Oracle9i

Database Concepts

Release 2 (9.2)

March 2002
Part No. A96524-01
Oracle9i Database Concepts, Release 2 (9.2)

Part No. A96524-01

Copyright © 1996, 2002 Oracle Corporation. All rights reserved.

Primary Author: Michele Cyran

Contributors: Lance Ashdown, Cathy Baird, Sandeepan Banerjee, Mark Bauer, Ruth Baylis, Pradeep
Bhanot, Janet Blowney, Allen Brumm, Ted Burroughs, Larry Carpenter, Donna Carver, Chandra
Chandrasekar, Gary Chen, Amit Ganesh, Tom Grant, Mike Hartstein, John Haydu, Susan Hillson,
Dominique Jeunot, Archna Kalra Johnson, Vishy Karra, Alex Keh, Susan Kotsovolos, Sushil Kumar,
Tirthankar Lahiri, Paul Lane, Simon Law, Jeff Levinger, Yunrui Li, Bryn Llewellyn, Diana Lorentz, Lenore
Luscher, Sheryl Maring, Ben Meng, Kuassi Mensah, Tony Morales, Ari Mozes, Subramanian Muralidhar,
Ravi Murthy, Sujatha Muthulingam, Gary Ngai, Kant Patel, Ananth Raghavan, Jack Raitto, Beck
Reitmeyer, Ann Rhee, Kathy Rich, John Russell, Vivian Schupmann, Ravi Shankar, Mark Smith, Richard
Smith, Ekrem Soylemez, Marie St. Gelais, Debbie Steiner, Bob Thome, Anh-Tuan Tran, Randy Urbano,
Stephen Vivian, Daniel Wong, Wanli Yang, Ruiling Zhang, Zulaikha

Graphic Designer: Valarie Moore

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 Contents

Send Us Your Comments ............................................................................................................... xxxi

Preface....................................................................................................................................................... xxxiii
Audience ........................................................................................................................................... xxxiv
Organization..................................................................................................................................... xxxiv
Related Documentation ................................................................................................................. xxxvii
Conventions...................................................................................................................................... xxxix
Documentation Accessibility .............................................................................................................. xlii

Part I What Is Oracle?

1 Introduction to the Oracle Server

Database Structure and Space Management Overview .............................................................. 1-2
Logical Database Structures........................................................................................................ 1-2
Schemas and Schema Objects .............................................................................................. 1-2
Data Blocks, Extents, and Segments ................................................................................... 1-3
Tablespaces............................................................................................................................. 1-5
Physical Database Structures ...................................................................................................... 1-6
Datafiles .................................................................................................................................. 1-7
Redo Log Files........................................................................................................................ 1-7
Control Files ........................................................................................................................... 1-8
Data Utilities .......................................................................................................................... 1-8
Data Dictionary Overview .......................................................................................................... 1-9
Data Access Overview ..................................................................................................................... 1-10

iii
 SQL Overview ............................................................................................................................. 1-10
SQL Statements .................................................................................................................... 1-10
Objects Overview........................................................................................................................ 1-12
Advantages of Objects ........................................................................................................ 1-12
PL/SQL Overview...................................................................................................................... 1-13
PL/SQL Program Units ...................................................................................................... 1-13
Java Overview ............................................................................................................................. 1-14
XML Overview............................................................................................................................ 1-15
Transactions Overview .............................................................................................................. 1-17
Commit and Roll Back Transactions................................................................................. 1-18
Savepoints............................................................................................................................. 1-19
Data Consistency Using Transactions .............................................................................. 1-19
Data Integrity Overview ............................................................................................................ 1-19
Integrity Constraints ........................................................................................................... 1-20
Keys ....................................................................................................................................... 1-20
SQL*Plus Overview.................................................................................................................... 1-21
Memory Structure and Processes Overview................................................................................ 1-21
An Oracle Instance...................................................................................................................... 1-24
Real Application Clusters: Multiple Instance Systems .................................................. 1-24
Memory Structures ..................................................................................................................... 1-25
System Global Area ............................................................................................................. 1-25
Program Global Area .......................................................................................................... 1-26
Process Architecture................................................................................................................... 1-26
User (Client) Processes........................................................................................................ 1-26
Oracle Processes................................................................................................................... 1-27
The Program Interface Mechanism .......................................................................................... 1-30
Communications Software and Oracle Net Services...................................................... 1-30
An Example of How Oracle Works.......................................................................................... 1-31
Application Architecture Overview .............................................................................................. 1-32
Client/Server Architecture........................................................................................................ 1-32
The Client.............................................................................................................................. 1-32
The Server ............................................................................................................................. 1-32
Multitier Architecture: Application Servers ........................................................................... 1-32
Distributed Databases Overview................................................................................................... 1-33
Location Transparency ....................................................................................................... 1-34

iv
 Site Autonomy ..................................................................................................................... 1-34
Distributed Data Manipulation ......................................................................................... 1-34
Two-Phase Commit............................................................................................................. 1-34
Replication Overview ................................................................................................................ 1-35
Table Replication ................................................................................................................. 1-35
Multitier Materialized Views............................................................................................. 1-35
Streams Overview ...................................................................................................................... 1-36
Advanced Queuing Overview.................................................................................................. 1-38
Heterogeneous Services Overview .......................................................................................... 1-39
Data Concurrency and Consistency Overview ........................................................................... 1-40
Concurrency ................................................................................................................................ 1-40
Read Consistency........................................................................................................................ 1-40
Read Consistency, Undo Records, and Transactions..................................................... 1-41
Read-Only Transactions ..................................................................................................... 1-41
Locking Mechanisms.................................................................................................................. 1-42
Automatic Locking.............................................................................................................. 1-42
Manual Locking................................................................................................................... 1-42
Quiesce Database........................................................................................................................ 1-42
Database Security Overview .......................................................................................................... 1-43
Security Mechanisms ................................................................................................................. 1-44
Database Users and Schemas............................................................................................. 1-45
Privileges .............................................................................................................................. 1-45
Roles ...................................................................................................................................... 1-46
Storage Settings and Quotas .............................................................................................. 1-47
Profiles and Resource Limits ............................................................................................. 1-47
Selective Auditing of User Actions................................................................................... 1-48
Fine-Grained Auditing ....................................................................................................... 1-49
Database Administration Overview ............................................................................................. 1-49
Enterprise Manager Overview ................................................................................................. 1-49
Database Backup and Recovery Overview............................................................................. 1-50
Why Recovery Is Important............................................................................................... 1-50
Types of Failures.................................................................................................................. 1-50
Structures Used for Recovery ............................................................................................ 1-52
Data Warehousing Overview ......................................................................................................... 1-53
Differences Between Data Warehouse and OLTP Systems.................................................. 1-54

v
 Workload .............................................................................................................................. 1-54
Data Modifications .............................................................................................................. 1-54
Schema Design ..................................................................................................................... 1-54
Typical Operations .............................................................................................................. 1-54
Historical Data ..................................................................................................................... 1-55
Data Warehouse Architecture................................................................................................... 1-55
Data Warehouse Architecture (Basic)............................................................................... 1-55
Data Warehouse Architecture (with a Staging Area)..................................................... 1-56
Data Warehouse Architecture (with a Staging Area and Data Marts) ........................ 1-57
Materialized Views..................................................................................................................... 1-58
OLAP Overview.......................................................................................................................... 1-58
Change Data Capture Overview .............................................................................................. 1-59
High Availability Overview ........................................................................................................... 1-60
Transparent Application Failover ............................................................................................ 1-61
Elements Affected by Transparent Application Failover .............................................. 1-61
Online Reorganization Architecture ........................................................................................ 1-62
Data Guard Overview................................................................................................................ 1-63
Data Guard Configurations ............................................................................................... 1-63
Data Guard Components ................................................................................................... 1-63
LogMiner Overview ................................................................................................................... 1-65
Real Application Clusters .......................................................................................................... 1-65
Real Application Clusters Guard ............................................................................................. 1-66
Content Management Overview.................................................................................................... 1-67
Oracle Internet File System Overview ..................................................................................... 1-68

Part II Database Structures

2 Data Blocks, Extents, and Segments

Introduction to Data Blocks, Extents, and Segments ................................................................... 2-2
Data Blocks Overview........................................................................................................................ 2-3
Data Block Format ........................................................................................................................ 2-4
Header (Common and Variable) ......................................................................................... 2-4
Table Directory....................................................................................................................... 2-5
Row Directory ........................................................................................................................ 2-5
Overhead ................................................................................................................................ 2-5

vi
 Row Data ................................................................................................................................ 2-5
Free Space ............................................................................................................................... 2-5
Free Space Management .............................................................................................................. 2-6
Availability and Compression of Free Space in a Data Block......................................... 2-6
Row Chaining and Migrating.............................................................................................. 2-7
PCTFREE, PCTUSED, and Row Chaining......................................................................... 2-7
Extents Overview ................................................................................................................................ 2-8
When Extents Are Allocated....................................................................................................... 2-8
Determine the Number and Size of Extents ............................................................................. 2-8
How Extents Are Allocated......................................................................................................... 2-9
When Extents Are Deallocated................................................................................................. 2-10
Extents in Nonclustered Tables......................................................................................... 2-10
Extents in Clustered Tables................................................................................................ 2-11
Extents in Materialized Views and Their Logs ............................................................... 2-11
Extents in Indexes................................................................................................................ 2-11
Extents in Temporary Segments ....................................................................................... 2-11
Extents in Rollback Segments ............................................................................................ 2-12
Segments Overview.......................................................................................................................... 2-12
Introduction to Data Segments................................................................................................. 2-12
Introduction to Index Segments ............................................................................................... 2-13
Introduction to Temporary Segments ..................................................................................... 2-13
Operations that Require Temporary Segments .............................................................. 2-14
Segments in Temporary Tables and Their Indexes ........................................................ 2-14
How Temporary Segments Are Allocated ...................................................................... 2-14
Automatic Undo Management................................................................................................. 2-16
Undo Mode .......................................................................................................................... 2-16
Undo Quota.......................................................................................................................... 2-17
Undo Retention Control ..................................................................................................... 2-17
External Views ..................................................................................................................... 2-18

3 Tablespaces, Datafiles, and Control Files

Introduction to Tablespaces, Datafiles, and Control Files.......................................................... 3-2
Oracle-Managed Files .................................................................................................................. 3-3
Allocate More Space for a Database .......................................................................................... 3-3
Tablespaces Overview........................................................................................................................ 3-7

vii
 The SYSTEM Tablespace.............................................................................................................. 3-7
The Data Dictionary .............................................................................................................. 3-8
PL/SQL Program Units Description .................................................................................. 3-8
Undo Tablespaces ......................................................................................................................... 3-8
Creation of Undo Tablespaces ............................................................................................. 3-9
Assignment of Undo Tablespaces ....................................................................................... 3-9
Default Temporary Tablespace................................................................................................. 3-10
How to Specify a Default Temporary Tablespace .......................................................... 3-10
Using Multiple Tablespaces ...................................................................................................... 3-10
Managing Space in Tablespaces ............................................................................................... 3-11
Locally Managed Tablespaces ........................................................................................... 3-11
Segment Space Management in Locally Managed Tablespaces................................... 3-12
Dictionary Managed Tablespaces ..................................................................................... 3-13
Multiple Block Sizes ................................................................................................................... 3-13
Online and Offline Tablespaces................................................................................................ 3-13
When a Tablespace Goes Offline....................................................................................... 3-14
Use of Tablespaces for Special Procedures ...................................................................... 3-14
Read-Only Tablespaces.............................................................................................................. 3-15
Temporary Tablespaces for Sort Operations .......................................................................... 3-16
Sort Segments ....................................................................................................................... 3-16
Creation of Temporary Tablespaces ................................................................................. 3-16
Transport of Tablespaces Between Databases ........................................................................ 3-17
How to Move or Copy a Tablespace to Another Database ........................................... 3-17
Datafiles Overview........................................................................................................................... 3-18
Datafile Contents ........................................................................................................................ 3-18
Size of Datafiles ........................................................................................................................... 3-19
Offline Datafiles .......................................................................................................................... 3-19
Temporary Datafiles................................................................................................................... 3-19
Control Files Overview.................................................................................................................... 3-20
Control File Contents ................................................................................................................. 3-20
Multiplexed Control Files.......................................................................................................... 3-22

