sanskrit scholar Jagadguru Nicaragua has announced its withdrawal from the
Rambhadracharya and renowned poet-lyricist Gulzar. UNESCO in protest over the awarding of the UNESCO/
¾ Jagadguru Rambhadracharya: He is a revered Sanskrit Guillermo Cano World Press Freedom Prize to Nicaraguan
scholar and Hindu spiritual leader, has held the title newspaper La Prensa despite its opposition from the
of Jagadguru Ramanandacharya since 1982. He is the Nicaraguan government.
founder and head of Tulsi Peeth in Chitrakoot (MP), ¾ UNESCO/Guillermo Cano World Press Freedom
a prominent religious and literary institution. Prize: It was established in 1997 and is the UN’s only
A prolific author of over 240 works, he has journalism award, presented every year on 3rd May,
penned four Sanskrit epics (Bhargava Raghavam, World Press Freedom Day.
Sri Ramayaṇam, Dasavatara T īrtham, and Named after Colombian journalist Guillermo
Ramanandacharya Tīrtham). He was honoured Cano, it honors individuals or organizations for
with the Padma Vibhushan in 2015. their contributions to press freedom.
Past recipients include Myanmar journalists Kyaw
¾ Gulzar: Sampooran Singh Kalra (Gulzar) is a celebrated
Soe Oo and Wa Lone (2019) and Belarus’ top
Urdu poet, lyricist, author, and filmmaker.
independent journalists’ group (2022).
He pioneered the Triveni poetic form and made
¾ UNESCO: UNESCO is a United Nations (UN) agency,
lasting contributions to Hindi cinema with films
founded in 1945 and headquartered in Paris.
like Maachis, Aandhi, and Koshish.
It aims to foster peace and equality by promoting
He is recipient of the Padma Bhushan (2004), education, science, culture, and communication
Sahitya Akademi Award (2002), Dadasaheb Phalke through global cooperation and standard-setting.
Award (2013), an Oscar (2009), a Grammy (2010),
¾ Nicaragua:
and five National Film Awards.
Location: Largest country in Central America,
¾ Jnanpith Award: The Jnanpith Award, established bordered by Honduras (north), Costa Rica (south),
in 1961 and first presented in 1965, is India’s oldest Pacific Ocean (west), Caribbean Sea (east).
and highest literary honour. History: Colonized by both Spain and Britain, gained
Conferred annually by Bharatiya Jnanpith, the independence in 1821, became fully independent
award recognises outstanding contributions to in 1838 after briefly joining the Central American
Indian literature across both English and various Federation.
Indian languages, exclusively to Indian citizens and Population: Predominantly mestizo ethnic group
not posthumously. (mixed Indigenous and European ancestry).

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Read More: UNESCO’s List of Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH), Hurricane Eta

Mhadei River Water Dispute

A recent study recommending the diversion of water from Mhadei’s tributaries to the Malaprabha River in
Karnataka, without major impacts on Goa has sparked protests in Goa, reigniting the decades-long inter-state water
dispute with Karnataka over water sharing.

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¾ The Mahadayi Water Disputes Tribunal’s (MWDT) allotted Karnataka 13.42 thousand million cubic feet (tmcft)
to Karnataka.
¾ About Mhadei River: It originates in the Western Ghats (Bhimgad Wildlife Sanctuary, Karnataka), flows through
Goa (basin cover 78%), Karnataka (18%), and Maharashtra (4%) emptying into the Arabian Sea.
Tributaries: Kalasa, Banduri, Mapusa, Ragada, Nanuz, Valvoti, Nerul, St. Inez Creek, Dudhsagar, Kotrachi Nadi,
and Rio de Ourém.
z It is connected to the Zuari River through the Cumbarjua Canal.

Features: It is known for Dudhsagar Falls (Mollem National Park and Bhagwan Mahaveer Sanctuary) and Salim
Ali Bird Sanctuary on Chorao Island.
¾ About Malaprabha River: It is a tributary of the Krishna River and originates in Kanakumbi village in Western
Ghats in Belgaum, Karnataka.
Aihole, Pattadakal, and Badami, all UNESCO sites, are located along its banks.

