Unit – III

Metal Joining Processes: Classification of welding processes, types of welds and welded joints
and V-I characteristics, arc welding, weld bead geometry, submerged arc welding, gas tungsten
arc welding, gas metal arc welding. applications, advantages and disadvantages of the above
processes, other fabrication processes. Heat affected zones in welding; soldering and brazing:
Types and their applications, Welding defects: causes and remedies.
Welding
Welding is a process of joining two or more similar metals with or without using pressure by
using with or without using filler rod by using flux.
CLASSIFICATION OF WELDING
They may be classified on the basis of:
1. Source of heat i.e. flame, arc….. etc.
2. Type of interaction i.e. liquid/liquid (fusion welding) or solid/solid (solid state welding).
1 Gas welding:
1. Oxy acetylene welding
2. Oxy hydrogen welding
3. Pressure gas welding
2 Arc welding:
1. Carbon arc welding
2. Flux cored arc welding
3. TIG welding (GTAW) welding
4. Plasma arc welding
5. Electro slag welding
6. Stud arc welding
7. Sub-merged arc welding
8. MIG (GMAW) welding
3 Solid state welding:
1. Cold welding
2. Explosive welding
3. Friction welding
4. Roll welding
5. Diffusion welding
6. Forge welding
7. Hot spot welding
8. Ultra sonic welding
4 Resistance welding:
1. Spot welding
2. Projection welding
3. Flash butt welding
4. High frequency resistance welding
5. Seam welding
6. Resistance butt welding
7. Percussion welding
5 Thermo-chemical welding processes:
1. Thermit welding
2. Atomic hydrogen welding
6 Radiant energy welding processes:
1. Electron beam welding
2. Laser beam welding
Welding joints
Some common welding joints are shown in Fig. Welding joints are of generally of two major
kinds namely lap joint and butt joint. The main types are described as under.
Lap joint
This joint is made by overlapping the edges of the plate. Lap welding joints are used most often
to join two pieces with differing thicknesses together. The weld can be made on one or both
sides. A Lap Joint is formed when two pieces are placed in an over lapping pattern on top of each
other.
Butt joint
Butt welds are welds where two pieces of metal to be joined are in the same plane. These types
of welds require only some kind of preparation and are used with thin sheet metals that can
be welded with a single pass. Common issues that can weaken a butt weld are the entrapment of
slag, excessive porosity, or cracking.
Tee Weld
Tee welding joints are formed when two members intersect at a 90 deg angle which makes the
edges come together in the center of a plate or component. Tee Joints are considered a type
of fillet weld, and can also be made when a pipe or tube is welded onto a base plate.
Edge joint
Edge welding Joints are often applied to sheet metal parts that have flanging edges or are placed
at a location where a weld must be made to attach to adjacent pieces. Being a groove
type weld, Edge Joints, the pieces are set side by side and welded on the same edge.
Corner joints
Being one of the most popular welds in the sheet metal industry the Corner welding joint is used
on the outer edge of the piece. This weld is a type of joint that comes together at right angles
between two metal parts to form an L. These are common in the construction of boxes, box
frames and similar fabrications.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF WELDING
Advantages
1. Welding is more economical and is much faster process as compared to other processes
(riveting, bolting, casting etc.)
2. Welding, if properly controlled results permanent joints having strength equal or
sometimes more than base metal.
3. Large number of metals and alloys both similar and dissimilar can be joined by welding.
4. General welding equipment is not very costly.
5. Portable welding equipments can be easily made available.
6. Welding permits considerable freedom in design.
7. Welding can also be mechanized.
Disadvantages
1. It results in residual stresses and distortion of the work pieces.
2. Welded joint needs stress relieving and heat treatment.
3. Welding gives out harmful radiations (light), fumes and spatter.
4. Jigs, and fixtures may also be needed to hold and position the parts to be welded
5. Edges preparation of the welding jobs are required before welding
6. Skilled welder is required for production of good welding
7. Heat during welding produces metallurgical changes as the structure of the welded joint
is not same as that of the parent metal.