4 The Data Dictionary

Introduction to the Data Dictionary................................................................................................ 4-2
Structure of the Data Dictionary................................................................................................. 4-2

viii
 Base Tables ............................................................................................................................. 4-3
User-Accessible Views.......................................................................................................... 4-3
SYS, Owner of the Data Dictionary............................................................................................ 4-3
How the Data Dictionary Is Used.................................................................................................... 4-3
How Oracle Uses the Data Dictionary ...................................................................................... 4-3
Public Synonyms for Data Dictionary Views.................................................................... 4-4
Cache the Data Dictionary for Fast Access ........................................................................ 4-4
Other Programs and the Data Dictionary.......................................................................... 4-4
How to Use the Data Dictionary ................................................................................................ 4-5
Views with the Prefix USER ................................................................................................ 4-5
Views with the Prefix ALL................................................................................................... 4-6
Views with the Prefix DBA .................................................................................................. 4-6
The DUAL Table.................................................................................................................... 4-6
Dynamic Performance Tables .......................................................................................................... 4-7
Database Object Metadata ................................................................................................................ 4-7

Part III The Oracle Instance

5 Database and Instance Startup and Shutdown

Introduction to an Oracle Instance ................................................................................................. 5-2
The Instance and the Database ................................................................................................... 5-3
Connection with Administrator Privileges............................................................................... 5-3
Initialization Parameter Files ...................................................................................................... 5-4
How Parameter Values Are Changed ................................................................................ 5-4
Instance and Database Startup......................................................................................................... 5-5
How an Instance Is Started.......................................................................................................... 5-5
Restricted Mode of Instance Startup .................................................................................. 5-6
Forced Startup in Abnormal Situations ............................................................................. 5-6
How a Database Is Mounted....................................................................................................... 5-6
How a Database Is Mounted with Real Application Clusters ........................................ 5-6
How a Standby Database Is Mounted................................................................................ 5-7
How a Clone Database Is Mounted .................................................................................... 5-8
What Happens When You Open a Database............................................................................ 5-8
Instance Recovery.................................................................................................................. 5-8
Undo Space Acquisition and Management ....................................................................... 5-8

ix
 Resolution of In-Doubt Distributed Transaction .............................................................. 5-9
Open a Database in Read-Only Mode ................................................................................ 5-9
Database and Instance Shutdown ................................................................................................. 5-10
Close a Database ......................................................................................................................... 5-10
Close the Database by Terminating the Instance............................................................ 5-10
Unmount a Database.................................................................................................................. 5-11
Shut Down an Instance .............................................................................................................. 5-11
Abnormal Instance Shutdown........................................................................................... 5-11

6 Application Architecture
Client/Server Architecture................................................................................................................. 6-2
Multitier Architecture ........................................................................................................................ 6-5
Clients............................................................................................................................................. 6-6
Application Servers ...................................................................................................................... 6-6
Database Servers ........................................................................................................................... 6-7
Oracle Net Services............................................................................................................................. 6-7
Connectivity ........................................................................................................................... 6-8
Manageability......................................................................................................................... 6-8
Internet Scalability................................................................................................................. 6-8
Internet Security..................................................................................................................... 6-8
How Oracle Net Services Works ................................................................................................ 6-8
The Listener ................................................................................................................................... 6-9
Service Information Registration......................................................................................... 6-9

7 Memory Architecture
Introduction to Oracle Memory Structures.................................................................................... 7-2
System Global Area (SGA) Overview ............................................................................................ 7-3
Dynamic SGA ................................................................................................................................ 7-4
Dynamic SGA Granules........................................................................................................ 7-5
Database Buffer Cache ................................................................................................................. 7-7
Organization of the Database Buffer Cache ...................................................................... 7-7
The LRU Algorithm and Full Table Scans ......................................................................... 7-8
Size of the Database Buffer Cache....................................................................................... 7-8
Multiple Buffer Pools .......................................................................................................... 7-10
Redo Log Buffer .......................................................................................................................... 7-11

x
 Shared Pool.................................................................................................................................. 7-11
Library Cache....................................................................................................................... 7-12
Shared SQL Areas and Private SQL Areas ...................................................................... 7-12
PL/SQL Program Units and the Shared Pool ................................................................. 7-12
Dictionary Cache ................................................................................................................. 7-13
Allocation and Reuse of Memory in the Shared Pool .................................................... 7-13
Large Pool .................................................................................................................................... 7-15
Control of the SGA’s Use of Memory...................................................................................... 7-16
Other SGA Initialization Parameters ....................................................................................... 7-16
Physical Memory................................................................................................................. 7-16
SGA Starting Address......................................................................................................... 7-16
Extended Buffer Cache Mechanism.................................................................................. 7-17
Program Global Areas (PGA) Overview ...................................................................................... 7-17
Content of the PGA .................................................................................................................... 7-17
Private SQL Area ................................................................................................................. 7-17
Session Memory................................................................................................................... 7-19
SQL Work Areas ......................................................................................................................... 7-19
PGA Memory Management for Dedicated Mode ................................................................. 7-20
Dedicated and Shared Servers ....................................................................................................... 7-22
Software Code Areas........................................................................................................................ 7-22

8 Process Architecture
Introduction to Processes .................................................................................................................. 8-2
Multiple-Process Oracle Systems ............................................................................................... 8-2
Types of Processes ........................................................................................................................ 8-2
User Processes Overview................................................................................................................... 8-4
Connections and Sessions ........................................................................................................... 8-4
Oracle Processes Overview ............................................................................................................... 8-5
Server Processes............................................................................................................................ 8-5
Background Processes.................................................................................................................. 8-5
Database Writer Process (DBWn) ....................................................................................... 8-8
Log Writer Process (LGWR) ................................................................................................ 8-9
Checkpoint Process (CKPT) ............................................................................................... 8-11
System Monitor Process (SMON) ..................................................................................... 8-11
Process Monitor Process (PMON) .................................................................................... 8-12

xi
 Recoverer Process (RECO) ................................................................................................. 8-12
Job Queue Processes............................................................................................................ 8-12
Archiver Processes (ARCn) ................................................................................................ 8-13
Lock Manager Server Process (LMS) ................................................................................ 8-14
Queue Monitor Processes (QMNn)................................................................................... 8-14
Trace Files and the Alert Log .................................................................................................... 8-14
Shared Server Architecture ............................................................................................................. 8-15
Scalability ..................................................................................................................................... 8-16
Dispatcher Request and Response Queues............................................................................. 8-16
Dispatcher Processes (Dnnn).............................................................................................. 8-19
Shared Server Processes (Snnn) ................................................................................................ 8-19
Restricted Operations of the Shared Server ............................................................................ 8-20
Dedicated Server Configuration .................................................................................................... 8-21
The Program Interface...................................................................................................................... 8-22
Program Interface Structure...................................................................................................... 8-23
Program Interface Drivers ......................................................................................................... 8-23
Communications Software for the Operating System........................................................... 8-24

9 Database Resource Management

Introduction to the Database Resource Manager ......................................................................... 9-2
Database Resource Manager Overview .................................................................................... 9-3
Example of a Simple Resource Plan ........................................................................................... 9-4
How the Database Resource Manager Works ............................................................................... 9-5
Resource Control........................................................................................................................... 9-5
Example of Resource Control .............................................................................................. 9-5
Effectiveness of the Database Resource Manager............................................................. 9-6
Database Integration .................................................................................................................... 9-6
Performance Overhead ................................................................................................................ 9-7
Resource Plans and Resource Consumer Groups......................................................................... 9-7
Activation of a Resource Plan ..................................................................................................... 9-8
Persistent................................................................................................................................. 9-8
Dynamic .................................................................................................................................. 9-8
Groups of Resource Plans............................................................................................................ 9-9
Resource Allocation Methods and Resource Plan Directives .................................................. 9-11
Resource Plan Directives ........................................................................................................... 9-11

xii
 CPU Method......................................................................................................................... 9-12
Active Session Pool with Queuing.................................................................................... 9-12
Degree of Parallelism Limit ............................................................................................... 9-12
Automatic Consumer Group Switching .......................................................................... 9-12
Execution Time Limit.......................................................................................................... 9-13
Undo Pool............................................................................................................................. 9-13
CPU Resource Allocation .......................................................................................................... 9-13
CPU Allocation Rules ......................................................................................................... 9-15
Levels and Priorities............................................................................................................ 9-16
Interaction with Operating-System Resource Control.............................................................. 9-17
Dynamic Reconfiguration ......................................................................................................... 9-18

Part IV Data

10 Schema Objects
Introduction to Schema Objects .................................................................................................... 10-2
Tables................................................................................................................................................... 10-5
How Table Data Is Stored.......................................................................................................... 10-6
Row Format and Size .......................................................................................................... 10-6
Rowids of Row Pieces......................................................................................................... 10-9
Column Order...................................................................................................................... 10-9
Nulls Indicate Absence of Value ............................................................................................ 10-10
Default Values for Columns.................................................................................................... 10-10
Default Value Insertion and Integrity Constraint Checking....................................... 10-11
Partitioned Tables..................................................................................................................... 10-12
Nested Tables ............................................................................................................................ 10-13
Temporary Tables..................................................................................................................... 10-13
Segment Allocation ........................................................................................................... 10-14
Parent and Child Transactions ........................................................................................ 10-14
External Tables.......................................................................................................................... 10-14
The Access Driver.............................................................................................................. 10-15
Data Loading with External Tables ................................................................................ 10-15
Parallel Access to External Tables................................................................................... 10-16
Views ................................................................................................................................................. 10-16
How Views are Stored ............................................................................................................. 10-17

xiii
 How Views Are Used............................................................................................................... 10-18
Mechanics of Views .................................................................................................................. 10-19
Globalization Support Parameters in Views ................................................................. 10-19
Use of Indexes Against Views ......................................................................................... 10-19
Dependencies and Views......................................................................................................... 10-20
Updatable Join Views............................................................................................................... 10-20
Object Views .............................................................................................................................. 10-21
Inline Views ............................................................................................................................... 10-21
Materialized Views......................................................................................................................... 10-22
Define Constraints on Views................................................................................................... 10-23
Refresh Materialized Views .................................................................................................... 10-24
Materialized View Logs ........................................................................................................... 10-24
Dimensions ...................................................................................................................................... 10-25
The Sequence Generator ............................................................................................................... 10-25
Synonyms ......................................................................................................................................... 10-27
Indexes .............................................................................................................................................. 10-28
Unique and Nonunique Indexes ............................................................................................ 10-30
Composite Indexes ................................................................................................................... 10-30
Indexes and Keys ...................................................................................................................... 10-31
Indexes and Nulls ..................................................................................................................... 10-31
Function-Based Indexes ........................................................................................................... 10-32
Uses of Function-Based Indexes...................................................................................... 10-32
Optimization with Function-Based Indexes .................................................................. 10-33
Dependencies of Function-Based Indexes ..................................................................... 10-33
How Indexes Are Stored.......................................................................................................... 10-34
Format of Index Blocks ..................................................................................................... 10-34
The Internal Structure of Indexes.................................................................................... 10-35
Index Properties................................................................................................................. 10-36
Advantages of B-tree Structure ....................................................................................... 10-37
How Indexes Are Searched ..................................................................................................... 10-38
Index Unique Scan............................................................................................................. 10-38
Index Range Scan............................................................................................................... 10-40
Index Range Scan Descending......................................................................................... 10-43
Key Compression...................................................................................................................... 10-45
Prefix and Suffix Entries ................................................................................................... 10-45

xiv
 Performance and Storage Considerations ..................................................................... 10-46
Uses of Key Compression ................................................................................................ 10-46
Reverse Key Indexes ................................................................................................................ 10-47
Bitmap Indexes.......................................................................................................................... 10-48
Benefits for Data Warehousing Applications................................................................ 10-48
Cardinality.......................................................................................................................... 10-49
Bitmap Index Example ..................................................................................................... 10-50
Bitmap Indexes and Nulls................................................................................................ 10-52
Bitmap Indexes on Partitioned Tables............................................................................ 10-53
Bitmap Join Indexes.................................................................................................................. 10-53
Four Join Models ............................................................................................................... 10-53
Creation of a Bitmap Join Index ...................................................................................... 10-56
Index-Organized Tables ................................................................................................................ 10-57
Benefits of Index-Organized Tables....................................................................................... 10-58
Index-Organized Tables with Row Overflow Area............................................................. 10-59
Secondary Indexes on Index-Organized Tables................................................................... 10-60
Bitmap Indexes on Index-Organized Tables ........................................................................ 10-61
Mapping Table................................................................................................................... 10-61
Partitioned Index-Organized Tables...................................................................................... 10-62
B-tree Indexes on UROWID Columns for Heap- and Index-Organized Tables ............. 10-62
Index-Organized Table Applications .................................................................................... 10-62
Application Domain Indexes ....................................................................................................... 10-62
Clusters ............................................................................................................................................. 10-63
Hash Clusters................................................................................................................................... 10-65

