1

INTRODUCTION

This paper is a discussion on sampling in research it is mainly designed to equip

beginners with knowledge on the general issues of sampling that is the purpose of sampling in
research, the dangers of sampling and how to minimize them, types of sampling, and guides for
deciding the sample size. For a clear flow of ideas, a few definitions of the terms used are given.

The secondary sources and the internet are used for this paper, and this paper is limited to
sample and sampling.

1. The Meaning and Definition of Sample and Sampling.

1.1. The Meaning of Sample

Sampling is the procedure a researcher uses to gather people, places or things to study.1
When a sample is selected it is crucial that the field researcher follow procedures which will help
to ensure that the sample studied is indeed representative of the much larger population which it
is presumed to represent.2 A sample also is a smaller representation of a large whole. In other
words, a section of the population (The group of people, items or units under investigation)
selection from the latter in such a way that they are representative of a universe (a sphere of
person or thing: a sphere of activity that is centered on and includes everything associated with
a person, place or thing)3 called a sample. A single member of a population is referred to as a
population element. When some of the elements are selected with the intention of finding out
something about the population from which they are taken, that group of elements is referred as a
sample and the process of the selection is called sampling.4

1.2. Definition of Sample

Sampling may be defined as “the selection of part of an aggregate or totality on the basis
of which a judgment or inference about the aggregate or totality is made”5

1
Akshay Kumar Nayak, Research Methodology (Dimapur, Nagaland: The Global Open University, Nagaland,
2008), 65.
2
Hunter P. Mabry, A Manual for Researchers and Writers (Bangalore: The Board of Theological Education
Senate of Serampore College, 2007), 83.
3
Microsoft® Encarta® 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved (accessed on 7th July
2024).
4
P. Saravanavel, Research Methodology (Allahabad: Kitab Mahal, 1999), 117.
5
P. Saravanavel, Research Methodology, 117.
 2

2. Terms and Concept used in Sampling and Sample Design

Selection is procedural not judgmental; Sample are drawn from list, called source list or
sampling frames, which supposedly are complete enumeration of all units in the population being
sampled. Complete enumeration of large populations is invariably rare. Incomplete, complete,
inadequate and inaccurate sampling frames are the bases in fact for sampling in theory. Sample
design is the theoretical basis and the practical means by which we infer the characteristics of
some population by generalizing from the characteristics of relatively few of the units
comprising the population.6

There are also some other terms that are characteristics of all sampling discussion and
with which the reader should be familiar. These terms are as follows:

2.1. Population or Universe

Population, or universe, is the aggregate of all units possessing certain specified

characteristics on which the sample seeks to draw interference; for example, family with income
within given range. These are often used synonymously in social science research.7

2.2. Frame

The frames describe the population in terms of sampling units. It may often be
geographical area such as lists of city block or countries. Sometimes it may even be the
subscription list for a magazine. In essence, a frame list or maps elements of the universe.

2.3. Census

It denotes a total enumeration of individuals’ elements, or units in a defined population.

2.4. Sample

A sample is composed of some fraction or part of the total number of elements or units in
a defined population. Sampling, therefore is a method of selecting some fraction of a
population.8

2.5. Design

The describes the method by which the sample is chosen.

6
P. Saravanavel, Research Methodology, 117.
7
P. Saravanavel, Research Methodology, 119.
8
P. Saravanavel, Research Methodology, 118.
 3

2.6. Random

The mathematical term ‘random’ means that every element in the total population has can
equal chance or probability of being chosen for the sample and that each of these elements is
independent of the other.

2.7. Units

Any “population” or “universe” should contain some specifications in terms of content

units, extent and time. For example, “A Farmer’s household in a district in Panjab in 1975” there
is unit designation in household and time designation is indicated, i.e. at the level of the district.9

2.8. Attribute

It is a characteristic possessive trait of an element of a population. For example, in a class

of 35 students 15 had dark hair then we could say that 15 students possess the given attribute.
Qualification then lies in counting how many possess this attribute and how many do not.