V-I characteristics of arc welding

Based on the characteristics power sources can be classified in two categories

1. Constant current or drooping or falling characteristic power source.

2. Constant potential or constant voltage or flat characteristic power source.

Constant current or Falling characteristics

It has the drooping volt-ampere characteristic curve and has been popular for use in shielded
metal arc welding. The maximum no load or open circuit voltage is usually 100 volts. A constant
current type power source may have dc or ac, output. Constant current power sources are used
primarily with coated electrodes. This type of power source has a relatively small change in
amperage and arc power for a corresponding relatively large change in arc voltage or arc length,
thus the name constant current. The characteristics of this power source are best illustrated by
observing a graph that plots the volt-ampere curve. As can be seen in Figure the curve of a
constant current machine drops down-ward rather sharply and for this reason, this type of
machine is often called a "drooper."
Constant voltage or Flat characteristics
A constant voltage welding power source has essentially a flat volt-ampere characteristic curve
though usually with a slight droop. The voltage, however, will never rise to as high an open
circuit voltage as in a constant current welding power source. Constant voltage power source
does not have true constant voltage output. It has a slightly downward or negative slope because
of sufficient internal electrical resistance and inductance in the welding circuit to cause a minor
droop in the output volt ampere characteristics. With constant voltage power supply the arc
voltage is established by setting the output voltage on the source. The power source shall supply
necessary current to melt the electrode at the rate required to maintain the pre-set voltage or
relative arc length. The speed of electrode drive is used to control the average welding current.
The use of such power source in conjunction with a constant electrode wire feed results in a self-
regulating or self-adjusting arc length system.

Arc welding
Arc welding processes uses the heat generated by an electric arc to melt the faying surfaces of
the base metal in order to develop a weld joint.
Manual metal arc welding
In this process, the heat is generated by an electric arc between base metal and a consumable
electrode. As the electrode movement is manually controlled hence it is termed as manual metal
arc welding. This process is extensively used for depositing weld metal because it is easy to
deposit the molten weld metal at right place where it is required and it doesn’t need separate
hielding. This process is commonly used for welding of the metals, which are comparatively less
sensitive to the atmospheric gases. This process can use both AC and DC. The amount of heat
generated at the anode and cathode may differ appreciably depending upon the flux composition
of coating, base metal, polarity and the nature of arc plasma. In case of DC welding, polarity
determines the distribution of the heat generated at the cathode and anode and accordingly the
melting rate of electrode and penetration into the base metal are affected.
The Advantages of MMA Welding
• Flux Shielded Manual Metal Arc Welding is the simplest of all the arc welding processes.
• The equipment can be portable and the cost is fairly low.
• This process finds innumerable applications, because of the availability of a wide variety of
electrodes.
• A wide range of metals and their alloys can be welded.
• Welding can be carried out in any position with highest weld quality.
• The process can be very well employed for hard facing and metal deposition to reclaim parts or
to develop other characteristics like wear resistance etc.
• Joints (e.g. between nozzles and shell in a pressure vessel) which because of their position are
difficult to be welded by automatic welding machines are easily accomplished by flux shielded
metal arc welding.

The Disadvantages of MMA Welding

• Because of the limited length of each electrode and brittle flux coating, it is difficult to
automate the process.
• In welding long joints (e.g., in pressure vessels), as one electrode finishes, the weld is to be
progressed with the next electrode. Unless properly cared, a defect (like slag inclusion or
insufficient penetration) may occur at the place where welding is restarted with the new
electrode.
• The process uses stick electrodes and thus it is slower as compared to MIG welding.

Weld bead geometry

Bead is the deposited filler metal on and in the work surface when the wire or electrode is melted
and fused into the steel. It is vital to establish a relationship between process parameters and
weld bead geometry to assess and control weld bead quality.
Weld Penetration(P)
Penetration is the maximum distance from the surface of the base plate to the depth of fusion.
Penetration is influenced by welding current, welding speed, weld polarity, and electrode stick
out . Penetration is directly proportional to the welding current and inversely proportional to the
welding speed and diameter of electrode. Increase in thermal conductivity of the weld metal
decreases penetration.
Bead Width(W)
The bead width of a weld is the maximum width of the deposited weld metal. It is directly
proportional to the arc current, welding voltage, the diameter of electrode and is inversely
proportional to the welding speed. A proper bead width eliminates the lack of side wall fusion
defect. It is observed that bead width enhances with increase in arc voltage and melting rate
increases with reduction in electrode diameter.
Bead Height(H)
It is the bead height above the surface of the plate. The reinforcement influences the strength of
the weld and wire feed rate. Increasing the wire feed rate increases the weld reinforcement
irrespective of welding current and polarity. Reinforcement is inversely proportional to welding
voltage, welding speed and diameter of the electrode.
Toe angle
Toe angle is the angle of the weld bead surface where it meets the top of the lower plate.
The angle is measured relative to the tangent to the lower plate at the right toe.