11 Partitioned Tables and Indexes

Introduction to Partitioning............................................................................................................ 11-2
Partition Key................................................................................................................................ 11-4
Partitioned Tables....................................................................................................................... 11-4
Partitioned Index-Organized Tables........................................................................................ 11-5
Partitioning Methods ....................................................................................................................... 11-5
Range Partitioning...................................................................................................................... 11-7
Range Partitioning Example .............................................................................................. 11-8
List Partitioning .......................................................................................................................... 11-8
List Partitioning Example................................................................................................... 11-8

xv
 Hash Partitioning........................................................................................................................ 11-9
Hash Partitioning Example .............................................................................................. 11-10
Composite Partitioning ............................................................................................................ 11-10
Composite Partitioning Range-Hash Example ............................................................. 11-11
Composite Partitioning Range-List Example ................................................................ 11-12
When to Partition a Table ........................................................................................................ 11-13
Partitioned Indexes......................................................................................................................... 11-13
Local Partitioned Indexes ........................................................................................................ 11-14
Global Partitioned Indexes ...................................................................................................... 11-15
Maintenance of Global Partitioned Indexes .................................................................. 11-16
Global Nonpartitioned Indexes .............................................................................................. 11-17
Partitioned Index Examples .................................................................................................... 11-18
Example of Index Creation: Starting Table Used for Examples ................................. 11-18
Example of a Local Index Creation ................................................................................. 11-18
Example of a Global Index Creation............................................................................... 11-18
Example of a Global Partitioned Index Creation .......................................................... 11-18
Example of a Partitioned Index-Organized Table Creation ........................................ 11-19
Miscellaneous Information about Creating Indexes on Partitioned Tables ..................... 11-19
Using Partitioned Indexes in OLTP Applications................................................................ 11-19
Using Partitioned Indexes in Data Warehousing and DSS Applications......................... 11-19
Partitioned Indexes on Composite Partitions....................................................................... 11-20
Partitioning to Improve Performance ......................................................................................... 11-20
Partition Pruning ...................................................................................................................... 11-20
Partition Pruning Example............................................................................................... 11-21
Partition-wise Joins................................................................................................................... 11-21
Parallel DML.............................................................................................................................. 11-22

12 Native Datatypes
Introduction to Oracle Datatypes .................................................................................................. 12-2
Character Datatypes ......................................................................................................................... 12-3
CHAR Datatype .......................................................................................................................... 12-3
VARCHAR2 and VARCHAR Datatypes ................................................................................ 12-4
VARCHAR Datatype .......................................................................................................... 12-4
Length Semantics for Character Datatypes............................................................................. 12-4
NCHAR and NVARCHAR2 Datatypes .................................................................................. 12-5

xvi
 NCHAR................................................................................................................................. 12-6
NVARCHAR2 ...................................................................................................................... 12-6
Use of Unicode Data in an Oracle Database ........................................................................... 12-6
Implicit Type Conversion................................................................................................... 12-7
LOB Character Datatypes.......................................................................................................... 12-7
LONG Datatype.......................................................................................................................... 12-7
NUMBER Datatype .......................................................................................................................... 12-8
Internal Numeric Format........................................................................................................... 12-9
DATE Datatype ............................................................................................................................... 12-10
Use of Julian Dates ................................................................................................................... 12-11
Date Arithmetic......................................................................................................................... 12-11
Centuries and the Year 2000 ................................................................................................... 12-12
Daylight Savings Support ....................................................................................................... 12-12
Time Zones ................................................................................................................................ 12-12
Example: ............................................................................................................................. 12-13
LOB Datatypes ................................................................................................................................ 12-13
BLOB Datatype ......................................................................................................................... 12-14
CLOB and NCLOB Datatypes ................................................................................................ 12-15
BFILE Datatype ......................................................................................................................... 12-15
RAW and LONG RAW Datatypes ............................................................................................... 12-15
ROWID and UROWID Datatypes............................................................................................... 12-16
The ROWID Pseudocolumn.................................................................................................... 12-17
Physical Rowids........................................................................................................................ 12-17
Extended Rowids............................................................................................................... 12-18
Restricted Rowids.............................................................................................................. 12-19
Examples of Rowid Use.................................................................................................... 12-19
How Rowids Are Used..................................................................................................... 12-21
Logical Rowids.......................................................................................................................... 12-21
Comparison of Logical Rowids with Physical Rowids................................................ 12-22
Guesses in Logical Rowids............................................................................................... 12-22
Rowids in Non-Oracle Databases .......................................................................................... 12-23
ANSI, DB2, and SQL/DS Datatypes ........................................................................................... 12-23
XML Datatypes................................................................................................................................ 12-25
XMLType Datatype .................................................................................................................. 12-25
URI Datatypes ................................................................................................................................. 12-26

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 Data Conversion.............................................................................................................................. 12-26

13 Object Datatypes and Object Views

Introduction to Object Datatypes .................................................................................................. 13-2
Complex Data Models................................................................................................................ 13-2
Complex Data Model Example.......................................................................................... 13-2
Multimedia Datatypes ............................................................................................................... 13-3
Object Datatype Categories ............................................................................................................ 13-3
Object Types ................................................................................................................................ 13-4
Purchase Order Example.................................................................................................... 13-4
Types of Methods ................................................................................................................ 13-5
Object Tables ........................................................................................................................ 13-8
Object Identifiers.................................................................................................................. 13-9
Object Views Description ................................................................................................... 13-9
REFs ....................................................................................................................................... 13-9
Collection Types........................................................................................................................ 13-11
VARRAYs ........................................................................................................................... 13-11
Nested Tables Description ............................................................................................... 13-12
Type Inheritance.............................................................................................................................. 13-13
FINAL and NOT FINAL Types .............................................................................................. 13-13
Example of Creating a NOT FINAL Object Type ......................................................... 13-14
NOT INSTANTIABLE Types and Methods ......................................................................... 13-14
User-Defined Aggregate Functions ............................................................................................. 13-15
Why Have User-Defined Aggregate Functions?.................................................................. 13-15
Creation and Use of UDAGs................................................................................................... 13-15
How Do Aggregate Functions Work? ................................................................................... 13-16
Application Interfaces.................................................................................................................... 13-17
SQL.............................................................................................................................................. 13-17
PL/SQL ...................................................................................................................................... 13-18
Pro*C/C++................................................................................................................................. 13-18
Dynamic Creation and Access of Type Descriptions ................................................... 13-19
OCI .............................................................................................................................................. 13-20
OTT ............................................................................................................................................. 13-20
JPublisher ................................................................................................................................... 13-21
JDBC............................................................................................................................................ 13-21

xviii
 SQLJ ............................................................................................................................................ 13-21
SQLJ Object Types............................................................................................................. 13-21
Datatype Evolution......................................................................................................................... 13-22
Introduction to Object Views ....................................................................................................... 13-23
Advantages of Object Views ................................................................................................... 13-23
How Object Views Are Defined ............................................................................................. 13-24
Use of Object Views.................................................................................................................. 13-25
Updates of Object Views ......................................................................................................... 13-26
Updates of Nested Table Columns in Views........................................................................ 13-26
View Hierarchies ...................................................................................................................... 13-27

Part V Data Access

14 SQL, PL/SQL, and Java

SQL Overview ................................................................................................................................... 14-2
SQL Statements ........................................................................................................................... 14-2
Data Manipulation Language Statements ....................................................................... 14-3
Data Definition Language Statements.............................................................................. 14-4
Transaction Control Statements ........................................................................................ 14-5
Session Control Statements................................................................................................ 14-5
System Control Statements ................................................................................................ 14-5
Embedded SQL Statements ............................................................................................... 14-5
Identification of Nonstandard SQL ......................................................................................... 14-6
Recursive SQL ............................................................................................................................. 14-6
Cursors ......................................................................................................................................... 14-6
Scrollable Cursors................................................................................................................ 14-7
Shared SQL .................................................................................................................................. 14-7
Parsing.......................................................................................................................................... 14-7
SQL Processing ........................................................................................................................... 14-8
SQL Statement Execution ................................................................................................... 14-8
DML Statement Processing.............................................................................................. 14-10
DDL Statement Processing............................................................................................... 14-14
Control of Transactions .................................................................................................... 14-14
The Optimizer Overview......................................................................................................... 14-14
Execution Plans.................................................................................................................. 14-15

xix
 PL/SQL Overview ........................................................................................................................... 14-16
How PL/SQL Runs .................................................................................................................. 14-17
Native Execution................................................................................................................ 14-17
Interpreted Execution ....................................................................................................... 14-17
Language Constructs for PL/SQL.......................................................................................... 14-19
Variables and Constants ................................................................................................... 14-19
Cursors ................................................................................................................................ 14-19
Exceptions........................................................................................................................... 14-20
Dynamic SQL in PL/SQL................................................................................................. 14-20
PL/SQL Program Units ........................................................................................................... 14-21
Stored Procedures and Functions ................................................................................... 14-21
PL/SQL Packages.............................................................................................................. 14-27
PL/SQL Collections and Records........................................................................................... 14-30
Collections .......................................................................................................................... 14-30
Records................................................................................................................................ 14-30
PL/SQL Server Pages............................................................................................................... 14-30
Java Overview.................................................................................................................................. 14-31
Java and Object-Oriented Programming Terminology....................................................... 14-32
Classes ................................................................................................................................. 14-32
Class Hierarchy ......................................................................................................................... 14-34
Interfaces .................................................................................................................................... 14-35
Polymorphism ........................................................................................................................... 14-36
The Java Virtual Machine (JVM)............................................................................................. 14-37
Why Use Java in Oracle?.......................................................................................................... 14-39
Multithreading ................................................................................................................... 14-40
Automated Storage Management ................................................................................... 14-41
Footprint ............................................................................................................................. 14-41
Performance........................................................................................................................ 14-42
Dynamic Class Loading.................................................................................................... 14-43
Oracle’s Java Application Strategy......................................................................................... 14-44
Java Stored Procedures ..................................................................................................... 14-45
PL/SQL Integration and Oracle RDBMS Functionality .............................................. 14-45

15 Dependencies Among Schema Objects

Introduction to Dependency Issues .............................................................................................. 15-2

xx
 Resolution of Schema Object Dependencies .............................................................................. 15-4
Compilation of Views and PL/SQL Program Units ............................................................. 15-5
Views and Base Tables........................................................................................................ 15-5
Program Units and Referenced Objects ........................................................................... 15-6
Data Warehousing Considerations................................................................................... 15-7
Session State and Referenced Packages ........................................................................... 15-7
Security Authorizations...................................................................................................... 15-7
Function-Based Index Dependencies....................................................................................... 15-8
Requirements ....................................................................................................................... 15-8
DETERMINISTIC Functions.............................................................................................. 15-8
Privileges on the Defining Function ................................................................................. 15-8
Resolve Dependencies of Function-Based Indexes ........................................................ 15-9
Object Name Resolution ................................................................................................................. 15-9
Shared SQL Dependency Management ..................................................................................... 15-10
Local and Remote Dependency Management........................................................................... 15-10
Management of Local Dependencies..................................................................................... 15-10
Management of Remote Dependencies................................................................................. 15-11
Dependencies Among Local and Remote Database Procedures................................ 15-11
Dependencies Among Other Remote Schema Objects ................................................ 15-13
Dependencies of Applications......................................................................................... 15-13

