BIOGEOGRAPHY

This is the study of the geographic distribution of plants, animals, and other forms of life. It is
concerned not only with habitation patterns but also with the factors responsible for variations in
distribution or

Biogeography is a study of how plants, animals and bacteria are distributed on the landscape
through time and space. This study of Biogeography is broken into two subcategories:

 Phytogeography, the study of how plants are distributed on the earth

 Zoogeography, the study of how animals are distributed on the earth (including bacteria)

Biogeography is very important in understanding how animals and plants have changed the
landscape over time. This field utilizes knowledge from the study of rocks or geology, the study
of ecosystems or ecology, and the study of the physical planet or physical geography to answer
questions about how organisms react to changes in their environment

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT AND ITS COMPONENTS SUBSYSTEMS

The earth system is itself an integrated system, but it can be subdivided into four main
components, sub-systems or spheres: the geosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere.
These components are also systems in their own right and they are tightly interconnected. The
four main components of the earth system may be described briefly in the following way.

The atmosphere

The Earth’s atmosphere is the gaseous layer that envelopes the world. The commonest term for
the atmosphere is “air”. The Earth’s atmosphere is held around the planet by the force of gravity.

The atmosphere receives energy from solar radiation which warms the earth's surface and is re-
emitted and conducted to the atmosphere. The atmosphere also absorbs water from the earth's
surface via the process of evaporation; it then acts to redistribute heat and moisture across the
earth's surface. In addition, the atmosphere contains substances that are essential for life,
including carbon, nitrogen, oxygen and hydrogen.

Layers of the Atmosphere

The Earth’s atmosphere has five main layers and a sixth layer, the ionosphere, that overlaps the
mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere.

Troposphere: The Densest Layer in the Atmosphere: The bottom layer, which is the layer
closest to the Earth, is the most dense of the five layers. This layer is known as the troposphere.
The troposphere is the layer of the Earth’s atmosphere that humans live and breathe in. The
troposphere starts at ground level and extends to 10 kilometers in altitude.

The troposphere is also the layer where almost all clouds form because 99% of the water in the
Earth’s atmosphere is found in this layer.

This layer mostly contains a mixture of mostly nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%), and argon (0.9%).
In addition, trace gases (carbon dioxide, nitrous oxides, ethane, and ozone) account for another
tenth of a percent.

Water vapor, dust particles, pollutants, and pollen also can be found in mixed into the
atmosphere at this level.

The higher the altitude, the thinner the atmosphere is.

Stratosphere: Home to the Earth’s Ozone Layer: The next layer is the stratosphere. This layer
is the layer that contains the Earth’s ozone layer. Unlike the troposphere, the stratosphere has no
turbulence. Unlike the air in the troposphere, the air in the stratosphere gets warmer higher up in
this layer.

Mesosphere: Highest Layer that has Mixed Gases: Above the stratosphere and below the
thermosphere is the mesosphere. This layer in the Earth’s atmosphere is the highest layer in
which the gases are still mixed up rather than The mesosphere is the layer where meteors
entering the Earth’s atmosphere break up.

Thermosphere: Thin Atmosphere: Above the mesosphere is the thermosphere.

The atmosphere in the thermosphere is very thin.

Temperatures can reach up to 4,500 Fahrenheit due to high-energy X-rays and UV radiation
from the Sun. There aren’t enough gas molecules to transfer this heat.
Many Earth orbiting satellites and the International Space Station are found in this layer.

Exosphere: Highest Layer in the Atmosphere

The uppermost layer of the Earth’s atmosphere is the exosphere.

The atmosphere is extremely thin in the exosphere with gases like hydrogen and helium.

Ionosphere: Overlaps the Mesosphere, Thermosphere, and Exosphere: The ionosphere is an

active part of the Earth’s atmosphere that overlaps the mesosphere, thermosphere,
and exosphere.

Like its name, the ionosphere is the ionized part of the Earth’s atmosphere and is found between
48 km to 965 km altitude.

The hydrosphere

All of the water on Earth is known collectively as the Earth’s hydrosphere. This is water found in
the air, the soil, in glaciers, the oceans, rivers, lakes, and streams of the world. Water is found in
all three states on Earth which are gas, liquid, and solid.

As gas, water is found as water vapor in the atmosphere.

In liquid form water is found in streams, rivers, lakes, ponds, and oceans along with mist in the
air and as dew on the surface of the ground.

Water is found in solid form as ice and snow.

N.B: Water is essential for the existence and maintenance of life on earth.

The biosphere

This contains all living organisms and it is intimately related to the other three spheres: most
living organisms require gases from the atmosphere, water from the hydrosphere and nutrients
and minerals from the geosphere. There is an estimated 20 million to 100 million different
species in the world organized into the 100 phyla that make up the five kingdoms of life. These
organisms can be found in almost all parts of the geosphere. There are organisms in the air, soil,
and water on Earth.

The geosphere/ Lithosphere

This is the part of the planet composed of rock and minerals; it includes the solid crust, the
molten mantle and the liquid and solid parts of the earth's core. In many places, the geosphere
develops a layer of soil in which nutrients become available to living organisms, and which thus
provides an important ecological habitat and the basis of many forms of life. The surface of the
geosphere is subject to processes of erosion, weathering and transport, as well as to tectonic
forces and volcanic activity, which result in the formation of landforms such as mountains, hills
and plateaux.

NUTRIENT AND ENERGY FLOWS

The earth is a vast, complex system powered by two sources of energy: an internal source (the
decay of radioactive elements in the geosphere, which generates geothermal heat) and an
external source (the solar radiation received from the Sun); the vast majority of the energy in the
earth system comes from the Sun. Whilst some variations in these two sources occur, their
energy supplies are relatively constant and they power all of the planet's environmental systems.
Indeed, energy both drives and flows through environmental systems, and energy pathways may
be highly complex and difficult to identify. For instance, energy may take the form of latent heat
which is absorbed or released when substances change state (for example, between the liquid and
gaseous phases). Energy is transferred within and between environmental systems in three main
ways:

 radiation - this is the process by which energy is transmitted through space, typically in
the form of electromagnetic waves
 convection - this is the physical movement of fluids (such as water or air) that contain
energy in the form of heat; convection does not occur in solids
 conduction - this is the transfer of energy in the form of heat through the substance of a
medium (from molecule to molecule)

Simplified depiction of energy flows and transformations in terrestrial ecosystems

Source: Smithson et al (2008) p. 41

As well as being transferred within environmental systems, energy may also be transformed from
one form to another; for instance, a rock fall involves the conversion of potential energy (due to
gravity) to kinetic energy (due to movement) and to thermal energy, or heat (due to friction).
The transfer and transformation of energy are associated with the performance of work; hence
the sun performs work in heating the earth by its radiation, and a glacier performs work in
moving sediment down-slope using the kinetic energy of its ice, water and rock. When work is
carried out within the earth system, energy is transferred from one body to another, and it may
also be converted from one form to another in the process. Throughout environmental systems,
as energy is transformed from one form to another in performing work, heat is released; that heat
is subsequently exported from the system, usually into the atmosphere and then into space. Yet
the total energy content of the earth system remains the same (it is conserved), for energy cannot
be created or destroyed. It follows that the earth system is only able to continue to function
because it is constantly replenished with a sufficient supply of energy (mainly from the sun).