Submerged arc welding

Submerged arc welding uses continuous consumable electrode of the shape of a bare wire. The
established arc is shielded by a cover of granular flux. The electrode wire is fed continuously and
automatically from a roll into the welding zone. The flux is introduced in to the joint slightly
ahead of the weld arch by gravity from a hopper as shown in Figure. blanket of granular flux
completely submerges the welding zone preventing sparks, spatter and radiations. The portion of
the flux near to the arc is melted, forming slag, after mixing with molten metal. Slag can be
removed from the weldment. Cover of granular flux not only provides protection from the
environment but also provides good thermal insulation resulting in slow cooling imparting
toughness and ductility to the joint.

Applications of Submerged Arc Welding

It is widely used in steel fabrication, structural shapes, longitudinal and circumferential seams of
large diameter pipes, welding pressure vessels, welding of heavy machinery, etc. Steel plates of
25 mm thickness or more are routinely welded by this process.
Advantages of submerged arc welding process
1. high quality metal weld.
2. extremely high speed and deposition rate.
3. smooth, uniform finished weld with no spatter.
4. little or no smoke.
5. no arc flash, thus minimal need for protective clothing.
6. high utilization of electrode wire.

Disadvantages of Submerged Arc Welding

The use of a granular flux and the fluidity of the molten weld pool mean that welding is limited
to horizontal positions only. Another disadvantage of SAW is that welding is normally limited to
long, straight seams welds.

Tungsten inert gas welding (TIG welding)

In this process a non-consumable tungsten electrode is used with an envelope of inert shielding
gas around it. The shielding gas protects the tungsten electrode and the molten metal weld pool
from the atmospheric contamination. The shielding gases generally used are argon, helium or
their mixtures. Typical tungsten inert gas welding setup is shown in Fig. The electrode material
may be tungsten, or tungsten alloy (thoriated tungsten or zirconiated tungsten). Alloy-tungsten
electrodes possess higher current carrying capacity, produce a steadier arc as compared to pure
tungsten electrodes and high resistance to contamination. TIG can be implemented with or
without a filler metal. Figure illustrates the latter case. When a filler metal is used, it is added to
the weld pool from a separate rod or wire, being melted by the heat of the arc rather than
transferred across the arc as in the consumable electrode arc welding processes. Tungsten is a
good electrode material due to its high melting point of 3410_C (6170_F).

Types of Inert Gases:

Argon:
• It is extracted from the Air in which it constitutes 0.94% by volume (1.3% by weight) and
available from a number of industrial sources.
 1
• Argon being heavir, 1 3 times of air and 10 times of helium, is dense and hence, it is less
required in quantity and provides good shielding.
• It after leaving the torch nozzle forms a blanket over the weld area. It produces narrow
penetration with spatter.
Applications: Argon is widely used in view of its availability and is suitable for
• Thin sheets and less penetration
• Welding of non-ferrous metals and alloys
• Welding of ferrous metals with 1% Oxygen added
Helium:
• It is produced from natural gas which is cooled to about 3000 below 00, pure helium
(99.9%) is commercially available.
• It is a light and less dense gas than organ hence, it is required more in quantity
• It tends to rise in a turbulent fashion around the nozzle and hence, to get the same
shielding effect, the flow of helium should be 2 to 3 times that of argon.
• It is preferred over argon at higher current densities.
• It produces hot arc with broad even penetration.
• Since it is quite less available in atmosphere, itsuse is rare. However, in USA and
Canada, it is being used.
•
Applications:
• It is suitable for thicker plates at higher current densities.
• It is suitable for non-ferrous metals and alloys.
CO2 : Recent trend in IGSAW, is to use CO2 extensively. However, in place of 100% CO2,
80% CO2 and 20% Argon is found more useful.It helps in establishing short uniform
stable arc and produces well shapped weldment with fine penetration and high deposition
rates.
Applications:
• It is suitable for steels. It is widely used for welding of mild steel and gives sound weld
deposits.
• CO2 with argon is suitable for steels and stainless steels.
TIG Welding Advantages:
• No flux is required
• Post cleaning is not required.
• No spatter, sparks or fumes will hinder the welding.
• Almost all metals can be welded by using TIG process.
Disadvantages:
• Pre cleaning is essential.
• The cost of the process is high
Applications:
Aluminum alloys, stainless steel, magnesium alloys, nickel and nickel alloys, Brasses, silver,
bronze, Plain carbon and alloy steels can be welded. Dissimilar metals can also be welded by
TIG welding process.
Gas Metal ARC Welding (GMAW) or Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG)
Metal Inert Gas (MIG) welding is a gas metal arc welding (GMAW) process that uses a
continuous solid wire electrode which is heated and fed into the weld pool from a welding gun.
The two base materials are melted together which causes them to join. The welding gun also
feeds an inert shielding gas alongside the wire electrode, which helps protect the process from
airborne contaminants. MIG welding was first patented in the USA in 1949 for welding
aluminium. The arc and weld pool formed using a bare wire electrode was protected by helium
gas, readily available at that time. From about 1952, the process became popular in the UK for
welding aluminium using argon as the shielding gas, and for carbon steels using CO2. CO2 and
argon-CO2 mixtures are known as metal active gas (MAG) processes. The process usually
operates with the wire positively charged and connected to a power source delivering a constant
voltage. Selection of wire diameter (usually between 0.6 and 1.6mm) and wire feed speed
determine the welding current, as the burn-off rate of the wire will form an equilibrium with the
feed speed. An arc is struck between the end of a wire electrode and the workpiece, melting both
of them to form a weld pool. The wire serves as both heat source (via the arc at the wire tip) and
filler metal for the welding joint. The wire is fed through a copper contact tube (contact tip)
which conducts welding current into the wire. The weld pool is protected from the surrounding
atmosphere by a shielding gas fed through a nozzle surrounding the wire. Shielding gas selection
depends on the material being welded and the application. The wire is fed from a reel by a motor
drive, and the welder moves the welding torch along the joint line.
 Advantages :
• Welds most metals
• Little or no slag
• Easiest to learn
• Greater speed and efficiency
• Fewer Weld Defects
• Welds in most positions
Disadvantages :
• Welding outside can be difficult
• Not ideal for thick material or deep penetrating welds
• Shielding gas expensive
• Higher electrode wire cost
• Most machines require three-phase input power
Applications of MIG welding.
• Aerospace.
• Automotive Industry.
• Construction and Infrastructure.
• Manufacturing.
• Railroads.
• Shipping.
Heat affected zone
During welding, the metal absorbs the generated heat. A zone is formed between the melted
metal and the unaffected base metal called the heat affected zone (HAZ). In this zone, the metal
is not melted but its microstructure and properties altered by welding or heat intensive welding
operations. The heat from the welding process and subsequent re-cooling causes this change
from the weld interface to the termination of the sensitizing temperature in the base metal. The
extent and magnitude of property change depends primarily on the base material, the weld filler
metal, and the amount and concentration of heat input by the welding process.

Brazing:
Brazing is the metal joining processes in which parent metal does not melt but only filler metal
melts filling the joint with capillary action. In brazeing capillary action plays no role but the filler
metal which has liquidus above 450° C but below the melting point of parent metal, fills the joint
like welding without the melting of edges of parent metal. During the operation, the edges of the
parent metal are heated by oxy-acetylene flame or some other suitable heat source to that
temperature so that parent metal may not melt but melting temperature of filler metal is reached.
When filler rod is brought in contact with heated edges of parent metal, the filler rod starts
melting, filling the joint. If edges temperature falls down then again heat source is brought for
melting filler rod. The molten filler metal and parent metal edges produce adhesion on cooling
resulting into strong braze weld.
The most commonly used filler metal is copper base zinc alloy consisting of normally 50-60%
Cu, approximately 40% Zn, 1% Ni, 0.7 % Fe and traces of Si and Mn, which is brass and termed
as ‘spelter’. In some cases around 10% Ni may also be added to filler alloys. Copper base alloys
may be available in the form of rod, strip and wire. Silver brazing filler metal may consists of 30-
55% Ag, 15-35% Cu, 15-28% Zn, 18-24% Cd and sometimes 2-3% Ni or 5% Sn.

Borax and boric acid are commonly used fluxes for brazing with copper base filler metals. Many
other commercial fluxes may be available in the form of paste or liquid solution leading to ease
of application and adherence to the surface in any position.