16 Transaction Management
Introduction to Transactions........................................................................................................... 16-2
Statement Execution and Transaction Control....................................................................... 16-3
Statement-Level Rollback .......................................................................................................... 16-4
Resumable Space Allocation ..................................................................................................... 16-5
Transaction Management Overview ............................................................................................. 16-5
Commit Transactions ................................................................................................................. 16-6
Rollback of Transactions............................................................................................................ 16-7
Savepoints In Transactions........................................................................................................ 16-8
Transaction Naming................................................................................................................... 16-9
How Transactions Are Named.......................................................................................... 16-9
Commit Comment............................................................................................................... 16-9
The Two-Phase Commit Mechanism..................................................................................... 16-10
Discrete Transaction Management .............................................................................................. 16-11

xxi
 Autonomous Transactions............................................................................................................. 16-12
Autonomous PL/SQL Blocks ................................................................................................. 16-12
Transaction Control Statements in Autonomous Blocks .................................................... 16-13

17 Triggers
Introduction to Triggers ................................................................................................................... 17-2
How Triggers Are Used............................................................................................................. 17-4
Some Cautionary Notes about Triggers ........................................................................... 17-4
Triggers Compared with Declarative Integrity Constraints ......................................... 17-5
Parts of a Trigger ............................................................................................................................... 17-6
The Triggering Event or Statement .......................................................................................... 17-7
Trigger Restriction ...................................................................................................................... 17-8
Trigger Action ............................................................................................................................. 17-8
Types of Triggers ............................................................................................................................... 17-9
Row Triggers and Statement Triggers ..................................................................................... 17-9
Row Triggers ........................................................................................................................ 17-9
Statement Triggers .............................................................................................................. 17-9
BEFORE and AFTER Triggers ................................................................................................ 17-10
BEFORE Triggers .............................................................................................................. 17-10
AFTER Triggers ................................................................................................................ 17-10
Trigger Type Combinations ............................................................................................. 17-11
INSTEAD OF Triggers ............................................................................................................. 17-12
Modify Views ..................................................................................................................... 17-12
Views That Are Not Modifiable ...................................................................................... 17-13
INSTEAD OF Triggers on Nested Tables ...................................................................... 17-13
Triggers on System Events and User Events ........................................................................ 17-14
Event Publication............................................................................................................... 17-14
Event Attributes................................................................................................................. 17-15
System Events .................................................................................................................... 17-15
User Events......................................................................................................................... 17-15
Trigger Execution ............................................................................................................................ 17-17
The Execution Model for Triggers and Integrity Constraint Checking ............................ 17-18
Data Access for Triggers .......................................................................................................... 17-20
Storage of PL/SQL Triggers.................................................................................................... 17-21
Execution of Triggers ............................................................................................................... 17-21

xxii
 Dependency Maintenance for Triggers ................................................................................. 17-21

Part VI Parallel SQL and Direct-Load INSERT

18 Parallel Execution of SQL Statements

Introduction to Parallel Execution................................................................................................. 18-2
When to Implement Parallel Execution................................................................................... 18-2
When Not to Implement Parallel Execution........................................................................... 18-3
How Parallel Execution Works....................................................................................................... 18-4
Parallelized SQL Statements ..................................................................................................... 18-5
Parallelism Between Operations ....................................................................................... 18-6
Degree of Parallelism ................................................................................................................. 18-8
Parallel Query Intra- and Inter-Operation Example ............................................................. 18-9
SQL Operations That Can Be Parallelized ................................................................................ 18-12
Parallel Query ........................................................................................................................... 18-12
Parallel DDL .............................................................................................................................. 18-12
DDL Statements that can be Parallelized....................................................................... 18-12
Parallel DML ............................................................................................................................. 18-13
SQL*Loader ............................................................................................................................... 18-13
How to Make a Statement Run in Parallel............................................................................ 18-14
Parallel Query .................................................................................................................... 18-14
Parallel DDL....................................................................................................................... 18-14
Parallel DML ...................................................................................................................... 18-14

19 Direct-Path INSERT
Introduction to Direct-Path INSERT............................................................................................. 19-2
Advantages of Direct-Path INSERT .............................................................................................. 19-2
Serial and Parallel Direct-Path INSERT....................................................................................... 19-3
Direct-Path INSERT Into Partitioned and Nonpartitioned Tables ......................................... 19-4
Serial Direct-Path INSERT into Partitioned and Nonpartitioned Tables ........................... 19-4
Parallel Direct-Path INSERT into Partitioned Tables ............................................................ 19-4
Parallel Direct-Path INSERT into Nonpartitioned Tables .................................................... 19-4
Direct-Path INSERT and Logging Mode...................................................................................... 19-4
Direct-Path INSERT with Logging........................................................................................... 19-5

xxiii
 Direct-Path INSERT without Logging ..................................................................................... 19-5
Additional Considerations for Direct-Path INSERT ................................................................. 19-5
Index Maintenance with Direct-Path INSERT........................................................................ 19-5
Space Considerations with Direct-Path INSERT.................................................................... 19-6
Locking Considerations with Direct-Path INSERT ............................................................... 19-6

Part VII Data Protection

20 Data Concurrency and Consistency

Introduction to Data Concurrency and Consistency in a Multiuser Environment.............. 20-2
Preventable Phenomena and Transaction Isolation Levels .................................................. 20-2
Overview of Locking Mechanisms........................................................................................... 20-3
How Oracle Manages Data Concurrency and Consistency ...................................................... 20-4
Multiversion Concurrency Control.......................................................................................... 20-4
Statement-Level Read Consistency .......................................................................................... 20-5
Transaction-Level Read Consistency ....................................................................................... 20-6
Read Consistency with Real Application Clusters ................................................................ 20-6
Oracle Isolation Levels ............................................................................................................... 20-7
Set the Isolation Level ......................................................................................................... 20-7
Read Committed Isolation ................................................................................................. 20-8
Serializable Isolation ........................................................................................................... 20-8
Comparison of Read Committed and Serializable Isolation .............................................. 20-10
Transaction Set Consistency ............................................................................................ 20-10
Row-Level Locking............................................................................................................ 20-11
Referential Integrity .......................................................................................................... 20-12
Distributed Transactions .................................................................................................. 20-12
Choice of Isolation Level ......................................................................................................... 20-13
Read Committed Isolation ............................................................................................... 20-13
Serializable Isolation ......................................................................................................... 20-14
Quiesce Database............................................................................................................... 20-15
How Oracle Locks Data ................................................................................................................. 20-17
Transactions and Data Concurrency...................................................................................... 20-17
Modes of Locking .............................................................................................................. 20-18
Lock Duration .................................................................................................................... 20-18
Data Lock Conversion Versus Lock Escalation............................................................. 20-18

xxiv
 Deadlocks................................................................................................................................... 20-19
Deadlock Detection ........................................................................................................... 20-20
Avoid Deadlocks ............................................................................................................... 20-21
Types of Locks........................................................................................................................... 20-21
DML Locks ................................................................................................................................ 20-22
Row Locks (TX).................................................................................................................. 20-22
Table Locks (TM) ............................................................................................................... 20-23
DML Locks Automatically Acquired for DML Statements ........................................ 20-27
DDL Locks ................................................................................................................................. 20-30
Exclusive DDL Locks ........................................................................................................ 20-30
Share DDL Locks ............................................................................................................... 20-30
Breakable Parse Locks ...................................................................................................... 20-31
Duration of DDL Locks .................................................................................................... 20-31
DDL Locks and Clusters................................................................................................... 20-31
Latches and Internal Locks...................................................................................................... 20-31
Latches ................................................................................................................................ 20-31
Internal Locks..................................................................................................................... 20-32
Explicit (Manual) Data Locking ............................................................................................. 20-32
Examples of Concurrency under Explicit Locking....................................................... 20-33
Oracle Lock Management Services ........................................................................................ 20-41
Flashback Query ............................................................................................................................. 20-41
Flashback Query Benefits ........................................................................................................ 20-42
Some Uses of Flashback Query............................................................................................... 20-43
Self-Service Repair............................................................................................................. 20-43
E-Mail or Voice Mail Applications ................................................................................. 20-44
Account Balances............................................................................................................... 20-44
Packaged Applications ..................................................................................................... 20-44

21 Data Integrity
Introduction to Data Integrity ........................................................................................................ 21-2
Types of Data Integrity .............................................................................................................. 21-3
Null Rule............................................................................................................................... 21-3
Unique Column Values ...................................................................................................... 21-3
Primary Key Values ............................................................................................................ 21-3
Referential Integrity Rules ................................................................................................. 21-3

xxv
 Complex Integrity Checking.............................................................................................. 21-4
How Oracle Enforces Data Integrity........................................................................................ 21-4
Integrity Constraints Description...................................................................................... 21-4
Database Triggers ................................................................................................................ 21-5
Introduction to Integrity Constraints............................................................................................ 21-5
Advantages of Integrity Constraints........................................................................................ 21-5
Declarative Ease................................................................................................................... 21-6
Centralized Rules................................................................................................................. 21-6
Maximum Application Development Productivity ....................................................... 21-6
Immediate User Feedback .................................................................................................. 21-6
Superior Performance ......................................................................................................... 21-6
Flexibility for Data Loads and Identification of Integrity Violations........................... 21-7
The Performance Cost of Integrity Constraints...................................................................... 21-7
Types of Integrity Constraints........................................................................................................ 21-7
NOT NULL Integrity Constraints ............................................................................................ 21-7
UNIQUE Key Integrity Constraints ......................................................................................... 21-8
Unique Keys ......................................................................................................................... 21-9
UNIQUE Key Constraints and Indexes.......................................................................... 21-10
Combine UNIQUE Key and NOT NULL Integrity Constraints................................. 21-11
PRIMARY KEY Integrity Constraints.................................................................................... 21-11
Primary Keys...................................................................................................................... 21-12
PRIMARY KEY Constraints and Indexes ...................................................................... 21-12
Referential Integrity Constraints ............................................................................................ 21-13
Self-Referential Integrity Constraints ............................................................................. 21-14
Nulls and Foreign Keys .................................................................................................... 21-15
Actions Defined by Referential Integrity Constraints.................................................. 21-16
Concurrency Control, Indexes, and Foreign Keys........................................................ 21-17
CHECK Integrity Constraints ................................................................................................. 21-20
The Check Condition ........................................................................................................ 21-21
Multiple CHECK Constraints .......................................................................................... 21-21
The Mechanisms of Constraint Checking.................................................................................. 21-21
Default Column Values and Integrity Constraint Checking.............................................. 21-24
Deferred Constraint Checking ..................................................................................................... 21-24
Constraint Attributes................................................................................................................ 21-24
SET CONSTRAINTS Mode ..................................................................................................... 21-25

xxvi
 Unique Constraints and Indexes ............................................................................................ 21-26
Constraint States ............................................................................................................................. 21-26
Constraint State Modification ................................................................................................. 21-27

22 Controlling Database Access

Introduction to Database Security................................................................................................. 22-2
Schemas, Database Users, and Security Domains...................................................................... 22-2
User Authentication ......................................................................................................................... 22-3
Authentication by the Operating System................................................................................ 22-4
Authentication by the Network................................................................................................ 22-4
Third Party-Based Authentication Technologies............................................................ 22-4
Public Key Infrastructure-Based Authentication............................................................ 22-5
Remote Authentication....................................................................................................... 22-7
Authentication by the Oracle Database................................................................................... 22-8
Password Encryption While Connecting......................................................................... 22-8
Account Locking.................................................................................................................. 22-8
Password Lifetime and Expiration ................................................................................... 22-9
Password History ................................................................................................................ 22-9
Password Complexity Verification ................................................................................... 22-9
Multitier Authentication and Authorization........................................................................ 22-10
Clients, Application Servers, and Database Servers .................................................... 22-10
Security Issues for Middle-Tier Applications ............................................................... 22-12
Identity Issues in a Multitier Environment ................................................................... 22-12
Restricted Privileges in a Multitier Environment ......................................................... 22-12
Authentication by the Secure Socket Layer Protocol .......................................................... 22-12
Authentication of Database Administrators......................................................................... 22-13
Oracle Internet Directory .............................................................................................................. 22-14
User Tablespace Settings and Quotas ......................................................................................... 22-14
Default Tablespace Option...................................................................................................... 22-15
Temporary Tablespace Option ............................................................................................... 22-15
Tablespace Access and Quotas ............................................................................................... 22-15
The User Group PUBLIC............................................................................................................... 22-16
User Resource Limits and Profiles .............................................................................................. 22-17
Types of System Resources and Limits ................................................................................. 22-17
CPU Time ........................................................................................................................... 22-18

xxvii
 Logical Reads ..................................................................................................................... 22-18
Other Resources ................................................................................................................. 22-19
Profiles........................................................................................................................................ 22-20
When to Use Profiles......................................................................................................... 22-20
Determine Values for Resource Limits of a Profile ...................................................... 22-20