The dominant flows of energy at the global scale occur as a result of the large discrepancies that
occur between the amounts of solar radiation received (and re-emitted) at different points on the
earth's surface. Such discrepancies are most clearly apparent in the wide variations in surface
temperature that exist between the equator and the poles. Those temperature variations drive the
global energy circulation which acts to redistribute heat from the warm to the cold parts of the
earth's surface. An overall poleward transfer of energy occurs by means of a variety of processes:
the transfer of heat by winds and warm air masses; the transfer of latent heat associated with
water vapour; the movement of heat in ocean currents; and the returning counter-flows of cooler
air and water. The three main processes of energy transfer at the global scale may be summarised
as:

 the horizontal transfer of sensible heat by the movement of warm air masses
 the transfer of latent heat in the form of atmospheric moisture
 the horizontal convection of sensible heat by ocean currents

It is important to acknowledge that pronounced latitudinal variations occur in these three

processes. Overall, however, these processes of energy transfer maintain a state of equilibrium in
the earth system: they remove energy from areas of surplus (in lower latitudes) and transfer it to
areas of deficit (in higher latitudes).

EXCHANGES AND CYCLING BOTH INTER AND INTRA SYSTEM

Nutrient Cycling

The earth system contains several 'great cycles' in which key materials are transported through
the environment. In general, cycles occur in closed systems; at the global scale, many systems
may be assumed to be closed because the earth receives negligible quantities of minerals from
space and because only limited quantities of materials can escape the earth's atmosphere. The
key materials that cycle through the major biogeochemical cycles are carbon, oxygen, hydrogen,
nitrogen, phosphorous and Sulphur - all of which are essential for life. The biogeochemical
cycles operate at the global scale and involve all of the main components of the earth system;
thus, materials are transferred continually between the geosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and
biosphere. However, since the biogeochemical cycles involve elements that are essential for life,
organisms play a vital part in those cycles. Typically then, the biogeochemical cycles involve an
inorganic component (the abiotic part of the cycle, including sedimentary and atmospheric
phases) and an organic component (comprising plants and animals, both living and dead). Like
other environmental systems, biogeochemical cycles involve the flow of substances between
stores (also known as reservoirs) in the geosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere.
Water plays a vital role in mediating many of the flows between stores.

Three of the key biogeochemical cycles are the nitrogen, carbon and sulphur cycles, whose main
features are described here.

 The nitrogen cycle - the nitrogen cycle is a relatively fast and highly complex cycle.
Most of the atmosphere consists of gaseous nitrogen which is 'fixed' (in other words,
made available for use by plants) biologically in soils. Soil bacteria convert nitrogen to
ammonia; this, together with inorganic nitrate, is absorbed by plant roots and converted
to organic compounds (such as proteins) in plant tissues. These compounds are eaten by
herbivores; in turn, nitrogenous compounds are passed to carnivores, and they are
ultimately returned to the soil in the form of nitrogenous waste products (such as urine
and faeces) and as a result of the death and decomposition of organisms. Bacteria then
convert the organic nitrogen compounds into ammonia and ammonium compounds,
which are then converted by bacteria into nitrites and then nitrates, which are then
available for re-uptake by plants. Some of the nitrogenous compounds that are not
absorbed by plants are leached from the soil into groundwater, surface water and
ultimately into seas and oceans. Of that nitrogenous material, some is used by aquatic
plants, some accumulates as organic sediment, and some evaporates into the atmosphere.
The cycle is completed by denitrifying bacteria which eventually convert nitrates and
nitrites to ammonia, nitrogen and nitrogen oxides.
 The carbon cycle - carbon is stored in the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide,
which is absorbed by plants and converted to carbohydrates by the process of
photosynthesis. The cycle then follows food chains, with carbohydrates being consumed
by herbivores and then carnivores, being metabolised during the process of respiration.
Carbon dioxide is returned to the atmosphere as animals exhale and when organic waste
and dead organisms decay. Vegetation and animals are thus important stores of carbon,
although that carbon may be rapidly returned to the atmosphere if vegetation is burned.
Soils are also important reservoirs for carbon. Atmospheric carbon dioxide is soluble in
water, in which it forms carbonic acid, which forms bicarbonate ions and carbonate ions,
 which in turn form salts (such as the insoluble calcium carbonate, which accumulates in
marine sediments, marine organisms and carbonate rocks, such as limestone). Carbon is
typically stored in these forms until it is released to the atmosphere by chemical
weathering. A diagrammatic representation of the carbon cycle is presented in 2.2.3.

 The Sulphur cycle - Sulphur is released into the atmosphere during volcanic eruptions
(in the forms of Sulphurous gas, dust and particles) and as a result of the weathering of
rocks. The oceans also play an important role in the Sulphur cycle, as marine
phytoplankton produce dimethyl Sulphide, some of which enters the atmosphere and is
converted to Sulphur dioxide and Sulphate aerosols. These compounds are ultimately
converted to Sulphuric acid and are deposited on the earth's surface in precipitation. In
terrestrial ecosystems, bacteria break down Sulphurous compounds and release the
Sulphur to the atmosphere again, mainly in the form of hydrogen sulphide.

MAN AND ENVIRONMENT

Our environment means our physical surroundings and the characteristics of the place in which
we live. It also refers to the wider natural world of land, sea and atmosphere.

Man and the Environment were created to interact with each other on balance basis. While the
natural environment is to create a fair decent shelter and to provide food supplements including
economic resources of gold, oil, and so on, man on other hand is supposed to care and protect the
environment from destruction. Geographers in particular are interested in identifying and
analyzing in detail the human and physical development interface. Both sides have directly or
indirectly affected each other's potentials. In some instances, the original landscape is completely
wiped off and replace with man-made cultural environment. Directly or indirectly, the physical
environment has inevitably influenced man.

During the last 100 years, man has exceeded the powerful natural forces that have shaped the
shape of the earth's surface. As a result, there are problems of global warming, sea-level change,
acidification, salination, and environmental pollution, reduction in biodiversity, ecological
imbalance, and endangering of human survival.
The biosphere is being destroyed through illegal activities of man. Through the activities of
housing and construction, mining, agriculture, industry, fishing, and many more, man has
inevitably produced thousands of pollutants discharged from factories, vehicles, incinerators, and
engines. Pollutants of CO, CO2, hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, Sulphur oxides and particles
causing respiratory disorders, and spread of cardiovascular diseases. For instance, the WHO
indicated that at least 3.0 million people die every year for illness caused by air pollution.

Also, pollutants of domestic waste, chemical waste, and animal droppings all cause
environmental degradation. Aquatic life and the hydrolic circle are being greatly affected by
human activities of urbanization, fishing, stream modification and channelization which
produces biocides, cyanides, and radioactive substances.

Other the other hand, the environment either through natural processes or human recalcitrant
activities has turned to affect the life of man through flooding, rainstorms, earthquakes, volcano,
erratic rainfall, heavy winds, and crop failures. Environmentally related diseases such as malaria,
cholera, diarrhea, and many others, are the influence of environmental pollution.

THE IMPACT OF MAN ON ENVIRONMENT

Man has negatively impacted on the environment through the following activities

Deforestation: Sadly, the world’s forests are being cut down at a rapid rate. An area of the
Amazon rainforest roughly the same size as Jamaica was deforested between August 2020 and
July 2021, the highest rate of deforestation since 2012. Since trees absorb carbon dioxide from
the atmosphere, they’re an essential resource for mitigating global heating. But when they’re
cleared and burned the opposite occurs – carbon is released back into the atmosphere.

Overfishing: The use of industrial-scale fishing techniques to meet our demand for fish is
depleting our oceans. For example, bottom trawl fishing is a method used in many parts of the
world, whereby a large weighted net is swept along the ocean floor to catch fish. But this can
harm corals and pick up unwanted species, including dolphins and sea turtles, in a process
known as bycatch. According to a UN report released in 2018, one-third of all fish that are
caught globally never make it onto people’s plates.