TYPES OF BRAZING METHODS

TORCH BRAZING
Torch brazing utilizes the heat of oxy-acetylene flame with neutral or reducing flame. Filler
metal may be either preplaced in form of washers, rings, formed strips, powders or may be fed
manually in form of rod.
DIP BRAZING
In dip brazing components with filler metal in proper form is preplaced at the joint and assembly
is dipped in bath of molten salt which acts as heat source as well as flux for brazing. Preplaced
preform melts and fills the joint. Another variant is to dip assembled parts in metallic bath and
metal of bath fills the joint.
FURNACE BRAZING
Self fixturing assembly with preplaced filler metal is placed inside electrically heated furnace
with temperature control for heating and cooling. These furnaces may also be using protective
atmosphere with inert gases like argon and helium or vacuum for brazing of reactive metal
components.
INFRA-RED BRAZING
The heat for brazing is obtained from infra-red lamps. Heat rays can be concentrated at desired
area or spot with concave reflectors. Such method of brazing requires automation and parts to be
joined should be self fixturing. Filler metal is to be preplaced in the joint. The operation can be
performed in air or in inert atmosphere or in vacuum.

INDUCTION BRAZING
The heat is generated by induced current into the workpiece from a water cooled coil which
surrounds the workpieces to be brazed. High frequencies employed vary from 5 to 400 kHz.
Higher the frequency of current, shallow is the heating effect while lower frequencies of current
lead to deeper heating and so it can be employed for thicker sections. Fluxes may or may not be
used during brazing.
RESISTANCE BRAZING
In resistance brazing the heat is generated at the interfaces to be brazed by resistive heating. The
components are connected to high current and low voltage power supply through two electrodes
under pressure. Only those fluxes are used which are electrically conductive and filler metal is
preplaced.
SOLDERING
Soldering is a process of joining two metal pieces by means of a low temperature fusible alloy
called solder applied in molten state. Solders are alloys of low melting point metals like lead, tin,
cadmium and zinc. Of these tin-lead alloys are most common and are called soft-solders. A
combination of 62% lead and 38% tin produces the lowest melting point and is called 60–40
solder. This corresponds to the eutectic composition of Pb–Sn series and has a fixed m.p. of
183°C. Increasing tin content produces better wetting and flow qualities. The surfaces to be
joined are cleaned and are placed on each other. A flux is employed to prevent oxidation. Zinc
chloride is commonly used for this purpose. The soldering iron is heated either electrically or by
some external heat. Then the hot end is dipped into the flux and solder is pressed against the
surfaces to be joined. A joint is formed by melting the solder.
Applications
Soldering is widely used for sheet metal work and in radio and television work for joining wires.
Advantages
1. Joining cost is low
2. Equipment is very simple and cheap
3. Good sealing in fabrication as compared to other processes like rivet, spot weld and bolts
4. It provides a positive electrical connection
5. Due to low operating temperature the properties of base metal are not affected
Disadvantage
1. Joints formed are weak

Weld Defects and their Causes

Lack of Penetration
Lack of penetration is the failure of the filler metal to penetrate into the joint. It is caused by:
• Incorrect edge penetration.
• Incorrect welding technique.
• Inadequate de-slagging.

Lack of Fusion
Lack of fusion is the failure of the filler metal to fuse with the parent metal. It is caused by:
• Insufficient heat.
• Too fast a travel.
• Incorrect welding technique.
Porosity
Porosity is a group of small holes throughout the weld metal. It is caused by the trapping of gas
during the welding process, due to chemicals in the metal, dampness, or too rapid cooling of the
weld.

Slag Inclusion
Slag inclusion is the entrapment of slag or other impurities in the weld. It is caused by the slag
from previous runs not being cleaned away, or insufficient cleaning and preparation of the base
metal before welding commences.

Undercut
Undercuts are grooves or slots along the edges of the weld caused by:
• Too fast a travel.
• Too great a heat build-up.
• Bad welding technique.

Overlays
Overlays consist of metal that has flowed on to the parent metal without fusing with it. The
defect is caused by:
• Insufficient heat.
• Contamination of the surface of the parent metal.
• Bad welding technique.
Cracks.
Cracks are fracture-type interruptions either in the weld itself or in the base metal adjacent to the
weld. This is perhaps the most serious welding defect because it constitutes a discontinuity in the
metal that significant reduces weld strength. Several forms are defined in Figure. Welding cracks
are caused by embrittlement or low ductility of the weld and/or base metal combined with high
restraint during contraction. Generally, this defect must be repaired.