23 Privileges, Roles, and Security Policies

Introduction to Privileges................................................................................................................ 23-2
System Privileges ........................................................................................................................ 23-2
Grant and Revoke System Privileges................................................................................ 23-3
Who Can Grant or Revoke System Privileges? ............................................................... 23-3
Schema Object Privileges........................................................................................................... 23-3
Grant and Revoke Schema Object Privileges .................................................................. 23-4
Who Can Grant Schema Object Privileges? ..................................................................... 23-4
Table Security .............................................................................................................................. 23-5
Data Manipulation Language Operations ....................................................................... 23-5
Data Definition Language Operations ............................................................................. 23-6
View Security............................................................................................................................... 23-6
Privileges Required to Create Views ................................................................................ 23-6
Increase Table Security with Views .................................................................................. 23-7
Procedure Security...................................................................................................................... 23-8
Procedure Execution and Security Domains ................................................................... 23-8
System Privileges Needed to Create or Alter a Procedure.......................................... 23-10
Packages and Package Objects......................................................................................... 23-10
Type Security............................................................................................................................. 23-12
System Privileges for Named Types............................................................................... 23-12
Object Privileges ................................................................................................................ 23-12
Method Execution Model ................................................................................................. 23-13
Privileges Required to Create Types and Tables Using Types ................................... 23-13
Privileges Required to Create Types and Tables Using Types Example................... 23-14
Privileges on Type Access and Object Access ............................................................... 23-15
Type Dependencies ........................................................................................................... 23-16
Introduction to Roles...................................................................................................................... 23-17
Common Uses for Roles........................................................................................................... 23-18
Application Roles .............................................................................................................. 23-19

xxviii
 User Roles ........................................................................................................................... 23-19
The Mechanisms of Roles ........................................................................................................ 23-19
Grant and Revoke Roles .......................................................................................................... 23-20
Who Can Grant or Revoke Roles?.......................................................................................... 23-20
Role Names................................................................................................................................ 23-21
Security Domains of Roles and Users.................................................................................... 23-21
PL/SQL Blocks and Roles ....................................................................................................... 23-21
Named Blocks with Definer Rights ................................................................................ 23-21
Anonymous Blocks with Invoker Rights ....................................................................... 23-21
Data Definition Language Statements and Roles ................................................................ 23-22
Predefined Roles ....................................................................................................................... 23-23
The Operating System and Roles ........................................................................................... 23-23
Roles in a Distributed Environment ...................................................................................... 23-24
Fine-Grained Access Control........................................................................................................ 23-24
Dynamic Predicates.................................................................................................................. 23-25
Application Context ....................................................................................................................... 23-25
Secure Application Roles .............................................................................................................. 23-26
Creation of Secure Application Roles .................................................................................... 23-26

24 Auditing
Introduction to Auditing ................................................................................................................. 24-2
Features of Auditing .................................................................................................................. 24-2
Types of Auditing................................................................................................................ 24-2
Focus of Auditing ................................................................................................................ 24-3
Audit Records and the Audit Trail ................................................................................... 24-3
Mechanisms for Auditing.......................................................................................................... 24-4
When Are Audit Records Generated?.............................................................................. 24-4
Events Always Audited to the Operating System Audit Trail ..................................... 24-5
When Do Audit Options Take Effect?.............................................................................. 24-6
Audit in a Distributed Database ....................................................................................... 24-6
Audit to the Operating System Audit Trail..................................................................... 24-6
Statement Auditing .......................................................................................................................... 24-7
Privilege Auditing ............................................................................................................................ 24-7
Schema Object Auditing ................................................................................................................. 24-8
Schema Object Audit Options for Views and Procedures.................................................... 24-8

xxix
 Fine-Grained Auditing .................................................................................................................... 24-9
Focus Statement, Privilege, and Schema Object Auditing ..................................................... 24-10
Successful and Unsuccessful Statement Executions Auditing........................................... 24-10
BY SESSION and BY ACCESS Clauses of Audit Statement............................................... 24-11
BY SESSION ....................................................................................................................... 24-11
BY ACCESS......................................................................................................................... 24-12
Defaults and Excluded Operations ................................................................................. 24-12
Audit By User............................................................................................................................ 24-13
Audit in a Multitier Environment ............................................................................................... 24-13

A Operating System Specific Information

B Information on Deprecated Features

Allocating Extents in Dictionary Managed Tablespaces............................................................. B-2
Introduction to Rollback Segments................................................................................................. B-3
Contents of a Rollback Segment .......................................................................................... B-4
How Rollback Entries Are Logged ..................................................................................... B-4
When Rollback Information Is Required ........................................................................... B-5
Transactions and Rollback Segments ................................................................................. B-5
How Extents Are Deallocated from a Rollback Segment ................................................ B-9
The Rollback Segment SYSTEM ........................................................................................ B-10
Oracle Instances and Types of Rollback Segments......................................................... B-10
Rollback Segment States ..................................................................................................... B-12
Deferred Rollback Segments.............................................................................................. B-14
High Water Mark................................................................................................................. B-15
PCTFREE, PCTUSED, and Row Chaining................................................................................... B-15

Glossary

Index

xxx
 Send Us Your Comments
Oracle9i Database Concepts, Release 2 (9.2)
Part No. A96524-01

Oracle Corporation welcomes your comments and suggestions on the quality and usefulness of this
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xxxii
 Preface

This manual describes all features of the Oracle server, an object-relational database
management system. It describes how the Oracle server functions and lays a
conceptual foundation for much of the practical information contained in other
Oracle server manuals. Information in this manual applies to the Oracle server
running on all operating systems.
This preface contains these topics:

Audience

Organization

Related Documentation

Conventions

Documentation Accessibility

xxxiii
Audience
Oracle9i Database Concepts is intended for database administrators, system
administrators, and database application developers.
To use this document, you need to know the following:

Relational database concepts in general

Concepts and terminology in Chapter 1, "Introduction to the Oracle Server"

The operating system environment under which you are running Oracle

Organization
This document contains:

Part I: What Is Oracle?

Chapter 1, "Introduction to the Oracle Server"

This chapter provides an overview of the concepts and features you need for
understanding the Oracle data server. You should read this overview before using
the detailed information in the remainder of this manual.

Part II: Database Structures

Chapter 2, "Data Blocks, Extents, and Segments"

This chapter discusses how data is stored and how storage space is allocated for
and consumed by various objects within an Oracle database.

Chapter 3, "Tablespaces, Datafiles, and Control Files"

This chapter discusses how physical storage space in an Oracle database is divided
into logical divisions called tablespaces. It also discusses the physical operating
system files associated with tablespaces (datafiles) and files used in recovery
(control files).

Chapter 4, "The Data Dictionary"

This chapter describes the data dictionary, which is a set of reference tables and
views that contain read-only information about an Oracle database.

xxxiv
Part III: The Oracle Instance

Chapter 5, "Database and Instance Startup and Shutdown"

This chapter describes an Oracle instance and explains how the database
administrator can control the accessibility of an Oracle database system.

Chapter 6, "Application Architecture"

This chapter discusses distributed processing environments in which the Oracle
data server can operate.

Chapter 7, "Memory Architecture"

This chapter describes the memory structures used by an Oracle database system.

Chapter 8, "Process Architecture"

This chapter describes the process architecture of an Oracle instance and the
different process configurations available for Oracle.

Chapter 9, "Database Resource Management"

This chapter describes how the Database Resource Manager can be used to control
resource use.

Part IV: Data

Chapter 10, "Schema Objects"

This chapter describes the database objects that can be created in the domain of a
specific user (a schema), including tables, views, numeric sequences, and
synonyms. Optional structures that make data retrieval more efficient, including
indexes, materialized views, dimensions, and clusters, are also described.

Chapter 11, "Partitioned Tables and Indexes"

This chapter describes how partitioning can be used to split large tables and indexes
into more manageable pieces.

Chapter 12, "Native Datatypes"

This chapter describes the types of relational data that can be stored in an Oracle
database table, such as fixed- and variable-length character strings, numbers, dates,
and binary large objects (BLOBs).

xxxv
 Chapter 13, "Object Datatypes and Object Views"
This chapter gives an overview of the object extensions that Oracle provides.

Part V: Data Access

Chapter 14, "SQL, PL/SQL, and Java"

This chapter briefly describes SQL (Structured Query Language), the language used
to communicate with Oracle, as well as PL/SQL, the Oracle procedural language
extension to SQL. It also discusses the procedural language constructs called
procedures, functions, and packages, which are PL/SQL program units that are
stored in the database.

Chapter 15, "Dependencies Among Schema Objects"

This chapter explains how Oracle manages the dependencies for objects such as
procedures, packages, triggers, and views.

Chapter 16, "Transaction Management"

This chapter defines the concept of transactions and explains the SQL statements
used to control them. Transactions are logical units of work that are run together as
a unit.

Chapter 17, "Triggers"

This chapter discusses triggers, which are procedures written in PL/SQL, Java, or C
that run implicitly whenever a table or view is modified or when some user actions
or database system actions occur.

Part VI: Parallel SQL and Direct-Path INSERT

Chapter 18, "Parallel Execution of SQL Statements"

This chapter describes parallel execution of SQL statements (queries, DML, and
DDL statements) and explains the rules for parallelizing SQL statements.

Chapter 19, "Direct-Path INSERT"

This chapter describes the Oracle direct-path INSERT feature for serial or parallel
inserts, and the NOLOGGING clause.

xxxvi
 Part VII: Data Protection

Chapter 20, "Data Concurrency and Consistency"

This chapter explains how Oracle provides concurrent access to and maintains the
accuracy of shared information in a multiuser environment. It describes the
automatic mechanisms that Oracle uses to guarantee that the concurrent operations
of multiple users do not interfere with each other.

Chapter 21, "Data Integrity"

This chapter discusses data integrity and the declarative integrity constraints that
you can use to enforce data integrity.

Chapter 22, "Controlling Database Access"

This chapter describes how to control user access to data and database resources.

Chapter 23, "Privileges, Roles, and Security Policies"

This chapter discusses security at the system and schema object levels.

Chapter 24, "Auditing"

This chapter discusses how the Oracle auditing feature tracks database activity.

Appendix A, "Operating System Specific Information"

This appendix lists all the operating system specific references within this manual.

Appendix B, "Information on Deprecated Features"

This appendix contains conceptual information that might be of interest if you
created your database with an earlier version of Oracle.

Glossary
The glossary defines terms used in this manual.