Burning fossil fuels: It’s a well-documented fact that the burning of fossil fuels is the prime
culprit for climate change. When oil, gas and coal are burned, they release carbon dioxide and
other harmful greenhouse gases, which trap heat in the Earth’s atmosphere and cause it to warm
up. As well as being used for our energy supply, these fuels play a big role in producing plastic,
steel, concrete and other important materials. Fossil fuels are currently used to supply 80% of the
world’s energy.

Pesticides Fertilizers: Farmers around the world are increasingly using pesticides to protect
their crops from being destroyed by pests. Unfortunately, however, pesticides are causing insects
to die off according to a 2019 report, insects could disappear within a century if pesticide usage
continues. Insects are essential for the proper functioning of our ecosystems, as they provide
food for other species, pollinate plants and recycle nutrients back into the environment.

Another aspect of modern farming that’s wreaking havoc on our ecosystems is the use of
fertilizers. While organic materials including manure and plants have been used for centuries, the
invention of artificial fertilizers in the 1920s led to vast quantities of nitrogen to leak into soil
and waterways. In the last 100 years, the amount of man-made nitrogen present in the
environment has doubled. Excessive quantities of nitrogen not only accelerate climate change,
but poison plants and animals.

Poaching: Pangolins are targeted for their scales, rhinos and elephants for their tusks, turtles for
their shells. Poaching might be illegal, but since these animals are so profitable on the black
market, it’s still rife in many parts of the world. And it has dire consequences for the
environment and puts species at risk of extinction. In Africa alone, around 35,000 elephants are
killed each year. In March 2021, the African forest elephant was listed as Critically Endangered
and the African savannah elephant was listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List of
Threatened Species.

Overpopulation: It’s an unavoidable fact that each person on Earth increases carbon emissions.
So the world’s burgeoning population, which is currently increasing by 80 million people per
year, is a climate concern. But it’s important to note that people living in wealthy countries have
had a far bigger impact on carbon emissions and most victims from climate change are from less-
developed nations. In fact in 2018, two of the world’s biggest economies, the US and China,

Coal mining: Although coal is relatively abundant and cheap to extract, the consequences for
the environment are extremely grave. Not only does the burning of coal contribute to emissions
of harmful gases – carbon dioxide, methane, nitrogen oxide and sulfur dioxide – its extraction
requires the removal of topsoil which obliterates habitats and makes soil vulnerable to erosion.
It’s also known to contribute to acid rain, smog and air pollution, with coal miners and
communities living near mines suffering from lung diseases and other deadly health conditions.

Forest fires: Horrific blazes have recently ravaged countries across Europe and North America.
Scientists have warned that these wildfires, which occur naturally but have been worsened due to
man-made climate change, are the worst in over a decade, with 343 mega tonnes of carbon
released into the atmosphere in July 2021. Additionally, practices such as slash-and-burn –
where fires are set intentionally to clear land, especially in forests including the Amazon – are
directly causing forest fires. Around 99% of 2019’s fires in the Amazon were caused by human
activity.

Urbanisation: The world’s cities are responsible for around 70% of energy-related greenhouse
gas emissions according to the UN. Yet it’s not necessarily cities themselves that are the
problem. Rather, it’s poor infrastructure and urban planning. When areas are badly connected,
more people have to drive instead of taking greener modes of transport, which contributes to
carbon emissions. By planning, building and managing cities more efficiently, emissions can be
dramatically reduced.

Conflicts and wars: It might not sound like an obvious cause for global warming, but war is
contributing to the climate emergency. Warzones are often contaminated by noxious substances
including uranium, oil and debris which is detrimental for wildlife. What’s more, military groups
are enormous emitters of carbon dioxide: in 2017, the US army’s CO2 emissions totalled 59
million tonnes, more than that of Switzerland.

Transportation: The transportation sector accounts for 24% of global CO2 emissions according
to the International Energy Agency (IEA) – and road vehicles accounted for almost three-
quarters of that total. Despite the increase in the number of electric and hybrid cars on the road,
the sheer volume of travel means that overall emissions for the sector continue to rise. The sector
is heavily dependent on oil, although rail travel is an exception, with 39% of its fuel supplied by
electricity.

Construction: In 2019, the construction industry was responsible for 38% of global CO2
emissions according to the UN. The use of fossil fuels to heat and power buildings is a key
factor, especially with a growing demand for energy-intensive air conditioning in buildings –
partly due to higher temperatures from climate change. While a 20–30% reduction in building
activity during 2020 (due to the COVID-19 pandemic) has slowed the rate of emissions from the
industry, experts warn bigger improvements to buildings’ energy efficiency are needed to curb
emissions.

Pollution: Pollution is everywhere. From the trash thrown out on the freeway, to the millions of
metric tons of pollution pumped into the atmosphere every year- it's obvious, pollution and waste
are inescapable. Pollution is so bad that to date, 2.4 billion people do not have access to clean
water sources. Humanity is continuously polluting indispensable resources like air, water, and
soil which requires millions of years to replenish. Air is arguably the most polluted with the US
producing 147 million metric tons of air pollution each year alone.

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS RESULTING FROM MAN’S ACTIVITIES

As a result of man’s activities stated above, the following are its resultant effects

Global Warming

Global warming is arguably the greatest cause of impact on the environment. The largest of
causes emanating through CO₂ levels from respiration to more detrimental causes like burning
fossil fuels and deforestation.

At any rate, humans are consistently increasing CO₂ levels globally- every year. The highest
level of CO₂ in recorded history before 1950 was about 300 parts per million. However, current
measurements of CO₂ levels have exceeded above 400 PPM, abolishing every record dating
back 400,000 years.

The increase of CO₂ emissions has contributed to the planet's average temperature increasing
almost a whole degree.

As the temperature increases, arctic land ice and glaciers melt which causes the ocean levels to
rise at a rate of 3.42mm per year, allowing more water to absorb more heat, which melts more
ice, creating a positive feedback loop which will cause the oceans to rise 1-4 feet by 2100.

Climate Change
Climate change is closely connected to the historical development of industry and technology.
As global temperatures increase, Earth's weather patterns will drastically change. While some
areas will experience longer growing seasons, others will become barren wastelands as water
will deplete in vast areas, turning once floral regions into deserts.

The increase will impact weather patterns, promising more intense hurricanes in both size and
frequency, as well as intensifying and prolonging droughts and heatwaves. But air pollution does
not just affect the environment.

The evidence is mounting that poor air quality and rising temperatures are ruining delicate
ecosystems, even leading to increased asthma and cancer rates in humans.

Ocean Acidification

This is caused when CO₂ dissolves into the ocean bonding with seawater creating carbonic acid.
The acid reduces the pH levels in the water, essentially changing the Ocean acidity by 30% in the
last 200 years according to analysis - a level that the ocean has not been at in over 20 million
years.

The acidity depletes the calcium concentrations, making it difficult for crustaceans to build their
shell, leaving them vulnerable without their armor. Between the global temperature rise of one
degree and the ocean acidification, scientists say a quarter of all coral reefs are considered
damaged beyond repair, with two-thirds under serious threat. The death of coral reefs is a serious
concern.

Coral reefs are home to 25% of aquatic life, many of which are responsible for the natural
filtration of the ocean and production of necessary nutrients that are vital for life under the sea.
However, acidification is not the only watery threat as there are other human activities causing
severe changes. Things like plastic pollution and overfishing are wreaking havoc on our oceans.

Acid Rain

When humans burn coal, sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are released into the atmosphere
where they rise up and accumulate in the clouds until the clouds become saturated and rain acid,
causing havoc on the ground beneath.
When the rain falls, it accumulates in water bodies which are especially harmful to lakes and
small bodies of water. The ground surrounding the water soaks up the acid, depleting the soil of
essential nutrients. Trees that absorb the acid accumulate toxins that damage leaves and slowly
kills large areas of forest.