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triggering algae blooms whose thick spread reduces

Nipah Virus oxygen levels, suffocating marine life.
z MHWs are extreme ocean events with sea
Health experts and physicians have raised concerns
about the deadly Nipah virus’ transmission from animals temperatures rising 3-4°C above average for
to humans in Kerala. at least five days, often lasting weeks.
¾ About Nipah Virus: The Nipah virus (NiV) is a zoonotic ¾ Algal Bloom: An algal bloom is a rapid increase in
virus that can spread from animals to humans, as well algae population in freshwater, marine, or brackish
as through contaminated food or direct human-to- waters, often visible as green, blue-green, red, or
human transmission. brown patches.
¾ Causative Agent: Nipah virus encephalitis is caused While most are harmless and support marine
by an RNA (ribonucleic acid) virus belonging to the life, harmful blooms called Harmful Algal Blooms
family Paramyxoviridae, genus Henipavirus, and is (HABs)—threaten human health and ecosystems.
closely related to the Hendra virus. It is caused due to the introduction of a nutrient
¾ Host: NiV was first identified in domestic animals (such as nitrogen or phosphorus) into an aquatic
such as pigs, dogs, cats, goats, horses, and sheep. ecosystem.
The virus is transmitted by fruit bats of the genus A red tide occurs when certain algae grow
Pteropus and is present in their urine, feces, saliva, excessively, turning the water red, as well as brown.
and birthing fluids.
¾ Symptoms: NiV causes encephalitic syndrome
Read More: Red Tide
in humans, with symptoms like fever, headache,
drowsiness, confusion, and coma, often leading to North-East India’s First
death. The fatality rate is 40% to 75%.
¾ Diagnosis: Diagnosis is done via real time polymerase Geothermal Well in Dirang
chain reaction (RT-PCR) from body fluids. No vaccines
Northeast India’s first geothermal production well
exist for humans or animals.
has been drilled in Dirang, Arunachal Pradesh, marking
¾ WHO’s Stand: The World Health Organization (WHO)
a significant advancement in harnessing renewable energy
has designated Nipah as a priority disease.
in the Himalayan region.
Read More: Nipah Virus
Dirang Geothermal Project:
¾ About: It is Northeast India’s first geothermal
Algal Bloom Devastates energy project, aiming to make Dirang the first fully
Marine Life geothermal-powered town.
The site, located between quartzite and schist near
A massive toxic algal bloom, caused by algae Karenia a major fault zone like those in the Himalayas, has
mikimotoi (bloom-forming dinoflagellate), has severely
a reservoir temperature of around 115°C, making
impacted South Australia’s coastline, leading to the death
it suitable for direct-use geothermal technologies.
of over 200 marine species.
It aims to reduce dependence on diesel and
¾ Causes of Marine Death: The algal bloom has spread
over 150 km of coastline, affecting biodiversity firewood, improve agricultural productivity and
hotspots like Kangaroo Island, Yorke Peninsula, and living standards in high-altitude areas,
Fleurieu Peninsula. z It has potential to contribute to India’s 10,600

Karenia mikimotoi produces toxins that suffocate MW geothermal potential by offering stable,
marine life by damaging gills, attacking red blood base-load renewable energy.
cells, and disrupting the nervous system, leading ¾ Technology Used: It uses a closed-loop binary organic
to abnormal behavior and mass mortality. Rankine cycle (ORC) system which uses geothermal
Additionally, marine heatwaves raised sea heat to vaporize an organic fluid in a secondary loop,
temperatures by 2.5°C and depleted oxygen, which drives a turbine to generate electricity.

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Geothermal Energy:
¾ Geothermal energy is heat from the Earth’s interior, generated by radioactive decay. It is renewable, provides
baseload power, available 24/7 as the Earth continuously produces heat.
¾ India has 381 thermally anomalous sites identified by the Geological Survey of India (GSI) with a potential to
generate 10,600 MW, enough to power 10 million households.
Key projects include a 20 kW pilot plant in Manuguru, Telangana and ONGC’s 1 MW project in Puga Valley,
Ladakh.
¾ India has established agreements with countries like Iceland (2007), Saudi Arabia (2019), and the Renewable
Energy Technology Action Platform (RETAP) with the US (2023) for geothermal energy collaboration.