Related Documentation
For more information, see these Oracle resources:

Oracle9i Database Migration for information about upgrading a previous release
of Oracle

xxxvii

Oracle9i Database Administrator’s Guide for information about how to administer
the Oracle server

Oracle9i Application Developer’s Guide - Fundamentals for information about
developing Oracle database applications

Oracle9i Database Performance Planning for information about optimizing
performance of an Oracle database

Oracle9i Data Warehousing Guide for information about data warehousing and
business intelligence
Many books in the documentation set use the sample schemas of the seed database,
which is installed by default when you install Oracle. Refer to Oracle9i Sample
Schemas for information on how these schemas were created and how you can use
them yourself.
In North America, printed documentation is available for sale in the Oracle Store at
http://oraclestore.oracle.com/

Customers in Europe, the Middle East, and Africa (EMEA) can purchase
documentation from
http://www.oraclebookshop.com/

Other customers can contact their Oracle representative to purchase printed

documentation.
To download free release notes, installation documentation, white papers, or other
collateral, please visit the Oracle Technology Network (OTN). You must register
online before using OTN; registration is free and can be done at
http://otn.oracle.com/admin/account/membership.html

If you already have a username and password for OTN, then you can go directly to
the documentation section of the OTN Web site at
http://otn.oracle.com/docs/index.htm

To access the database documentation search engine directly, please visit

http://tahiti.oracle.com

xxxviii
Conventions
This section describes the conventions used in the text and code examples of this
documentation set. It describes:

Conventions in Text

Conventions in Code Examples

Conventions in Text
We use various conventions in text to help you more quickly identify special terms.
The following table describes those conventions and provides examples of their use.

Convention Meaning Example

Bold Bold typeface indicates terms that are When you specify this clause, you create an
defined in the text or terms that appear in index-organized table.
a glossary, or both.
Italics Italic typeface indicates book titles or Oracle9i Database Concepts
emphasis.
Ensure that the recovery catalog and target
database do not reside on the same disk.
UPPERCASE Uppercase monospace typeface indicates You can specify this clause only for a NUMBER
monospace elements supplied by the system. Such column.
(fixed-width) elements include parameters, privileges,
You can back up the database by using the
font datatypes, RMAN keywords, SQL
BACKUP command.
keywords, SQL*Plus or utility commands,
packages and methods, as well as Query the TABLE_NAME column in the USER_
system-supplied column names, database TABLES data dictionary view.
objects and structures, usernames, and
Use the DBMS_STATS.GENERATE_STATS
roles.
procedure.

xxxix
Convention Meaning Example
lowercase Lowercase monospace typeface indicates Enter sqlplus to open SQL*Plus.
monospace executables, filenames, directory names,
The password is specified in the orapwd file.
(fixed-width) and sample user-supplied elements. Such
font elements include computer and database Back up the datafiles and control files in the
names, net service names, and connect /disk1/oracle/dbs directory.
identifiers, as well as user-supplied
The department_id, department_name,
database objects and structures, column
and location_id columns are in the
names, packages and classes, usernames
hr.departments table.
and roles, program units, and parameter
values. Set the QUERY_REWRITE_ENABLED
initialization parameter to true.
Note: Some programmatic elements use a
mixture of UPPERCASE and lowercase. Connect as oe user.
Enter these elements as shown.
The JRepUtil class implements these
methods.
lowercase Lowercase italic monospace font You can specify the parallel_clause.
italic represents placeholders or variables.
Run Uold_release.SQL where old_
monospace
release refers to the release you installed
(fixed-width)
prior to upgrading.
font

Conventions in Code Examples

Code examples illustrate SQL, PL/SQL, SQL*Plus, or other command-line
statements. They are displayed in a monospace (fixed-width) font and separated
from normal text as shown in this example:
SELECT username FROM dba_users WHERE username = ’MIGRATE’;

The following table describes typographic conventions used in code examples and
provides examples of their use.

Convention Meaning Example

[ ] Brackets enclose one or more optional DECIMAL (digits [ , precision ])
items. Do not enter the brackets.
{ } Braces enclose two or more items, one of {ENABLE | DISABLE}
which is required. Do not enter the braces.
| A vertical bar represents a choice of two {ENABLE | DISABLE}
or more options within brackets or braces. [COMPRESS | NOCOMPRESS]
Enter one of the options. Do not enter the
vertical bar.

xl
Convention Meaning Example
... Horizontal ellipsis points indicate either:

That we have omitted parts of the CREATE TABLE ... AS subquery;
code that are not directly related to
the example SELECT col1, col2, ... , coln FROM
employees;

That you can repeat a portion of the
code
. Vertical ellipsis points indicate that we SQL> SELECT NAME FROM V$DATAFILE;
. have omitted several lines of code not NAME
. directly related to the example. ------------------------------------
/fsl/dbs/tbs_01.dbf
/fs1/dbs/tbs_02.dbf
.
.
.
/fsl/dbs/tbs_09.dbf
9 rows selected.
Other notation You must enter symbols other than acctbal NUMBER(11,2);
brackets, braces, vertical bars, and ellipsis acct CONSTANT NUMBER(4) := 3;
points as shown.
Italics Italicized text indicates placeholders or CONNECT SYSTEM/system_password
variables for which you must supply DB_NAME = database_name
particular values.
UPPERCASE Uppercase typeface indicates elements SELECT last_name, employee_id FROM
supplied by the system. We show these employees;
terms in uppercase in order to distinguish SELECT * FROM USER_TABLES;
them from terms you define. Unless terms DROP TABLE hr.employees;
appear in brackets, enter them in the
order and with the spelling shown.
However, because these terms are not
case sensitive, you can enter them in
lowercase.
lowercase Lowercase typeface indicates SELECT last_name, employee_id FROM
programmatic elements that you supply. employees;
For example, lowercase indicates names sqlplus hr/hr
of tables, columns, or files. CREATE USER mjones IDENTIFIED BY ty3MU9;
Note: Some programmatic elements use a
mixture of UPPERCASE and lowercase.
Enter these elements as shown.

xli
Documentation Accessibility
Our goal is to make Oracle products, services, and supporting documentation
accessible, with good usability, to the disabled community. To that end, our
documentation includes features that make information available to users of
assistive technology. This documentation is available in HTML format, and contains
markup to facilitate access by the disabled community. Standards will continue to
evolve over time, and Oracle Corporation is actively engaged with other
market-leading technology vendors to address technical obstacles so that our
documentation can be accessible to all of our customers. For additional information,
visit the Oracle Accessibility Program Web site at
http://www.oracle.com/accessibility/

Accessibility of Code Examples in Documentation JAWS, a Windows screen

reader, may not always correctly read the code examples in this document. The
conventions for writing code require that closing braces should appear on an
otherwise empty line; however, JAWS may not always read a line of text that
consists solely of a bracket or brace.

xlii
 Part I
What Is Oracle?

Part I provides an overview of Oracle server concepts and terminology. It contains

the following chapters:

Chapter 1, "Introduction to the Oracle Server"
Oracle9i Database Concepts
 1
Introduction to the Oracle Server

This chapter provides an overview of the Oracle server. The topics include:

Database Structure and Space Management Overview

Data Access Overview

Memory Structure and Processes Overview

Application Architecture Overview

Distributed Databases Overview

Data Concurrency and Consistency Overview

Database Security Overview

Database Administration Overview

Data Warehousing Overview

High Availability Overview

Content Management Overview

Note: This chapter contains information relating to both Oracle9i

Standard Edition and Oracle9i Enterprise Edition. Some of the
features and options documented in this chapter are available only
if you have purchased the Oracle9i Enterprise Edition. See Oracle9i
Database New Features for information about the differences
between Oracle9i Standard Edition and Oracle9i Enterprise Edition.

Introduction to the Oracle Server 1-1

Database Structure and Space Management Overview

Database Structure and Space Management Overview

An Oracle database is a collection of data treated as a unit. The purpose of a
database is to store and retrieve related information. A database server is the key to
solving the problems of information management. In general, a server reliably
manages a large amount of data in a multiuser environment so that many users can
concurrently access the same data. All this is accomplished while delivering high
performance. A database server also prevents unauthorized access and provides
efficient solutions for failure recovery.
The database has logical structures and physical structures. Because the physical
and logical structures are separate, the physical storage of data can be managed
without affecting the access to logical storage structures.

Logical Database Structures

The logical structures of an Oracle database include schema objects, data blocks,
extents, segments, and tablespaces.

Schemas and Schema Objects

A schema is a collection of database objects. A schema is owned by a database user
and has the same name as that user. Schema objects are the logical structures that
directly refer to the database’s data. Schema objects include structures like tables,
views, and indexes. (There is no relationship between a tablespace and a schema.
Objects in the same schema can be in different tablespaces, and a tablespace can
hold objects from different schemas.)
Some of the most common schema objects are defined in the following section.

See Also: Chapter 10, "Schema Objects" for detailed information

on these schema objects, and for information on other schema
objects, such as dimensions, the sequence generator, synonyms,
index-organized tables, domain indexes, clusters, and hash clusters

Tables Tables are the basic unit of data storage in an Oracle database. Database
tables hold all user-accessible data. Each table has columns and rows. Oracle stores
each row of a database table containing data for less than 256 columns as one or
more row pieces. A table that has an employee database, for example, can have a
column called employee number, and each row in that column is an employee’s
number.

1-2 Oracle9i Database Concepts

 Database Structure and Space Management Overview

Views Views are customized presentations of data in one or more tables or other
views. A view can also be considered a stored query. Views do not actually contain
data. Rather, they derive their data from the tables on which they are based,
referred to as the base tables of the views.
Like tables, views can be queried, updated, inserted into, and deleted from, with
some restrictions. All operations performed on a view actually affect the base tables
of the view.
Views provide an additional level of table security by restricting access to a
predetermined set of rows and columns of a table. They also hide data complexity
and store complex queries.

Indexes Indexes are optional structures associated with tables. Indexes can be
created to increase the performance of data retrieval. Just as the index in this
manual helps you quickly locate specific information, an Oracle index provides an
access path to table data.
When processing a request, Oracle can use some or all of the available indexes to
locate the requested rows efficiently. Indexes are useful when applications
frequently query a table for a range of rows (for example, all employees with a
salary greater than 1000 dollars) or a specific row.
Indexes are created on one or more columns of a table. After it is created, an index is
automatically maintained and used by Oracle. Changes to table data (such as
adding new rows, updating rows, or deleting rows) are automatically incorporated
into all relevant indexes with complete transparency to the users.
You can partition indexes.

See Also: Chapter 11, "Partitioned Tables and Indexes"

Clusters Clusters are groups of one or more tables physically stored together
because they share common columns and are often used together. Because related
rows are physically stored together, disk access time improves.
Like indexes, clusters do not affect application design. Whether or not a table is part
of a cluster is transparent to users and to applications. Data stored in a clustered
table is accessed by SQL in the same way as data stored in a nonclustered table.

Data Blocks, Extents, and Segments

The logical storage structures, including data blocks, extents, and segments, enable
Oracle to have fine-grained control of disk space use.

Introduction to the Oracle Server 1-3

Database Structure and Space Management Overview

See Also: Chapter 2, "Data Blocks, Extents, and Segments"

Oracle Data Blocks At the finest level of granularity, Oracle database data is stored in
data blocks. One data block corresponds to a specific number of bytes of physical
database space on disk. The standard block size is specified by the initialization
parameter DB_BLOCK_SIZE. In addition, you can specify of up to five other block
sizes. A database uses and allocates free database space in Oracle data blocks.

See Also: "Multiple Block Sizes" on page 3-13

Extents The next level of logical database space is an extent. An extent is a specific
number of contiguous data blocks, obtained in a single allocation, used to store a
specific type of information.

Segments Above extents, the level of logical database storage is a segment. A

segment is a set of extents allocated for a certain logical structure. The following
table describes the different types of segments.

Segment Description
Data segment Each nonclustered table has a data segment. All table data
is stored in the extents of the data segment.
For a partitioned table, each partition has a data segment.
Each cluster has a data segment. The data of every table in
the cluster is stored in the cluster’s data segment.
Index segment Each index has an index segment that stores all of its data.
For a partitioned index, each partition has an index
segment.
Temporary segment Temporary segments are created by Oracle when a SQL
statement needs a temporary work area to complete
execution. When the statement finishes execution, the
extents in the temporary segment are returned to the
system for future use.

1-4 Oracle9i Database Concepts

 Database Structure and Space Management Overview

Segment Description
Rollback segment If you are operating in automatic undo management
mode, then the database server manages undo space
using tablespaces. Oracle Corporation recommends that
you use "Automatic Undo Management" management.
However, if you are operating in manual undo
management mode, then one or more rollback segments
for a database are created by the database administrator
to temporarily store undo information.
The information in a rollback segment is used during
database recovery:

To generate read-consistent database information

To roll back uncommitted transactions for users

Oracle dynamically allocates space when the existing extents of a segment become
full. In other words, when the extents of a segment are full, Oracle allocates another
extent for that segment. Because extents are allocated as needed, the extents of a
segment may or may not be contiguous on disk.