Acid rain has also been known to completely eliminate entire species of fish, causing a snowball
effect of damage to the ecosystem that relies on diverse organisms to sustain the environment.

Ozone Depletion

The ozone layer is renowned for its ability to absorb harmful UV rays that would otherwise be
detrimental to the health of all walks of life. Without an ozone layer, walking outside would be
unbearable.

Ozone is made up of three bonded oxygens that float up to the stratosphere where they absorb a
substantial amount of UV radiation, protecting all life down below. However "ozone-depleting
substances" (or ODS) primarily made up of chlorine and bromine find their way up to the
stratosphere where they strip the O3 of oxygen, destroying its capabilities of absorbing UV light.

The human impact is devastating for plants that are extremely sensitive to UV light including
wheat and barley, two indispensable crops to humans.

Although most chemicals that deplete the ozone layer have been banned, the chemicals that have
already been released can take upwards of 80 years to reach the upper atmosphere, so it will be
some time before our protective boundary will be fully functional again. Until then, slap on that
sunscreen and be safe out there.

Natural disasters
This may be in the form of floods, earth quakes, volcanic eruptions, etc

POSITIVE CONTRIBUTION OF ENVIRONMENT TO MAN

 Environment provides man with land for settlement, agriculture and other human
activities
 Provides man with food in form of fruits, vegetables, nuts, livestock, fish, and seafood
are all direct products of ecosystems, according to the
  Environment helps in National Wildlife conservation
 It provides man with raw-materials such as timber, minerals which are useful for
industrial and economic development.
 Environment provides man and animals with clean water.

ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION

Environment management

Environment management is defined as the management of the interaction and impact of human
activities on the natural environment, through the identification and management of factors that
have a stake in the conflicts that may rise between meeting social and economic needs but
protecting the environment.

Environmental conservation

Environmental conservation is the protection, preservation, management, or restoration of

natural environments and the ecological communities that inhabit them. It refers to all practices
that pave the way for protecting the environment and natural resources on the individual,
organizational as well as governmental levels. Conservation is generally held to include the
management of human use of natural resources for current public benefit and sustainable social
and economic utilization.

MECHANISMS OF ENVIRONMENT MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION

Recycle

Recycling is such a simple thing to do, but so many people don’t do it. Many garbage disposal
companies offer recycling services, so check with the company you use to see if they can help
you get started! It is as simple as getting a bin and putting it out with your trash cans for free!
Also, check with your RA to see if recycling options are offered in your dorm. Another way to
recycle is to look for recycling cans near trashcans. Instead of throwing recyclables in the trash
with your non-recyclables, make a point to take an extra step to locate recycling cans around
your campus.

Controlling Wildfires
Every year, wildfires that start spontaneously in Australia, California and other dry areas destroy
large areas of forest and the animals living in them. Human efforts often help contain the damage
to some extent.

Cleaning Waterways

Waterways get clogged up with the accumulation of natural debris and excessive plant growth,
and also by waste dumping. Periodical clearing prevents flooding of the banks and protects many
ecosystems.

Reforestation and afforestation efforts

Large areas that underwent deforestation for cultivation, grazing and for human settlements are
reforested with native plant species to restore ecological balance.

Finding Renewable Energy Sources

Bio-fuels made from plant-derived ethanol and oils are used to reduce dependence on fast-
depleting oil reserves. Wind turbines and solar energy generators can help meet local electricity
needs and take some of the load off the power grid.

The Development of Local Food Sources

Local food systems rely upon a network of small, usually family-run farms. Supporting local
farmer's markets and community support agriculture (CSA) pograms cuts down on individual
carbon footprints and encourages the development of a healthy local economy. More people are
also growing their own food due to rising costs and a renewed interest in health and
sustainability.

Using Technology to Reduce Pollution

Technological advances are being used to help control and remediate pollution. This includes
Nanotechnology filtration systems that purify water, absorbent materials and oil-digesting
bacterial cultures to clean up oil spills, and low-sulfur fuels and efficient carbon filters to reduce
air pollution.
 PLANT MORPHOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY PLANT

MORPHOLOGY

Plant morphology (or phytomorphology) is the general term for the study of physical form and
external structure of plants. This is usually considered distinct from plant anatomy, which is the
study of the internal structure of plants, especially at the microscopic level. Plant morphology is
useful in the identification of plants.

Plant morphology "represents a study of the development, form, and structure of plants, and, by
implication, an attempt to interpret these on the basis of similarity of plan and origin." There are
four major areas of investigation in plant morphology, and each overlaps with another field of
the biological sciences.

First of all, morphology is comparative, meaning that the morphologist examines structures in
many different plants of the same or different species, then draws comparisons and formulates
ideas about similarities. When structures in different species are believed to exist and develop as
a result of common, inherited genetic pathways, those structures are termed homologous. For
example, the leaves of pine, oak, and cabbage all look very different, but share certain basic
structures and arrangement of parts. The homology of leaves is an easy conclusion to make. The
plant morphologist goes further, and discovers that the spines of cactus also share the same basic
structure and development as leaves in other plants, and therefore cactus spines are homologous
to leaves as well. This aspect of plant morphology overlaps with the study of plant evolution and
paleobotany.

Secondly, plant morphology observes both the vegetative (somatic) structures of plants, as well
as the reproductive structures. The vegetative structures of vascular plants includes the study of
the shoot system, composed of stems and leaves, as well as the root system. The reproductive
structures are more varied, and are usually specific to a particular group of plants, such as
flowers and seeds, fern sori, and moss capsules. The detailed study of reproductive structures in
plants led to the discovery of the alternation of generations found in all plants and most algae.
This area of plant morphology overlaps with the study of biodiversity and plant systematics.

Thirdly, plant morphology studies plant structure at a range of scales. At the smallest scales are
ultrastructure, the general structural features of cells visible only with the aid of an electron
microscope, and cytology, the study of cells using optical microscopy.

At this scale, plant morphology overlaps with plant anatomy as a field of study. At the largest
scale is the study of plant growth habit, the overall architecture of a plant. The pattern of
branching in a tree will vary from species to species, as will the appearance of a plant as a tree,
herb, or grass.

Fourthly, plant morphology examines the pattern of development, the process by which
structures originate and mature as a plant grows. While animals produce all the body parts they
will ever have from early in their life, plants constantly produce new tissues and structures
throughout their life. A living plant always has embryonic tissues. The way in which new
structures mature as they are produced may be affected by the point in the plants life when they
begin to develop, as well as by the environment to which the structures are exposed. A
morphologist studies this process, the causes, and its result. This area of plant morphology
overlaps with plant physiology and ecology.

Importance of morphology:

1. Gives particular contour to the body.

2. Structural simplicity and complexity can be known.
3. Plants can be recognised by the external morphology.
4. Provides the basics of classification.
5. It studies changes in organs in response to environmental factors.

PLANT PHYSIOLOGY

Plants have many different uses. But how do plants develop from seeds, and how do they grow?
This is where plant physiology comes into play. Plant physiology is the study of how different
parts of plants function. It includes many aspects of plant life, including nutrition, movement,
and growth.

Water Transport: Water is an essential requirement for plant growth. Plants have a complex
xylem system that moves water from the soil all the way up to the leaves, where it is used to
make energy. The xylem moves water absorbed in the roots to the top of the plant through a
process called transpiration. Water evaporates from the leaves, causing more water to flow
upward to fill the gap. Think of it like a blood vessel system for the plant: The leaves act like the
heart - a driving force moving water through the plant - and the xylem acts like the blood vessels.
Properties of water, like adhesion and cohesion, where water sticks to itself and the xylem walls,
helps the water to climb upward as well.