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¾ Advantages: ¾ DoCA has formed a committee chaired by Nidhi Khare

Faster identity verification with secure storage that led to the creation of Right to Repair Portal India,
of biometric and personal data. offering consumers easy access to product repair and
The secure digital signature safeguards the passport
maintenance information.
against forgery and fraudulent activities such as Read More: Repairability Index for Mobile and
fake passports. Electronic Sectors
Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) in epassport forms
the security foundation by protecting sensitive
information and ensuring the authenticity and Quantum Dots and 2D Metals
integrity of personal and biometric data on the chip.
Quantum dots and 2D metals have revolutionized
z PKI helps verify the origin of the data and
nanomaterials, driving advances in electronics,
prevents unauthorized tampering or copying. diagnostics, and sustainable technologies.
Passport Seva Programme (PSP) 2.0: ¾ Quantum dots are semiconductors just a few
¾ PSP 2.0, operational from 2024, is an expansion and nanometres wide, displaying unique properties
due to quantum confinement, where electrons are
improvement of the PSP which was launched in 2010.
restricted in all dimensions.
¾ PSP 2.0 is a tech-driven digital transformation ensuring
Quantum confinement leads to altered electron
transparent, reliable, and integrated passport services. energy states, crucial for the behavior of zero-
¾ By March 2025, e-passports were issued in cities like dimensional materials like quantum dots.
Chennai, Delhi, Hyderabad, and others, with Chennai Applications of quantum dots include LEDs, medical
issued over 20,700. diagnostics, solar panels, and semiconductor
fabrication, earning the 2023 Nobel Prize in
Read More: India’s e-passports: Passport Seva
Chemistry.
Programme (PSP)
¾ Efforts to create 2D metals faced challenges as metals
naturally prefer 3D bonding, making atomically thin,
Repairability Index stable 2D metal sheets elusive.
2D metals are just 1 or 2 atoms thin sheets
The Department of Consumer Affairs (DoCA) has of metals where electrons move only in two
submitted a report on the Framework on Repairability dimensions (length & width), unlike bulk metals
Index (RI) for consumer electronics and appliances, where electrons move freely in 3 dimensions
aiming to assign scores to products based on their ease (length, width, height).
of repair, aligning with the right to repair movement. Applications of 2D metals include super-sensitive

¾ Consumer electronics will be scored based on their sensors with applications ranging from medicine
repairability, considering factors like availability of to the military.
spare parts, cost of repair, software updates, and 2D bismuth and tin are expected to be topological

repair information. insulators, conducting electricity only along their

¾ This is due to planned obsolescence and cost-cutting
edges, with edge magnetization offering potential
for faster future computers.
on materials and quality (leaner engineering choices)
¾ 2D materials, like graphene, allow electrons to move
amid rising metal prices and market competition.
in two dimensions, showing massless behavior and
Planned obsolescence focuses on creating short-
exotic properties.
term product life cycles to drive repeat sales,
whereas leaner engineering uses minimal materials Read More: Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2023
to improve efficiency, reduce waste, and deliver
high-quality products at lower cost. Revamped PLFS
¾ The right to repair empowers consumers and businesses
to fix their own devices without manufacturer The Ministry of Statistics & Programme
restrictions, ensuring access to necessary tools, parts, Implementation (MoSPI) has revamped the Periodic
and documentation. Labour Force Survey (PLFS) by extending it to rural areas.

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165 Current Affairs May Part-2, 2025 www.drishtiias.com

¾ Revamped PLFS will provide monthly estimates of Labour Force Participation Rate, Worker Population Ratio,
and Unemployment Rate for both rural and urban areas at the all-India level, using the Current Weekly Status
(CWS) framework.
These indicators, for urban areas alone, have been released quarterly.

Quarterly estimates will cover rural areas and major states for better detail and timely insights. Annual
estimates using Usual Status (ps+ss) and CWS will ensure comprehensive coverage.
Usual Status (ps+ss) and CWS are frameworks that determine a person’s activity status based on a one-year
and a seven-day reference period, respectively.