See Also:

"Automatic Undo Management" on page 2-16

"Read Consistency" on page 1-40

"Database Backup and Recovery Overview" on page 1-50

Tablespaces
A database is divided into logical storage units called tablespaces, which group
related logical structures together. For example, tablespaces commonly group
together all application objects to simplify some administrative operations.

Databases, Tablespaces, and Datafiles The relationship between databases, tablespaces,

and datafiles (datafiles are described in the next section) is illustrated in Figure 1–1.

Introduction to the Oracle Server 1-5

Database Structure and Space Management Overview

Figure 1–1 Databases, Tablespaces, and Datafiles

Database

System Tablespace USERS Tablespace

DATA1.ORA DATA2.ORA DATA3.ORA

1 Mb 1 Mb 4 Mb

This figure illustrates the following:

Each database is logically divided into one or more tablespaces.

One or more datafiles are explicitly created for each tablespace to physically
store the data of all logical structures in a tablespace.

The combined size of the datafiles in a tablespace is the total storage capacity of
the tablespace. (The SYSTEM tablespace has 2 megabit (Mb) storage capacity,
and USERS tablespace has 4 Mb).

The combined storage capacity of a database’s tablespaces is the total storage
capacity of the database (6 Mb).

Online and Offline Tablespaces A tablespace can be online (accessible) or offline (not
accessible). A tablespace is generally online, so that users can access the information
in the tablespace. However, sometimes a tablespace is taken offline to make a
portion of the database unavailable while allowing normal access to the remainder
of the database. This makes many administrative tasks easier to perform.

Physical Database Structures

The following sections explain the physical database structures of an Oracle
database, including datafiles, redo log files, and control files.

1-6 Oracle9i Database Concepts

 Database Structure and Space Management Overview

Datafiles
Every Oracle database has one or more physical datafiles. The datafiles contain all
the database data. The data of logical database structures, such as tables and
indexes, is physically stored in the datafiles allocated for a database.
The characteristics of datafiles are:

A datafile can be associated with only one database.

Datafiles can have certain characteristics set to let them automatically extend
when the database runs out of space.

One or more datafiles form a logical unit of database storage called a
tablespace, as discussed earlier in this chapter.
Data in a datafile is read, as needed, during normal database operation and stored
in the memory cache of Oracle. For example, assume that a user wants to access
some data in a table of a database. If the requested information is not already in the
memory cache for the database, then it is read from the appropriate datafiles and
stored in memory.
Modified or new data is not necessarily written to a datafile immediately. To reduce
the amount of disk access and to increase performance, data is pooled in memory
and written to the appropriate datafiles all at once, as determined by the database
writer process (DBWn) background process.

See Also: "Memory Structure and Processes Overview" on

page 1-21 for more information about Oracle’s memory and process
structures

Redo Log Files

Every Oracle database has a set of two or more redo log files. The set of redo log
files is collectively known as the redo log for the database. A redo log is made up of
redo entries (also called redo records).
The primary function of the redo log is to record all changes made to data. If a
failure prevents modified data from being permanently written to the datafiles,
then the changes can be obtained from the redo log, so work is never lost.
To protect against a failure involving the redo log itself, Oracle allows a
multiplexed redo log so that two or more copies of the redo log can be maintained
on different disks.
The information in a redo log file is used only to recover the database from a system
or media failure that prevents database data from being written to the datafiles. For

Introduction to the Oracle Server 1-7

Database Structure and Space Management Overview

example, if an unexpected power outage terminates database operation, then data

in memory cannot be written to the datafiles, and the data is lost. However, lost
data can be recovered when the database is opened, after power is restored. By
applying the information in the most recent redo log files to the database datafiles,
Oracle restores the database to the time at which the power failure occurred.
The process of applying the redo log during a recovery operation is called rolling
forward.

See Also: "Database Backup and Recovery Overview" on

page 1-50 for more information about redo log files

Control Files
Every Oracle database has a control file. A control file contains entries that specify
the physical structure of the database. For example, it contains the following
information:

Database name

Names and locations of datafiles and redo log files

Time stamp of database creation
Like the redo log, Oracle lets the control file be multiplexed for protection of the
control file.

Use of Control Files Every time an instance of an Oracle database is started, its
control file identifies the database and redo log files that must be opened for
database operation to proceed. If the physical makeup of the database is altered (for
example, if a new datafile or redo log file is created), then the control file is
automatically modified by Oracle to reflect the change. A control file is also used in
database recovery.

See Also: "Database Backup and Recovery Overview" on

page 1-50 for more information about the use of control files in
database recovery

Data Utilities
The three utilities for moving a subset of an Oracle database from one database to
another are Export, Import, and SQL*Loader.

Export Utility The Export utility transfers data objects between Oracle databases,
even if they reside on platforms with different hardware and software

1-8 Oracle9i Database Concepts

 Database Structure and Space Management Overview

configurations. Export extracts the object definitions and table data from an Oracle
database and stores them in an Oracle binary-format Export dump file typically
located on disk or tape.
Such files can then be copied using file transfer protocol (FTP) or physically
transported (in the case of tape) to a different site. They can be used with the Import
utility to transfer data between databases that are on machines not connected
through a network or as backups in addition to normal backup procedures.
When you run Export against an Oracle database, it extracts objects, such as tables,
followed by their related objects, and then writes them to the Export dump file.

Import Utility The Import utility inserts the data objects extracted from one Oracle
database by the Export utility into another Oracle database. Export dump files can
be read only by Import. Import reads the object definitions and table data that the
Export utility extracted from an Oracle database.
The Export and Import utilities can also facilitate certain aspects of Oracle
Advanced Replication functionality, such as offline instantiation.

See Also: Oracle9i Replication

SQL*Loader Utility Export dump files can be read only by the Oracle Import utility. If
you need to read load data from ASCII fixed-format or delimited files, you can use
the SQL*Loader utility. SQL*Loader loads data from external files into tables in an
Oracle database. SQL*Loader accepts input data in a variety of formats, performs
filtering (selectively loading records based on their data values), and loads data into
multiple Oracle database tables during the same load session.

See Also: Oracle9i Database Utilities for detailed information about

Export, Import, and SQL*Loader

Data Dictionary Overview

Each Oracle database has a data dictionary. An Oracle data dictionary is a set of
tables and views that are used as a read-only reference about the database. For
example, a data dictionary stores information about both the logical and physical
structure of the database. A data dictionary also stores the following information:

The valid users of an Oracle database

Information about integrity constraints defined for tables in the database

The amount of space allocated for a schema object and how much of it is in use

Introduction to the Oracle Server 1-9

Data Access Overview

A data dictionary is created when a database is created. To accurately reflect the

status of the database at all times, the data dictionary is automatically updated by
Oracle in response to specific actions, such as when the structure of the database is
altered. The database relies on the data dictionary to record, verify, and conduct
ongoing work. For example, during database operation, Oracle reads the data
dictionary to verify that schema objects exist and that users have proper access to
them.

See Also: Chapter 4, "The Data Dictionary"

Data Access Overview

This section explains how Oracle adheres to industry accepted standards for data
access languages, and how Oracle controls data consistency and data integrity. This
section includes the following topics:

"SQL Overview"

"Objects Overview"

"PL/SQL Overview"

"Java Overview"

"Transactions Overview"

"Data Integrity Overview"

"SQL*Plus Overview"

SQL Overview
SQL (pronounced SEQUEL) is the programming language that defines and
manipulates the database. SQL databases are relational databases, which means
that data is stored in a set of simple relations.

SQL Statements
All operations on the information in an Oracle database are performed using SQL
statements. A SQL statement is a string of SQL text. A statement must be the
equivalent of a complete SQL sentence, as in:
SELECT last_name, department_id FROM employees;

Only a complete SQL statement can run successfully. A sentence fragment, such as
the following, generates an error indicating that more text is required:

1-10 Oracle9i Database Concepts

 Data Access Overview

SELECT last_name

A SQL statement can be thought of as a very simple, but powerful, computer

program or instruction. SQL statements are divided into the following categories:

Data Definition Language (DDL) Statements

Data Manipulation Language (DML) Statements

Transaction Control Statements

Session Control Statements

System Control Statements

Embedded SQL Statements

Data Definition Language (DDL) Statements These statements create, alter, maintain, and
drop schema objects. DDL statements also include statements that permit a user to
grant other users the privileges to access the database and specific objects within the
database.

Data Manipulation Language (DML) Statements These statements manipulate data. For
example, querying, inserting, updating, and deleting rows of a table are all DML
operations. The most common SQL statement is the SELECT statement, which
retrieves data from the database. Locking a table or view and examining the
execution plan of an SQL statement are also DML operations.

Transaction Control Statements These statements manage the changes made by DML
statements. They enable a user to group changes into logical transactions. Examples
include COMMIT, ROLLBACK, and SAVEPOINT.

Session Control Statements These statements let a user control the properties of the
current session, including enabling and disabling roles and changing language
settings. The two session control statements are ALTER SESSION and SET ROLE.

System Control Statements These statements change the properties of the Oracle
server instance. The only system control statement is ALTER SYSTEM. It lets users
change settings, such as the minimum number of shared servers, kill a session, and
perform other tasks.

Embedded SQL Statements These statements incorporate DDL, DML, and transaction
control statements in a procedural language program, such as those used with the
Oracle precompilers. Examples include OPEN, CLOSE, FETCH, and EXECUTE.

Introduction to the Oracle Server 1-11

Data Access Overview

See Also:

Oracle9i SQL Reference

"Database Security Overview" on page 1-43 for more
information about privileges

"Transactions Overview" on page 1-17 for more information
about transaction control statements

Objects Overview
Oracle object technology is a layer of abstraction built on Oracle's relational
technology. New object types can be created from any built-in database types or
any previously created object types, object references, and collection types.
Metadata for user-defined types is stored in a schema available to SQL, PL/SQL,
Java, and other published interfaces.
An object type differs from native SQL datatypes in that it is user-defined, and it
specifies both the underlying persistent data (attributes) and the related behaviors
(methods). Object types are abstractions of the real-world entities, for example,
purchase orders.
Object types and related object-oriented features, such as variable-length arrays and
nested tables, provide higher-level ways to organize and access data in the
database. Underneath the object layer, data is still stored in columns and tables, but
you can work with the data in terms of the real-world entities--customers and
purchase orders, for example--that make the data meaningful. Instead of thinking in
terms of columns and tables when you query the database, you can simply select a
customer.
Internally, statements about objects are still basically statements about relational
tables and columns, and you can continue to work with relational data types and
store data in relational tables. But you have the option to take advantage of
object-oriented features too. You can use object-oriented features while continuing
to work with most of your relational data, or you can go over to an object-oriented
approach entirely. For instance, you can define some object data types and store the
objects in columns in relational tables. You can also create object views of existing
relational data to represent and access this data according to an object model. Or
you can store object data in object tables, where each row is an object.

Advantages of Objects
In general, the object-type model is similar to the class mechanism found in C++
and Java. Like classes, objects make it easier to model complex, real-world business

1-12 Oracle9i Database Concepts

 Data Access Overview

entities and logic, and the reusability of objects makes it possible to develop
database applications faster and more efficiently. By natively supporting object
types in the database, Oracle enables application developers to directly access the
data structures used by their applications. No mapping layer is required between
client-side objects and the relational database columns and tables that contain the
data. Object abstraction and the encapsulation of object behaviors also make
applications easier to understand and maintain.

See Also: Oracle9i Application Developer’s Guide - Object-Relational

Features

PL/SQL Overview
PL/SQL is Oracle’s procedural language extension to SQL. PL/SQL combines the
ease and flexibility of SQL with the procedural functionality of a structured
programming language, such as IF ... THEN, WHILE, and LOOP.
When designing a database application, consider the following advantages of using
stored PL/SQL:

PL/SQL code can be stored centrally in a database. Network traffic between
applications and the database is reduced, so application and system
performance increases. Even when PL/SQL is not stored in the database,
applications can send blocks of PL/SQL to the database rather than individual
SQL statements, thereby reducing network traffic.