To really investigate the xylem, you can try this cool experiment at home. Mix some blue food
coloring with water and place a stalk of celery (with leaves) in the solution. Within half an hour,
the blue dye will climb through the xylem with the water and turn the leaves of the celery
completely blue! That's the xylem in action.

Nutrient Production: Plants also require nutrients to grow and develop, but unlike people,
plants produce their own nutrients. All plant cells contain chlorophyll, a chemical which allows
plants to harvest energy from the sun and create glucose (or sugar). The process by which plants
make glucose is called photosynthesis. Glucose is the same sugar that is in foods like candy or
bread. The entire plant needs this sugar, not just the green leaves, so plants have evolved a
system called phloem to move the sugar and other nutrients to the entire plant. Phloem is similar
to xylem in that it is a network of tubes within the plant designed to transport nutrients, but there
is one big difference: Xylem flows in only one direction, like our blood, but phloem is more like
our digestive system, distributing nutrients throughout the entire plant.

Phototropism and Other Tropisms: Scientist Charles Darwin and his son were the first to
investigate phototropism in plants using the following experiment with grass seedlings. First,
they cut off the tips of the shoots, and the plants did not grow towards the light. An opaque cap
on the shoot also prevented light-directed growth, but a clear cap did not. In their conclusion,
they reasoned that the indicator that causes phototropism was inside the tip of the shoot of the
plant and was stimulated by light.

PLANT TAXONOMIC UNITS

Plant taxonomy or classification is the science of naming organisms and placing them in a
hierarchical structure, each level being given a name (e.g., kingdom, division (phylum), class,
order, family, genus, species). Taxonomic units at a given level are termed taxa (singular taxon).
Names of higher order taxa (e.g., kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus) are uninominal
(i.e., each name is a single word).
Classification of plant kingdom

Plants are one of the five main groups of living things. These groups are called kingdoms. The
plant kingdom includes such living things as grasses, trees, ferns, bushes, and flowers. Botanists,
the scientists who study plants, have counted more than 300,000 species (kinds) of plants.

The many species of organisms in the plant kingdom are divided into several phyla, or divisions,
totaling about 260,000 species. The bryophytes are a diverse assemblage of three phyla of
nonvascular plants, with about 16,000 species, that includes the mosses, liverworts, and
hornworts. Bryophytes lack a well-developed vascular system for the internal conduction of
water and nutrients and have been called nonvascular plants. It takes two generations to complete
the plant life cycle (Alternation of Generations). The familiar leafy plant of bryophytes is the
sexual, or gamete-producing, generation of the life cycle of these organisms. Because of the lack
of a vascular system and because the gametes require a film of water for dispersal, bryophytes
are generally small plants that tend to occur in moist conditions, although some attain large size
under favorable circumstances and others (usually very small) are adapted to desert life.

The other phyla are collectively termed vascular plants or tracheophytes. Vascular tissue is an
internal conducting tissue for the movement of water, minerals, and food. There are two types of
vascular tissue: xylem, which conducts water and minerals from the ground to stems and leaves,
and phloem, which conducts food produced in the leaves to the stems, roots, and storage and
reproductive organs. In the evolution of tracheophytes, the spore-producing generation became
much larger and more complex, whereas the gamete-producing generation became reduced and
merely contained in the sporophyte tissue. This ability to evolve into larger and more diverse
sporophytes, together with the ability of the vascular system to elevate water, freed
tracheophytes from direct dependence on surface water. They were thus able to dominate all the
terrestrial habitats of the Earth, except the higher Arctic zones, and to provide food and shelter
for its diverse animal inhabitants.

Criteria of classification:

Following are characteristics on which classification is based. These can be characters like:

 Leaf width
  Stamen number (the male reproductive organ of a flower, typically consisting of a stalk
filament bearing a pollen-producing anther at its tip)
 Corolla length (the petals of a flower collectively, forming a ring around the reproductive
organs and surrounded by an outer ring of sepals)
 Locule number (a small cavity, chamber, or cell in a plant or animal)
 Placentation (the way in which ovules are attached to the ovary of a plant), etc

Aims of classification:

 In the study of various organs of plants, it is noted that they vary an infinite variety of
forms, structure, and kind.
 Despite, there are close similarities b/w certain plants which indicate a close relationship.
o The aim of the taxonomy is to bring naming, describing and arranging the plants
in such a manner that their relationship with regards to their descent from a
common ancestry is clearly indicated.
o Moreover, to arrange the plants in such a way as to give us an idea about the
sequence of their evolution from simpler, earlier and more primitive types to more
complex more recent and more advanced types in different periods of the earth.

Basis of classification:

 The classification of plants is based upon certain characteristics

 We may use such feature as basis like environmental conditions, methods of obtaining
food, anatomy, life history, size of the body, the color of flowers, use in daily life,
geographic distribution
 On these bases, plants are distributed into the groups such as land plants, water plants,
shade plans, sun plants, parasitic plants, saprophytic plants, etc.

Unit of Plants classification and Taxa

There are certain steps for classification of plant kingdom. These step are called Taxa and is
singular Taxon.

1. Kingdom: The plant kingdom is composed of the whole number and types of plants present
in the world. The plant kingdom is comprises of about 450000 species.
2. Division: Plant Kingdom is divided into seven Divisions.

3. Class: Each division is divided into several classes.

4. Order: Each class is divided into several orders.

5. Family: Each order is divided into several families.

6. Genus: Each family is divided into several Genera (PI. of Genus).

7. Species: Each genus is divided into several species.

Example:

Acacia nilotica

Kingdom: Plantae

Division: Phanerogams

Sub-division: Angeospermae

Class: Dicot

Sub-class: Polypetalae

Order: Calciflocae

Family: Fabaceae

Genus: Acacia

Species: nilotica

Types and Characteristics of Biotic Community

A biotic community is any assemblage of different species living in a geographical area or

habitat. It is a heterogeneous collection of different groups of organisms, both plants and
animals. Each unit is called Population.
The organisms of different populations have features in common due to abiotic factors in the
environment, like light, water, temperature, radiation, etc. The biotic environments, i.e. plants
and animals present in a particular area also influence the density of a particular group of
population. All the organisms in a community are not equally important in determining the
nature of that community. The species which exert a major controlling influence on the
community are called ecological dominants.

The nature of relationship between species is determined by the requirements of member-

community. Major communities are those which are of sufficient size and members are relatively
independent. They need only sun energy from outside and are independent of output and input
from adjacent communities. Minor communities are those which are more or less dependent on
neighboring aggregations.

Communities have definite functional unity with characteristic structures and patterns of energy
flow and also have compositional unity. Biotic community is constantly changing. Very
frequently Communities blend gradually into one another so that there are no sharply defined
boundaries. (The place and area where two major communities meet and blend together is called
Ecotone whereas habitat of an organism or community is the place where it lives.

The position or status that a given species occupies within the community or in an ecosystem on
account of its structural adaptations is called Ecological Niche. (Different species living under
different geographical regions, but under similar environmental conditions are known as
ecological equivalents.

Characteristics of Biotic Community

Within community, animals may exhibit any of the following 6 characterized associations,
namely Predation, Scavenging, Parasitism, Commensalism, Symbiosis and Competition.

(i) Predation: Animals that live by preying on other animals are called predators. Here, there is
direct food relationship between two species of animals. One animal (predator) captures and
feeds on the other (prey). A species may be prey and predator at the same time. Each would ;lay
a slayer and in turn would be slain for purposes of food.
(ii) Scavenging: In this case, an animal would feed on other animals that have been dead
naturally or killed by other animals. Vultures feed on dead animals and render scavenging for the
community. Here also there is direct food relationship.