2.9. Variable

In a class of 35 students we are to find age, height and income etc. if we can say that
actual variable characteristics were possessed by the sample. It then may be “actual magnitude of
some variable characteristic for each sample member his height and income; then qualification
involves measuring the magnitude of the characteristics in each case. A variable can always be
transformed into an attribute by a broad grouping, the variable ‘age’ taking values, say, from 21
upwards can be turned in to an attitude.10

2.10. Statistic

Statistics refers to the value of a variable (or attribute) calculated from a sample taken out
of a universe or population. The characteristic of a sample is called a statistic.

2.11. Parameter

The parameter is the value of a variable (or attribute) calculated from a population that is
being studied. The characteristics of populations are referred to as parameters.

2.12. Estimating

One major aspect of inferential data analysis is the estimation of population parameters
by using descriptive statistics from a sample of the population. Estimation is the generalization
of a statistical description of a sample to the appropriate population.

9
P. Saravanavel, Research Methodology, 118.
10
Hunter P. Mabry, A Manual for Researchers and Writers, 118.
 4

2.13. Bias

The tendency to have an error in one direction is a bias.

2.14. Sample Error

It refers to the error characteristic of a sample design and indicates how closely the
measurement obtained from the sample is to the parameter.

2.15. Precision

Precision of a sample is designated by the computation of the standard error. In other

words, if repeated samples were drawn from the same universe, the consistency among the
separate samples is a measure of precision.

2.16. Accuracy

Ordinarily, accuracy is considered district precision. Precision is a measurable quantity

derived from the characteristics of the sample design. Accuracy refers to unavoidable errors in
measurement or estimation, probably not measurable or known.

2.17. Stratification

It deals with the segmentation of a sample into a number of strata, such as an income
level, size of family unity or, in some special cases, ownership of certain household appliances.11

3. Aim of Sampling

The basic objective of sampling is to draw inferences about the populations. It is a tool
which helps to know the characteristics of the population. Although much of the developments in
the theory of sampling have taken place only in recent years, sampling techniques were in use
even during the very old days. To examine the quality of grain in a bag, only a handful of grain is
examined. A housewife examines only two or three boiling rice to know whether the rice in the
pot is ready or not. Similarly in many other fields knowingly or unknowingly people make use of
sampling techniques.

The process of sampling involves three elements (a) selecting the sample (b) collecting
the information from the sample (c) making an inference about the population12

11
L.R. Potti, Research Methodology (Thiruvananthapuram: Yamuna Publication, n.d.), H.4.
12
L.R. Potti, Research Methodology, H4.
 5

4. Importance of Sampling

The sampling method has acquired an important place in the field of research. The causes
for the importance of this method are:

1. Only representative units are studied: When sampling technique is adopted, we need
not waist our time and energy for studying the items. We are studying only representative units.

2. Large area can be covered: Since we are selecting only few items from the universe,
we can extent our enquiry to large area.

3. Scrutiny of all results available is possible: Since in sampling we are only studying
representative units, it is easy to scrutinize all items selected for study.

4. Intensive Study is possible: Since we are concentrating on few selected items,

intensive study of those items is possible.

5. Collecting of information in easy: Since in a sampling, entire universe is not studied.

It is easy to collect information from the desired unit.

6. Required results are attained: Since we are selecting representative items the results
obtained from the sample are same as those of the population.13

5. Needs for Sampling (why sampling)

1. It saves money.

2. It saves time.

3. It gives the detailed and accurate measurements.

4. It is necessary when the population is infinite.

5. It is necessary when the study of an item causes its destruction.

6. It is necessary when the area of study is wide.14

6. The Purpose of Sampling

To conclude populations from samples, we must use inferential statistics which enables
us to determine a population`s characteristics by directly observing only a portion (or sample) of
the population. We obtain a sample rather than a complete enumeration (a census) of the

13
L.R. Potti, Research Methodology, H.4 H.5-6.
14
L.R. Potti, Research Methodology, H.4-H.6.
 6

population for many reasons. Obviously, it is cheaper to observe a part rather than the whole, but
we should prepare ourselves to cope with the dangers of using samples.15

7. Basic Approaches to Sampling

There are two basic approaches to sampling those are (a) probabilistic approach and (b)
non-probabilistic approach. A probability sample is one in which each member of the population
has an equal chance of being selected. In a non-probability sample, some people have a greater,
but unknown, chance than others of selection.16

7.1. Probabilistic Approach

There are five main types of probability sample. The choice of these depends on nature of
research problem, the availability of a good sampling frame, money, and time, desired level of
accuracy in the sample and data collection methods. Each has its advantages, each its
disadvantages. They are: Simple random, Systematic, Random route, Stratified, and Multi-stage
cluster sampling.17

7.1.1. Simple random sample

This is perhaps an unfortunate term, because it isn't that simple and it isn't done at
random, in the sense of “haphazardly”.