¾ PLFS (2017) is conducted by the National Statistical Office (NSO) under MoSPI to measure the employment and
unemployment situation in India.
Read More: Periodic Labour Force Survey 2024

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Chandrayaan-5 (LUPEX)
Following the successful soft landing of Chandrayaan-3 and the proposed lunar sample return by ISRO’s Chandrayaan-4
mission, India and Japan have jointly planned the upcoming Chandrayaan-5 (LUPEX) mission to study the Moon’s
surface and the subsurface for locating lunar water and ice deposits.
¾ Chandrayaan-5 also known as LUPEX (Lunar Polar Exploration) is a joint lunar mission by ISRO (India) and JAXA
(Japan’s space agency), scheduled for 2027-28 launch on Japan’s H3 rocket.
Rover will be developed by JAXA and lander by ISRO.

It will carry 7 scientific instruments, including a mass spectrometer by ESA and neutron spectrometers by NASA.

¾ Mission Objectives:
Mapping lunar water presence.

Drilling lunar regolith to analyze water content, quality, and composition.

Performing in-situ scientific observations using spectrometers and sensors.

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¾ It is a proposed 100 days (3.5 months) with possible extension to a year and an attempt to explore the Moon’s far side.
¾ Chandrayaan-4 will be a lunar return sample mission, scheduled before Chandrayaan-5.
¾ Chandrayaan-3 made India the first country to soft-land on the Moon’s south pole in 2023.

Illegal Killing of Migratory Birds

A study highlights that millions of birds across the Mediterranean littoral spanning Europe, North Africa, and
West Asia continue to be illegally killed despite commitments to halve such activities by 2030.
¾ Key Species at Risk: European Turtle Dove (Streptopelia turtur), Egyptian Vulture (Neophron percnopterus), and
European Goldfinch (Carduelis carduelis).
¾ Widespread Non-Compliance: 38 out of 46 countries assessed are not on track to meet the Convention on
Migratory Species (CMS) Rome Strategic Plan.
¾ CMS Rome Strategic Plan: It aims to eradicate illegal killing, trapping, and trade of birds (IKB) in Europe and the
Mediterranean.
It targets a 50% reduction in illegal activities by 2030 compared to 2020 levels. The Plan builds on the previous
Bern Convention.
¾ Bern Convention (1979): It is the first international treaty to protect both species and habitats, promoting
coordinated conservation across Europe and parts of Africa.
India and Bird Conservation
¾ The National Action Plan for the Conservation of Migratory Birds (2018–2023) focuses on protecting migratory
species along the Central Asian Flyway (areas between the Arctic and Indian Oceans).

¾ Under the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, rare and endangered birds are included in Schedule-I for the highest protection.
¾ India has also signed non legally binding MOU with CMS on the conservation and management of Siberian Cranes
(1998), Marine Turtles (2007), Dugongs (2008) and Raptors (2016).
Read more: Convention on Migratory Species

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Bhutan Launched First Crypto-Tourism Payment

Bhutan has become the first country to launch a national cryptocurrency tourism payment system in partnership
with Binance Pay and DK Bank, enabling fully cashless travel using cryptocurrencies.
¾ The system supports over 300 cryptocurrencies like Binance Coin (BNB), Bitcoin (BTC), and USD Coin (USDC),
facilitating seamless QR code-based real-time payments.
¾ This initiative seeks to lower transaction costs, boost tourism, and improve financial inclusion in Bhutan.

Cryptocurrency:
¾ Cryptocurrency is a decentralized digital or virtual currency secured by cryptography. Transactions are recorded
on a public ledger using blockchain technology and maintained by a global network of computers.
Eg: Bitcoin, Ethereum, and Litecoin.

¾ In India, cryptocurrency is not a legal tender, but not banned either.

Bhutan:
¾ Bhutan (capital Thimphu), also called “Land of the Thunder Dragon” is a landlocked Himalayan country between
India and China.