(iii) Parasitism: Parasite is an animal or plant that lives on or in another animal or plant at the
latter’s expense or to its detriment. The parasite is an organism living on in the body of a larger
living organism and derives nourishment from the tissues of the host organism. There are two
types of parasites, viz., partial parasite and permanent parasite. The. former spends only a part of
its life-cycle on the host; while the latter spends its entire life- cycle as parasite on the host.

Endoparasites live inside the body of the host and Ectoparasites live outside drawing sustenance.
At times parasites themselves are parasitised by other organism. This is called Hyperparasitism.
Parasites bring about profound changes on their host which are always detrimental to the host. At
the same time, parasites undergo many changes and modifications in their pursuit of successful
living at the expense of host organism. This is called Parasite adaptation.

(iv) Commensalism: Commensels are those animals which live together as intimates but without
parasitic association. There will he no physiological dependence nor any injury. In
commensalism one animal might get benefit from the association while the other is neither
benefited nor injured. The relationship would be just like table-mates at the dinner.

(v) Symbiosis: Symbiosis means living together of two dissimilar organisms to their mutual
advantage. It is an association of two species of organism where both the partners derive benefits
from each other. Many instances of symbiosis could be found in biotic community. Lichens are
composed of algae and fungus. In this, the green algae synthesize food for both, while fungus
gives protection and raw materials for the preparation of food. In the case of leguminous plants,
the nodules work in the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen which is used by plants, while plants
supply water, minerals and organic food to bacterium.

(vi) Competition: While symbiosis is collusion of activities for mutual benefits in the biotic
community, competition is the race between species for getting a common resource. Active
demand by two or more individuals of the same species or members of two or more species at
the same tropical level will result in density and diversity of population causing congestion.
EAST AFRICAN WILDLIFE COMMUNITIES

East Africa is well endowed with a variety of ecosystems that provide varied services, as well as
habitats for a wide range of species. Burundi has 13 protected areas covering 100,000 ha of land.
About 172,000 ha (or 6.7%) of Burundi is forested. These ecosystems harbour 2,500 higher plant
species, 145 bird species, 107 mammal species, 79 reptile species, 18 amphibian species and 5
fish species.

The Kenyan coastline is characterised by a rich diversity of flora and fauna, including fish, coral
reefs and mangrove forests. The rangelands are composed of a number of habitat structures
ranging from open grasslands to closed woody and / or bushy vegetation with varying amounts
and composition of grass cover and species.

Rwanda’s location at the heart of the Albertine Rift eco-region in the western arm of Africa’s
Rift Valley makes it one of Africa’s most biologically diverse regions. It is home to some 40% of
the continent’s mammal species (402 species), a huge diversity of birds (1,061 species), reptiles
and amphibians (293 species), and higher plants (5,793 species).

Tanzania has a diverse spectrum of fauna and flora, including a wide variety of endemic species
and sub-species. The biological diversity and degree of endemism consist of primates (20 species
and 4 endemic), antelopes (34 species and 2 endemic), fish (with many endemic in Lake
Victoria, Tanganyika and Nyasa and other small lakes and rivers), reptiles (290 species and 75
endemic), amphibians (40 endemic), invertebrates and plants (around 11,000 species including
many endemic).

Uganda has a rich array of natural resources which include water and wetlands, biodiversity,
fisheries, forestry, land resources, wildlife, and minerals among others. The country has more
than 5,000 plant species along with 345 mammals, 1,015 birds, 165 reptiles and 43 amphibians.
 ECOSYSTEM

An ecosystem is a community or group of living organisms that live in and interact with each
other in a specific environment. For instance, tropical forests are ecosystems made up of living
beings such as trees, plants, animals, insects and micro-organisms that are in constant interaction
between themselves and that are affected by other physical (sun, temperature) or chemical
(oxygen or nutrients) component.

How natural ecosystems work

Natural ecosystems are “balanced” systems. This means the interactions between the different
organisms that make up the ecosystem contribute to a certain stability. For example, in grassland
ecosystems, herbivores consume grass, but also feed the soil with their droppings, which allows
the grass to grow back and allows some sort of balance. Still, this doesn’t mean an ecosystem,
even a healthy one, is static. In reality, ecosystems are constantly evolving as they are based on
dynamic processes that are constantly changing.

For instance, biocenosis are living organisms that interact with their environment and constantly
transform it. How? Because animals compact the soil, plants create humidity or regulate the
temperature and bacteria help in the microscopic world by protecting all sorts of animals from
diseases and helping in their digestion process. As well, an ecosystem also evolves due to
external or unforeseen events. A climatic or natural phenomenon, for example, can lead to
transformations in the environment. In this way, biocenosis the ecosystem’s living organisms to
adapt to these new constraints, and change happens.

It’s also curious that although an ecosystem is always looking for stability, the ecosystem never
perfectly succeeds at it. The various natural imbalances tend to offset each other permanently.
Some ecosystems evolve very slowly while others can transform very quickly. Sometimes, in
extreme cases, they can even disappear.

Common characteristics of most of the ecosystems

1. The ecosystem is a major structural and functional unit of ecology.

2. The structure of an ecosystem is related to its species diversity in the sense that complex
ecosystem have high species diversity.
3. The function of ecosystem is related to energy flow and material cycles within and outside the
system.

4. The relative amount of energy needed to maintain an ecosystem depends on its structure.
Complex ecosystems needed less energy to maintain themselves.

5. Young ecosystems develop and change from less complex to more complex ecosystems,
through the process called succession.

6. Each ecosystem has its own energy budget, which cannot be exceeded.

7. Adaptation to local environmental conditions is the important feature of the biotic components
of an ecosystem, failing which they might perish.

8. The function of every ecosystem involves a series of cycles, e.g., water cycle, nitrogen cycle,
oxygen cycle, etc. these cycles are driven by energy. A continuation or existence of ecosystem
demands exchange of materials/nutrients to and from the different components.

Functions of ecosystem

The functions of the ecosystem are as follows:

1. It regulates the essential ecological processes, supports life systems and renders
stability.
2. It is also responsible for the cycling of nutrients between biotic and abiotic
components.
3. It maintains a balance among the various trophic levels in the ecosystem.
4. It cycles the minerals through the biosphere.
5. The abiotic components help in the synthesis of organic components that involves
the exchange of energy.

Types of ecosystem

An ecosystem can be as small as an oasis in a desert, or as big as an ocean, spanning thousands

of miles. There are two types of ecosystem:

 Terrestrial Ecosystem
  Aquatic Ecosystem

Terrestrial Ecosystems

Terrestrial ecosystems are exclusively land-based ecosystems. There are different types of
terrestrial ecosystems distributed around various geological zones. They are as follows:

1. Forest Ecosystems
2. Grassland Ecosystems
3. Tundra Ecosystems
4. Desert Ecosystem

Forest Ecosystem; A forest ecosystem consists of several plants, animals and microorganisms
that live in coordination with the abiotic factors of the environment. Forests help in maintaining
the temperature of the earth and are the major carbon sink.

Grassland Ecosystem: In a grassland ecosystem, the vegetation is dominated by grasses and

herbs. Temperate grasslands, savanna grasslands are some of the examples of grassland
ecosystems.

Tundra Ecosystem: Tundra ecosystems are devoid of trees and are found in cold climates or
where rainfall is scarce. These are covered with snow for most of the year. The ecosystem in the
Arctic or mountain tops is tundra type.

Desert Ecosystem: Deserts are found throughout the world. These are regions with very little
rainfall. The days are hot and the nights are cold.

Aquatic Ecosystem

Aquatic ecosystems are ecosystems present in a body of water. These can be further divided into
two types, namely:

1. Freshwater Ecosystem
2. Marine Ecosystem
Freshwater Ecosystem; The freshwater ecosystem is an aquatic ecosystem that includes lakes,
ponds, rivers, streams and wetlands. These have no salt content in contrast with the marine
ecosystem.