Characteristics:

1. Each person has same chance as any other of being selected

2. Standard against which other methods are sometimes evaluated
3. Suitable where population is relatively small and where sampling frame is complete and
up-to-date

Procedure:

1. Obtain a complete sampling frame

2. Give each case a unique number, starting at one
3. Decide on the required sample size
4. Select that many numbers from a table of random numbers or using a computer18

15
M. Webster, Webster’s Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary (Meriam: Webster Inc.,1985), 110-112.
16
Alison Galloway, http://www.tardis.ed.ac.uk/~kate/qmcweb/scont.htm (accessed on 10th July 2024).

17
Alison Galloway, http://www.tardis.ed.ac.uk/~kate/qmcweb/scont.htm (accessed on 10th July 2024).
18
S. Chand, Research Methodology (New Delhi: S. Chand & Company PVT. LTD., 2003), 96-112.
 7

7.1.2. Systematic sampling

Similar to simple random sampling, but instead of selecting random numbers from tables,
you move through list (sample frame) picking every nth name.

You must first workout sampling fraction by dividing population size by required sample
size. E.g. for a population of 500 and a sample of 100, the sampling fraction is 1/5 i.e. you will
select one person out of every five in the population. Random number needs to be used only to
decide on starting point. With the sampling fraction of 1/5, the starting point must be within the
first 5 people in your list

Disadvantage: Effect of periodicity (bias caused by particular characteristics arising in

the sampling frame at regular units). An example of this would occur if you used a sampling
frame of adult residents in an area composed of predominantly couples or young families. If this
list was arranged: Husband / Wife / Husband / Wife etc. and if every tenth person was to be
interviewed, there would be an increased chance of males being selected.

7.1.3. Random Route Sampling

Used in market research surveys - mainly for sampling households, shops, garages and
other premises in urban areas

Address is selected at random from sampling frame (usually electoral register) as a

starting point. Interviewer then given instructions to identify further addresses by taking alternate
left- and right-hand turns at road junctions and calling at every nth address (shop, garage etc.)19

Advantages:

1. May be saving in time

2. Bias may be reduced because interviewer has to call at clearly defined addresses - not
able to choose
3. The method is very simple to use.
4. It is easy to find out the errors in these methods.20

Problems:

1. Characteristics of particular areas (e.g. poor / rich) may mean that sample is not
representative
2. Open to abuse by interviewer because difficult to check that instructions fully carried out

19
Earl R. Babbie, Survey Research Methods (California: Wadsworth Publishing Company, Inc, 1973), 113-
116.
20
B.N. Ghosh, Scientific Method and Social Research (New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Private Limited, 1987),
203.
 8

7.1.4. Stratified Sampling

All people in sampling frame are divided into “strata” (groups or categories). Within each
stratum, a simple random sample or systematic sample is selected.

Example of stratified sampling If we want to ensure that a sample of 5 students from a

group of 50 contains both male and female students in same proportions as in the full population
(i.e. the group of 50), we first divide that population into male and female. In this case, there are
22 male students and 28 females. To work out the number of males and females in the sample.

No. of males in sample = (5 / 50) x 22 = 2.2

No. of females in sample = (5 / 50) x 28 = 2.8

We obviously can't interview .2 of a person or .8 of a person, and have to “round” the

numbers. Therefore, we choose 2 males and 3 females in the sample. These would be selected
using simple random or systematic sample methods.

7.1.5. Multi-stage cluster sampling

As the name implies, this involves drawing several different samples. It does so in such a
way that cost of final interviewing is minimized.

Basic procedure: First draw sample of areas. Initially large areas selected then
progressively smaller areas within larger area are sampled. Eventually end up with sample of
households and use method of selecting individuals from these selected households.