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¾ The Manas River, over 376 km long, is Bhutan’s longest river and a transboundary river shared with India.
¾ Bhutan is the world’s first carbon-neutral country and prioritizes Gross National Happiness (GNH) over GDP.
Read More: India-Bhutan Ties and Subnational Diplomacy, Need for Balanced Cryptocurrency Regulation

MSP for Jute

The Jute Corporation of India (JCI) has increased the minimum selling price (MSP) of jute for crop year 2025-26
to discourage distress sales (forced sales at low prices) by farmers.
¾ About Jute: Jute (golden fibre) is the 2nd most important cash crop in India after cotton in terms of cultivation
and usage.
India is the largest producer of jute in the world, with West Bengal, Assam, and Bihar being the major jute-
growing states.
Ideal conditions for jute cultivation include a temperature range of 17°C to 41°C, relative humidity between
40% and 90%, and well-distributed rainfall of over 120 cm.

¾ About JCI: JCI is a price support agency under the Ministry of Textiles that procure raw jute from farmers at MSP
without any quantity limit.
¾ About MSP: MSP is the minimum price set by the Government of India at which it promises to purchase crops
from farmers, regardless of the market price.
It was announced by the Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs (CCEA) based on recommendations of the
Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices (CACP).
Read More: Need for Reforms in the Jute Industry

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¾ Vegetation: The reserve includes evergreen, deciduous,

Anamalai Tiger Reserve and shola forests, along with Montane Grasslands,
Savannahs, and Marshy Grasslands.
The pre-monsoon (summer) estimation of tigers, co-
predators, prey, and their habitats has begun in the ¾ Fauna: It is home to key wildlife such as the Tiger,
Anamalai Tiger Reserve (ATR), Tamil Nadu. Asiatic elephant, Sambar, Spotted deer, Barking
deer, Jackal, Leopard, and Jungle cat, among others.
¾ About ATR: It was declared as a Tiger reserve in the
year 2007 and is located in the Anamalai Hills of the Read More: Pulayar Community and Anamalai Tiger
Western Ghats in Tamil Nadu. Reserve
It is also known as the Indira Gandhi Wildlife
Sanctuary and National Park, named to honour Parali Protection Force
the former Prime Minister of India Indira Gandhi.
¾ Geographical Surroundings: It is surrounded by The Commission for Air Quality Management
Parambikulum Tiger Reserve(PTR) on the East, Chinnar (CAQM) has directed Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh
Wildlife Sanctuary and Eravikulum National Park on to establish a Parali Protection Force to curb stubble
the South Western side. burning, a major cause of air pollution in Delhi-NCR.
The reserve is also surrounded by Nenmara, ¾ Key Directives by CAQM:
Vazhachal, Malayattur and Marayur reserved Formation of Parali Protection Force: A dedicated

forests of Kerala. force at district/block levels consisting of police,

agriculture officers, and officials for 24/7 to
monitor and prevent stubble burning.
Penalties for Burning: Farmers face environmental
compensation fines and “Red Entries” in farm
records for stubble burning.
Support for Farmers: Assign a nodal officer for
every 50 farmers for monitoring and assistance,
provide rent-free Crop Residue Management
(CRM) machines via Custom Hiring Centres (CHCs),
and replace outdated machines by August 2025.
Storage and Utilization: Use Govt/Panchayat
land for storing paddy straw bales and establish
a district-level supply chain for residue collection,
storage, and bioenergy use.
Digital Monitoring: Setup real-time online platform
to track paddy residue generation and use.
¾ UNESCO World Heritage Site: The Kariyan shola, Grass
¾ CAQM is a statutory body formed under the
hills and Manjampatti of Anamalai Tiger Reserve has
Commission for Air Quality Management in National
been identified as a world heritage site by UNESCO.
Capital Region and Adjoining Areas, Act 2021 to
¾ Indigenous Communities: It is home to several formulate air pollution control strategies for Delhi-
indigenous tribal communities such as the Kadars, NCR and the adjoining areas.
Muduvars, Malasars, Malai malasars, Eravalars and
Pulayars. Read More: Addressing India’s Stubble Burning Issue
nnn

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