Marine Ecosystem: The marine ecosystem includes seas and oceans. These have a more
substantial salt content and greater biodiversity in comparison to the freshwater ecosystem.

Structure of the Ecosystem

The structure of an ecosystem can be split into two main components, namely:

 Biotic Components
 Abiotic Components

The biotic and abiotic components are interrelated in an ecosystem. It is an open system where
the energy and components can flow throughout the boundaries.

Structure of Ecosystem highlighting the biotic and abiotic factors

Biotic Components
Biotic components refer to all life in an ecosystem. Based on nutrition, biotic components can be
categorized into autotrophs, heterotrophs and saprotrophs (or decomposers).

 Producers (Autotrophic component) include all autotrophs such as plants. They are
called autotrophs as they can produce food through the process of photosynthesis.
Consequently, all other organisms higher up on the food chain rely on producers for food.
 Consumers or heterotrophs are organisms that depend on other organisms for food.
Consumers are further classified into primary consumers, secondary consumers and
tertiary consumers.
o Primary consumers are always herbivores that they rely on producers for food.
o Secondary consumers depend on primary consumers for energy. They can either
be a carnivore or an omnivore.
o Tertiary consumers are organisms that depend on secondary consumers for food.
Tertiary consumers can also be an omnivore.
o Quaternary consumers are present in some food chains. These organisms prey on
tertiary consumers for energy. Furthermore, they are usually at the top of a food
chain as they have no natural predators.
 Decomposers include saprophytes such as fungi and bacteria. They directly thrive on the
dead and decaying organic matter. Decomposers are essential for the ecosystem as they
help in recycling nutrients to be reused by plants.

Abiotic Components

Abiotic components are the non-living component of an ecosystem. It includes air, water, soil,
minerals, sunlight, temperature, nutrients, wind, altitude, turbidity, etc. So the functional units of
an ecosystem or functional components that work together in an ecosystem are:

 Productivity – It refers to the rate of biomass production.

 Energy flow – It is the sequential process through which energy flows from one trophic
level to another. The energy captured from the sun flows from producers to consumers
and then to decomposers and finally back to the environment.
 Decomposition – It is the process of breakdown of dead organic material. The top-soil is
the major site for decomposition.
 Nutrient cycling – In an ecosystem nutrients are consumed and recycled back in various
forms for the utilization by various organisms.
NUTRIENT CYCLING

The availability of nutrients in aquatic systems is also an important aspect of energy or

photosynthesis. Many organisms sink to the bottom of the ocean when they die in the open
water. When this occurs, the energy found in that organism is sequestered for some time unless
ocean upwelling occurs. Ocean upwelling is the rising of deep ocean waters that occurs when
prevailing winds blow along surface waters near a coastline. As the wind pushes ocean waters
offshore, water from the bottom of the ocean moves up to replace this water. As a result, the
nutrients once contained in dead organisms become available for reuse by other living
organisms.

Upwelling: Ocean upwelling is an important process that recycles nutrients and energy in the
ocean. As wind (green arrows) pushes offshore, it causes water from the ocean bottom (red
arrows) to move to the surface, bringing up nutrients from the ocean depths.

In freshwater systems, the recycling of nutrients occurs in response to air temperature changes.
The nutrients at the bottom of lakes are recycled twice each year: in the spring and fall turnover,
which recycles nutrients and oxygen from the bottom of a freshwater ecosystem to the top of a
body of water. These turnovers are caused by the formation of a thermocline: a layer of water
with a temperature that is significantly different from that of the surrounding layers. In
wintertime, the surface of lakes found in many northern regions is frozen. However, the water
under the ice is slightly warmer, while the water at the bottom of the lake is warmer yet at 4 °C
to 5 °C (39.2 °F to 41 °F). Water is densest at 4 °C; therefore, the deepest water is also the
densest. The deepest water is oxygen poor because the decomposition of organic material at the
bottom of the lake uses up available oxygen that cannot be replaced by means of oxygen
diffusion into the water due to the surface ice layer.

In springtime, air temperatures increase and surface ice melts. When the temperature of the
surface water begins to reach 4 °C, the water becomes heavier and sinks to the bottom. The water
at the bottom of the lake, displaced by the heavier surface water, rises to the top. As it rises, the
sediments and nutrients from the lake bottom are brought along with it. During the summer
months, the lake water stratifies, or forms layers, with the warmest water at the lake surface.

As air temperatures drop in the fall, the temperature of the lake water cools to 4 °C; this causes
fall turnover as the heavy cold water sinks and displaces the water at the bottom. The oxygen-
rich water at the surface of the lake then moves to the bottom of the lake, while the nutrients at
the bottom of the lake rise to the surface (). During the winter, the oxygen at the bottom of the
lake is used by decomposers and other organisms requiring oxygen, such as fish.

PEDOGENESIS AND FACTORS OF SOIL FORMATION

Pedogenesis is the process of evolution of soil under the influence of various physical,
biological, climatic, and geological factors. Soil formation occurs via a series of changes to the
parent material, all of which lead to the formation of layers of soil, also called soil horizons.
These layers can then be separated on the basis of the composition and other physical properties.

Factors affecting soil formation

Soil forms continuously, but slowly, from the gradual breakdown of rocks through weathering.
Weathering can be a physical, chemical or biological process:

 Physical weathering—breakdown of rocks from the result of a mechanical action.

Temperature changes, abrasion (when rocks collide with each other) or frost can all cause
rocks to break down.
 Chemical weathering—breakdown of rocks through a change in their chemical makeup.
This can happen when the minerals within rocks react with water, air or other chemicals.
 Biological weathering—the breakdown of rocks by living things. Burrowing animals help
water and air get into rock, and plant roots can grow into cracks in the rock, making it
split.

The accumulation of material through the action of water, wind and gravity also contributes to
soil formation. These processes can be very slow, taking many tens of thousands of years. Five
main interacting factors affect the formation of soil:

 parent material—minerals forming the basis of soil

 living organisms—influencing soil formation
 climate—affecting the rate of weathering and organic decomposition
 topography—grade of slope affecting drainage, erosion and deposition
 time—influencing soil properties.

Interactions between these factors produce an infinite variety of soils across the earth’s surface.
Parent materials: Soil minerals form the basis of soil. They are produced from rocks (parent
material) through the processes of weathering and natural erosion. Water, wind, temperature
change, gravity, chemical interaction, living organisms and pressure differences all help break
down parent material.

The types of parent materials and the conditions under which they break down will influence the
properties of the soil formed. For example, soils formed from granite are often sandy and
infertile whereas basalt under moist conditions breaks down to form fertile, clay soils.

Organisms: Soil formation is influenced by organisms (such as plants), micro-organisms (such

as bacteria or fungi), burrowing insects, animals and humans.

As soil forms, plants begin to grow in it. The plants mature, die and new ones take their place.
Their leaves and roots are added to the soil. Animals eat plants and their wastes and eventually
their bodies are added to the soil.

This begins to change the soil. Bacteria, fungi, worms and other burrowers break down plant
litter and animal wastes and remains, to eventually become organic matter. This may take the
form of peat, humus or charcoal.

Climate: Temperature affects the rate of weathering and organic decomposition. With a colder
and drier climate, these processes can be slow but, with heat and moisture, they are relatively
rapid.

Rainfall dissolves some of the soil materials and holds others in suspension. The water carries or
leaches these materials down through the soil. Over time this process can change the soil,
making it less fertile.

Topography: The shape, length and grade of a slope affects drainage. The aspect of a slope
determines the type of vegetation and indicates the amount of rainfall received. These factors
change the way soils form.