7.2. Non-Probability Samples

It isn't always possible to undertake a probability method of sampling, such as in random

sampling. For example, there is not a complete sampling frame available for certain groups of
the population e.g. the elderly; people who are attending a football match; people who shop in a
particular part of town. Another factor to bear in mind is that many of the probability sampling
methods described above may mean that researchers would have to undertake a postal or
telephone survey delivery or might be expected to go from house to house.21

Advantages of non-probability methods:

1. Cheaper
2. Used when sampling frame is not available
3. Useful when population is so widely dispersed that cluster sampling would not be
efficient
4. Often used in exploratory studies, e.g. for hypothesis generation

21
Ram Ahuja, Research Methods (Jaipur: Rawat Publications, 2001), 155-157.
 9

5. Some research not interested in working out what proportion of population gives a
particular response but rather in obtaining an idea of the range of responses on ideas that
people have.

7.2.1. Purposive Sampling

A purposive sample is one which is selected by the researcher subjectively. The

researcher attempts to obtain sample that appears to him/her to be representative of the
population and will usually try to ensure that a range from one extreme to the other is included.

Often used in political polling - districts chosen because their pattern has in the past
provided good idea of outcomes for whole electorate.

7.2.2. Quota Sampling

Have you ever been ambling along your local High Street, noticed a Market Researcher
with a clipboard and thought “I don't mind being asked some questions - it might be interesting”,
only to find that the researcher looks straight through you? No? Well, for those people who have
had that happen, there is no need to take it personally. It is all due to quota sampling.

Quota sampling is often used in market research. Interviewers are required to find cases
with particular characteristics. They are given quota of particular types of people to interview
and the quota are organized so that final sample should be representative of population.22

Stages:

1. Decide on characteristic of which sample is to be representative, e.g. age

2. Find out distribution of this variable in population and set quota accordingly. E.g. if 20%
of population is between 20 and 30, and sample is to be 1,000 then 200 of sample (20%)
will be in this age group

Complex quotas can be developed so that several characteristics (e.g. age, sex, marital status)
are used simultaneously. By the end of the day, the researcher may be looking for a widowed
man in his nineties who looks as though he might buy a particular brand of detergent.
Disadvantage of quota sampling - Interviewers choose who they like (within above criteria)
and may therefore select those who are easiest to interview, so bias can result. Also, impossible
to estimate accuracy (because not random sample)

7.2.3. Convenience sampling

A convenience sample is used when you simply stop anybody in the street who is
prepared to stop, or when you wander round a business, a shop, a restaurant, a theatre or
whatever, asking people you meet whether they will answer your questions. In other words, the

22
Ram Ahuja, Research Methods, 160.
 10

sample comprises subjects who are simply available in a convenient way to the researcher. There
is no randomness and the likelihood of bias is high. You can't draw any meaningful conclusions
from the results you obtain.

However, this method is often the only feasible one, particularly for students or others
with restricted time and resources, and can legitimately be used provided its limitations are
clearly understood and stated.

Because it is an extremely haphazard approach, students are often tempted to use the
word “random” when describing their sample where they have stopped people in the street, as
they see it “at random”. You should avoid using the word “random” when describing anything to
do with sampling unless you are absolutely certain that you selected respondents from a
sampling frame using truly random methods.23

7.2.4. Snowball sampling

With this approach, you initially contact a few potential respondents and then ask them
whether they know of anybody with the same characteristics that you are looking for in your
research. For example, if you wanted to interview a sample of vegetarians / cyclists / people with
a particular disability / people who support a particular political party etc., your initial contacts
may well have knowledge (through e.g. support group) of others.

7.2.5. Self-selection

Self-selection is perhaps self-explanatory. Respondents themselves decide that they

would like to take part in your survey.

on-Response

Some people selected in a sample may not be included:

1. Some will refuse

2. Some will be uncontactable
3. Some will be uninterpretable

Non-response can create 2 major problems:

1. Unacceptable reduction in sample size

2. Bias 24

23
A. Antony Joseph, Methodology for Research (Bangalore: Theological Publications in India, 1986), 8-9.
24
S. Chand, Research Methodology, 97.
 11

8. Merits and Demerits of Sampling

There are both merits and demerits in sampling.