Soil materials are progressively moved within the natural landscape by the action of water,
gravity and wind (for example, heavy rains erode soils from the hills to lower areas, forming
deep soils). The soils left on steep hills are usually shallower. Transported soils include:
  Alluvial (water transported)
 Colluvial (gravity transported)
 Aeolian (wind transported) soils.

Time: Soil properties may vary depending on how long the soil has been weathered.
Minerals from rocks are further weathered to form materials such as clays and oxides of iron and
aluminium.
PROPERTIES OF SOIL

The properties of soil are determined by the composition of the soil, depending on different
amounts of biotic and abiotic components. The combinations of these components determine the
physical and chemical properties of soil.

A. Physical Properties

The physical properties of soil include the following:

a. Soil Texture

 Soil texture refers to the size of the soil particles that is dependent on the relative
proportions of mineral components like sand, silt, and clay.
 Soil texture is further influenced by soil porosity, infiltration, and water retention
capacity.
 The texture of soil differs with soil type; sandy soil feels gritty, silt feels smooth, and clay
is sticky and mouldable.

b. Soil Structure

 The textural components of soil, including sand, silt, and clay might result in aggregates
as a result of their clumping. The aggregates further clump together to form peds.
 Information on the structure of soil gives information on the soil texture, matter content,
and biological activity.
 Soil structure is influenced by physical processes that might be improved or destroyed by
the choice of farming practices.

c. Soil Density
  The average soil particle density ranges from 2.60 to 2.75 grams per cm 3, which usually
remains unchanged for a given soil.
 The soil particle density is lower for soils with high organic matter content and higher for
soil with higher mineral content.
 Soil particle density is different from soil bulk density which is always less than soil
particle density.
 Soil density usually depends on the soil texture and structure and the composition of the
soil.

d. Soil Porosity

 Soil porosity is defined by the number of pores present within the soil.
 The porosity of soil is determined by the movement of air and water within the soil.
 Healthy soils usually have more number of pores between and within soil aggregates,
whereas poor quality soils have few pores or cracks.
 Soil porosity is influenced by soil texture and structure. The pore size in soil affects the
ability of plants and organisms to access water, oxygen, and other gases and minerals.

e. Soil consistency

 Soil consistency refers to the ability of the soil to stick to itself or other objects and to
resist deformation and rupture.
 Three moisture conditions define soil consistency; air-dry, moist, and wet.
 The consistency of dry soil ranges from loose to hard, whereas that of wet soil ranges
from non-sticky to sticky.
 Soil consistency is an important property that determines the ability of soil to support
buildings and roads.

f. Soil Colour

 Soil color is determined primarily by the organic composition of the soil.

 Soil color is one of the factors that help in the prediction of other soil characteristics
within a soil profile.
 Observation of soil color is a qualitative means of measuring organic, iron oxide, and the
clay contents of the soil.
  Besides, soil color is also influenced by the mineral content of the soil as the color might
change as a result of oxidation of degradation.

B. Chemical properties

a. Cation exchange capacity (CEC)

 Cation exchange capacity is the maximum amount of total cations that a soil sample is
capable of holding at a given pH.
 The cation exchange capacity of the soil is taken as an indicator of soil fertility, nutrient
retention, and the ability of soil to protect groundwater from cation contamination.

b. Soil pH

 The reactivity of soil is expressed in terms of the soil pH, which determines the acidity
and alkalinity of the soil.
 It is the measure of the hydrogen ion concentration in the aqueous solution of soil which
ranges between 3.5 to 9.5.
 Usually, soils with high acidity contain higher amounts of aluminum and manganese, and
soil with higher alkalinity has a higher concentration of sodium carbonate.
 In terms of soil fertility, agricultural production tends to be more in acidic soil.

c. Soil salinity

 Salts in the soil are transported from salt tables in water resources that then accumulate
due to evaporation.
 Salinization of soil also occurs during irrigation processes from drainages. The salt
accumulation affects the degradation of organic matter in soil and the vegetation on the
soil.
 The most common salts that are present in soil include magnesium sulfate, potassium
sulfate, and carbonates.

Functions of Soil

 Soil is the medium for plant growth as it provides an anchor for plant roots and acts as a
water holding tank for necessary moisture.
  The degradation of plant and animal matter, i.e. the release and the binding of nutrients
and trace elements, is one of the most important functions of soil organisms.
 Soil absorbs the water during rainfall and snowfall, which creates a pool of available
water for plants and soil organisms.
 The absorbed water also moves downward through the soil profile towards the water
bodies, thus acting as a regulator for water supplies.
 Soil is an essential part of biogeochemical cycles, where it allows the cycling of different
organic and inorganic compounds from the atmosphere to the soil and back.
 Soil is a habitat for soil organisms as it provides necessary nutrients and water to living
beings.
 Soil acts as the base for building homes, roads, and buildings, acting as a landscape or
engineering medium.
 Soil provides the raw material for different purposes like clay for ceramic production.

MAJOR SOILS OF UGANDA AND SOIL MANAGEMENT PROBLEMS

Soil is the thin layer of material covering the earth’s surface and is formed from the weathering
of rocks. It is made up mainly of mineral particles, organic materials, air, water and living
organisms—all of which interact slowly yet constantly.

Most plants get their nutrients from the soil and they are the main source of food for humans,
animals and birds. Therefore, most living things on land depend on soil for their existence.

Soil is a valuable resource that needs to be carefully managed as it is easily damaged, washed or
blown away. If we understand soil and manage it properly, we will avoid destroying one of the
essential building blocks of our environment and our food security.

Major types of soil

Soil, in general, is classified into four different types depending on its composition and the size
of particles. The four types of soil are:

A. Sandy Soil

 Sandy soil is a type of soil that contains a higher proportion of sand and less clay.
 Sandy soil is light, dry, and warm that tends to be more acidic than other types of soil.
  Because the size of the sand particle is larger than other particles, they have low water
retention capacity and fewer nutrients.
 The lack of enough moisture and nutrients makes the soil less suitable for crop
production.
 However, the soil can be made suitable by adding organic matter to increase water and
nutrient content.

B. Clay Soil

 Clay soil is a type of soil that is comparatively heavy as it has higher water retention
capacity and a higher concentration of nutrients.
 The soil is made up of over 25% clay particles that are smaller in size and thus hold a
large amount of water.
 Clay soil drains water slowly and thus takes longer to warm up in the summer without
drying out.
 However, because it is a heavy and dense type of soil, it doesn’t provide space for plant
roots to flourish.

C. Silt Soil

 Silt soil is a light soil with a higher fertility rate with soil particles that are large than clay
but smaller than sand.
 The soil is smooth and of fine quality that holds water better than the sandy soil.
 The soil can also be easily transported by moving currents, and it is found near water
bodies.
 Silt soil is considered the best type of soil for agricultural practices as it has sufficient
nutrients and enough moisture for plant growth.

D. Loam Soil

 Loam soil is a mixture of sand, silt, and clay soil that combines the properties of all three
types of soil to make it more fertile.
 The soil has enough pores as well as water retention capacity to promote crop production.
 The level of calcium and pH of loam soil is also of the appropriate amount due to the
presence of inorganic matter.
Soil management

Soil management can be seen as an integral part of land management and focuses on the different
soil types and characteristics that can enhance the soil quality for the aimed land-use. To ensure
food security, soil management is important since it can potentially improve agricultural
production, combat climate change and contribute to green economic growth. Improving nutrient
recycling, increasing organic matter content and applying fertilizers at the right time and in the
right amount can ensure nutrients are used more efficiently and soils are healthier. In this
Knowledge Portal topic, knowledge is presented that focuses on interventions that can increase
the productive capacity of soils