8.1. Merits (Advantage) of Sampling

The merits or advantages of the sampling are as follows:

1. Less time and Effort: Since in the sampling only a part of the population is studied,
considerable time and labor can be saved. Time is saved not only in collecting data but also in
processing it.

2. Less cost: The total financial burden of a sample survey is generally that of a complete
census, since the coverage of items is less.25

3. More Reliable Results: In these methods we have the advantages of detailed and intensive
study and soothe result are generally more accurate and reliable. The results obtained from
sampling are generally more reliable than obtain from a census method because (a) It is always
possible to determine the extent of sampling errors. (b) The error due to inaccuracy of
information, incompleteness of returns, etc. are less in a sample survey. Effective precautions
can be taken to avoid errors.

4. Administrative convenience: It possible to avail of the service of expert and to impart

through training to the enumerators since the area of study is small.

5. More detailed and accurate information: Since only a part of population is studied, we can
collect detailed information from all those items. Sampling gives accurate result since it is
conducted by trained and experienced investigators.

6. Destructive nature of certain enquires: In many cases sample enquiry is the practical means
of obtaining the requirement information when the quality of the thing can be ascertain only by
destroying the articles. For example: In testing the life of bulbs. Here sample is the practical way
of assessing the quality of the whole lot. Again only a few chalks out of a certain lot need be
tested for ascertaining the breaking strength of all chalks.

7. The Sampling Method is best suited at time: When the universe is infinite or hypothetical
census method is not practicable. So in those enquiries sampling survey can be adopted.26

8.2. Demerits (Disadvantages) of Sample

There are also some disadvantages in sample methods, as follows:

25
L.R. Potti, Research Methodology, H.4.
26
L.R. Potti, Research Methodology, H.4.
 12

1. A sample survey must be carefully planned and executed. Otherwise, the results obtained may
be inaccurate and misleading. So sampling procedure must be perfect.

2. Sampling requires the service of experts. In the absence of qualified and experienced persons,
the information obtained from sample cannot by relied upon. Bias and prejudices will likely
creep into this method.

3. It is not easy to select a sample which is perfecting representing the universe on many
situations.

4. If information is required for each and every unit, sampling technique cannot be used.27

9. Size of Sampling

The size of the sample plays an important role in sampling. According to Parten, “An
optimum sample in the survey is one which fulfills the requirements of efficiency,
representativeness, reliability, and flexibility”. Hence the sample must be small enough to avoid
unnecessary expenditure and large enough to avoid sample error.28

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, it can be said that using a sample in research saves mainly on money and
time, if a suitable sampling strategy is used, appropriate sample size selected and necessary
precautions taken to reduce on sampling and measurement errors, then a sample should yield
valid and reliable information. The researcher suggests to the readers to refer more books in the
libraries to know more about sample.

27
L.R. Potti, Research Methodology, H.4-H.5
28
B.N. Ghosh, Scientific Method & Social Research, 206-207.
 13

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Books

Ahuja, Ram Research Methods. Jaipur: Rawat Publications, 2001.

Antony Joseph, A. Methodology for Research. Bangalore: Theological Publications in

India, 1986.

Babbie, Earl R. Survey Research Methods. California: Wadsworth Publishing Company,

Inc, 1973.

Chand, S. Research Methodology. New Delhi: S. Chand & Company PVT. LTD., 2003.

Ghosh, B.N. Scientific Method and Social Research. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers
Private Limited, 1987.

Mabry, Hunter P. A Manual for Researchers and Writers. Bangalore: The Board of
Theological Education Senate of Serampore College, 2007.

Nayak, Akshay Kumar. Research Methodology. Dimapur, Nagaland: The Global Open
University, Nagaland, 2008.

Potti, L.R. Research Methodology. Thiruvananthapuram: Yamuna Publication, n.d.4.

Saravanavel, P. Research Methodology. Allahabad: Kitab Mahal, 1999.

Webster, M. Webster’s Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary. Meriam: Webster Inc.,1985.

Webliography

Galloway, Alison http://www.tardis.ed.ac.uk/~kate/qmcweb/scont.htm. Accessed on 7th

Aug. 2024.

Microsoft® Encarta® 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Accessed on 7th Aug. 2024.
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