Data access can be controlled by stored PL/SQL code. In this case, PL/SQL
users can access data only as intended by application developers, unless
another access route is granted.

PL/SQL blocks can be sent by an application to a database, running complex
operations without excessive network traffic.
The following sections describe the PL/SQL program units that can be defined and
stored centrally in a database.

PL/SQL Program Units

Program units are stored procedures, functions, packages, triggers, and anonymous
transactions.

Procedures and Functions Procedures and functions are sets of SQL and PL/SQL
statements grouped together as a unit to solve a specific problem or to perform a set

Introduction to the Oracle Server 1-13

Data Access Overview

of related tasks. They are created and stored in compiled form in the database and
can be run by a user or a database application.
Procedures and functions are identical, except that functions always return a single
value to the user. Procedures do not return values.

Packages Packages encapsulate and store related procedures, functions, variables,

and other constructs together as a unit in the database. They offer increased
functionality (for example, global package variables can be declared and used by
any procedure in the package). They also improve performance (for example, all
objects of the package are parsed, compiled, and loaded into memory once).

Database Triggers Database triggers are PL/SQL, Java, or C procedures that run
implicitly whenever a table or view is modified or when some user actions or
database system actions occur. Database triggers can be used in a variety of ways
for managing your database. For example, they can automate data generation, audit
data modifications, enforce complex integrity constraints, and customize complex
security authorizations.

Autonomous Blocks You can call autonomous transactions from within a PL/SQL
block. When an autonomous PL/SQL block is entered, the transaction context of the
caller is suspended. This operation ensures that SQL operations performed in this
block (or other blocks called from it) have no dependence or effect on the state of
the caller’s transaction context.

Java Overview
Java is an object-oriented programming efficient for application-level programs.
Java has key features that make it ideal for developing server applications. These
features include the following:

Simplicity--Java is a simpler language than most others used in server
applications because of its consistent enforcement of the object model. The
large, standard set of class libraries brings powerful tools to Java developers on
all platforms.

Portability--Java is portable across platforms. It is possible to write
platform-dependent code in Java, but it is also simple to write programs that
move seamlessly across machines. Oracle server applications, which do not
support graphical user interfaces directly on the platform that hosts them, also
tend to avoid the few platform portability issues that Java has.

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 Data Access Overview

Automatic Storage Management--The Java virtual machine automatically

performs all memory allocation and deallocation during program execution.
Java programmers can neither allocate nor free memory explicitly. Instead, they
depend on the JVM to perform these bookkeeping operations, allocating
memory as they create new objects and deallocating memory when the objects
are no longer referenced. The latter operation is known as garbage collection.

Strong Typing--Before you use a Java variable, you must declare the class of the
object it will hold. Java's strong typing makes it possible to provide a reasonable
and safe solution to inter-language calls between Java and PL/SQL
applications, and to integrate Java and SQL calls within the same application.

No Pointers--Although Java retains much of the flavor of C in its syntax, it does
not support direct pointers or pointer manipulation. You pass all parameters,
except primitive types, by reference (that is, object identity is preserved), not by
value. Java does not provide C's low level, direct access to pointers, which
eliminates memory corruption and leaks.

Exception Handling--Java exceptions are objects. Java requires developers to
declare which exceptions can be thrown by methods in any particular class.

Security--The design of Java bytecodes and the JVM allow for built-in
mechanisms to verify that the Java binary code was not tampered with. Oracle9i
is installed with an instance of SecurityManager, which, when combined with
Oracle database security, determines who can invoke any Java methods.

Standards for Connectivity to Relational Databases--JDBC and SQLJ enable Java
code to access and manipulate data resident in relational databases. Oracle
provides drivers that allow vendor-independent, portable Java code to access
the relational database.

See Also: Chapter 14, "SQL, PL/SQL, and Java"

XML Overview
XML, eXtensible Markup Language, is the standard way to identify and describe
data on the Web. It is a human-readable, machine-understandable, general syntax
for describing hierarchical data, applicable to a wide range of applications,
databases, e-commerce, Java, web development, searching, and so on.
The Oracle server includes the Oracle XML DB, a set of built-in high-performance
XML storage and retrieval technologies. The XML DB fully absorbs the W3C XML
data model into the Oracle server and provides new standard access methods for
navigating and querying XML. You get all the advantages of relational database

Introduction to the Oracle Server 1-15

Data Access Overview

technology and XML technology at the same time. Key aspects of the XML database
include the following:

A native datatype -- XMLType -- to store and manipulate XML. Multiple storage
options (CLOB, decomposed object-relational) are available with XMLType, and
DBAs can choose a storage that meets their requirements for fidelity to original,
ease of query, ease of regeneration, and so on. With XMLType, you can perform
SQL operations, such as queries and OLAP functions on XML data, as well as
XML operations, such as XPath searches and XSL transformations, on SQL data.
You can build regular SQL indexes or Oracle Text indexes on XMLType for high
performance for a broad spectrum of applications.

Native XML generation provides built in SQL operators and supplied PL/SQL
packages to return the results of SQL queries formatted as XML.

An XML repository provides foldering, access control, FTP and WebDAV
protocol support with versioning. This enables applications to retain a file
abstraction when manipulating XML data.
Complementing the XML Database is the Oracle XML Developer Kit, or XDK. XDK
is a set of commonly used building blocks or utilities for development and runtime
support. The Oracle XDK contains the basic building blocks for reading,
manipulating, transforming, and viewing XML documents. To provide a broad
variety of deployment options, the Oracle XDKs are available for Java, JavaBeans,
C, C++, and PL/SQL. Oracle XDKs consist of XML Parsers, an XSLT Processor,
XML Schema Processor, XML Class Generator, XML Transviewer Java Beans, XML
SQL Utility, and XSQL Servlet.
Advanced Queuing (AQ) is the message queuing functionality of the Oracle
database. With this functionality, message queuing operations can be performed
similar to that of SQL operations from the Oracle database. Message queuing
functionality enables asynchronous communication between applications and users
on Oracle databases using queues. AQ offers enqueue, dequeue, propagation, and
guaranteed delivery of messages, along with exception handling in case messages
cannot be delivered. Message queuing takes advantage of XMLType for XML
message payloads.

See Also:

Chapter 12, "Native Datatypes"

Oracle9i XML Database Developer’s Guide - Oracle XML DB

1-16 Oracle9i Database Concepts

 Data Access Overview

Transactions Overview
A transaction is a logical unit of work that comprises one or more SQL statements
run by a single user. According to the ANSI/ISO SQL standard, with which Oracle
is compatible, a transaction begins with the user’s first executable SQL statement. A
transaction ends when it is explicitly committed or rolled back by that user.

Note: Oracle9i is broadly compatible with the SQL-99 Core

specification.

Consider a banking database. When a bank customer transfers money from a

savings account to a checking account, the transaction can consist of three separate
operations: decrease the savings account, increase the checking account, and record
the transaction in the transaction journal.
Oracle must guarantee that all three SQL statements are performed to maintain the
accounts in proper balance. When something prevents one of the statements in the
transaction from running (such as a hardware failure), then the other statements of
the transaction must be undone. This is called rolling back. If an error occurs in
making any of the updates, then no updates are made.
Figure 1–2 illustrates the banking transaction example.

Introduction to the Oracle Server 1-17

Data Access Overview

Figure 1–2 A Banking Transaction

Transaction Begins

Decrement Savings Account

UPDATE savings_accounts
SET balance = balance - 500
WHERE account = 3209;

Increment Checking Account

UPDATE checking_accounts
SET balance = balance + 500
WHERE account = 3208;

Record in Transaction Journal

INSERT INTO journal VALUES
(journal_seq.NEXTVAL, '1B'
3209, 3208, 500);

End Transaction
COMMIT WORK;

Transaction Ends

See Also: Oracle9i SQL Reference for information about Oracle’s

compliance with ANSI/ISO standards

Commit and Roll Back Transactions

The changes made by the SQL statements that constitute a transaction can be either
committed or rolled back. After a transaction is committed or rolled back, the next
transaction begins with the next SQL statement.
Committing a transaction makes permanent the changes resulting from all SQL
statements in the transaction. The changes made by the SQL statements of a
transaction become visible to other user sessions’ transactions that start only after
the transaction is committed.

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 Data Access Overview

Rolling back a transaction retracts any of the changes resulting from the SQL
statements in the transaction. After a transaction is rolled back, the affected data is
left unchanged, as if the SQL statements in the transaction were never run.

Savepoints
Savepoints divide a long transaction with many SQL statements into smaller parts.
With savepoints, you can arbitrarily mark your work at any point within a long
transaction. This gives you the option of later rolling back all work performed from
the current point in the transaction to a declared savepoint within the transaction.
For example, you can use savepoints throughout a long complex series of updates,
so if you make an error, you do not need to resubmit every statement.

Data Consistency Using Transactions

Transactions let users guarantee consistent changes to data, as long as the SQL
statements within a transaction are grouped logically. A transaction should consist
of all of the necessary parts for one logical unit of work—no more and no less. Data
in all referenced tables are in a consistent state before the transaction begins and
after it ends. Transactions should consist of only the SQL statements that make one
consistent change to the data.
For example, recall the banking example. A transfer of funds between two accounts
(the transaction) should include increasing one account (one SQL statement),
decreasing another account (one SQL statement), and recording the transaction in
the journal (one SQL statement). All actions should either fail or succeed together;
the credit should not be committed without the debit. Other nonrelated actions,
such as a new deposit to one account, should not be included in the transfer of
funds transaction. Such statements should be in other transactions.

Data Integrity Overview

Data must adhere to certain business rules, as determined by the database
administrator or application developer. For example, assume that a business rule
says that no row in the inventory table can contain a numeric value greater than
nine in the sale_discount column. If an INSERT or UPDATE statement attempts
to violate this integrity rule, then Oracle must roll back the invalid statement and
return an error to the application. Oracle provides integrity constraints and
database triggers to manage data integrity rules.

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Data Access Overview

Note: Database triggers let you define and enforce integrity rules,
but a database trigger is not the same as an integrity constraint.
Among other things, a database trigger does not check data already
loaded into a table. Therefore, it is strongly recommended that you
use database triggers only when the integrity rule cannot be
enforced by integrity constraints.

Integrity Constraints
An integrity constraint is a declarative way to define a business rule for a column
of a table. An integrity constraint is a statement about a table’s data that is always
true and that follows these rules:

If an integrity constraint is created for a table and some existing table data does
not satisfy the constraint, then the constraint cannot be enforced.

After a constraint is defined, if any of the results of a DML statement violate the
integrity constraint, then the statement is rolled back, and an error is returned.
Integrity constraints are defined with a table and are stored as part of the table’s
definition in the data dictionary, so that all database applications adhere to the
same set of rules. When a rule changes, it only needs be changed once at the
database level and not many times for each application.
The following integrity constraints are supported by Oracle:

NOT NULL: Disallows nulls (empty entries) in a table’s column.

UNIQUE KEY: Disallows duplicate values in a column or set of columns.

PRIMARY KEY: Disallows duplicate values and nulls in a column or set of
columns.

FOREIGN KEY: Requires each value in a column or set of columns to match a
value in a related table’s UNIQUE or PRIMARY KEY. FOREIGN KEY integrity
constraints also define referential integrity actions that dictate what Oracle
should do with dependent data if the data it references is altered.

CHECK: Disallows values that do not satisfy the logical expression of the
constraint.

Keys
Key is used in the definitions of several types of integrity constraints. A key is the
column or set of columns included in the definition of certain types of integrity

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 Memory Structure and Processes Overview

constraints. Keys describe the relationships between the different tables and
columns of a relational database. Individual values in a key are called key values.
The different types of keys include:

Primary key: The column or set of columns included in the definition of a
table’s PRIMARY KEY constraint. A primary key’s values uniquely identify the
rows in a table. Only one primary key can be defined for each table.

Unique key: The column or set of columns included in the definition of a
UNIQUE constraint.

Foreign key: The column or set of columns included in the definition of a
referential integrity constraint.

Referenced key: The unique key or primary key of the same or a different table
referenced by a foreign key.

SQL*Plus Overview
SQL*Plus is a tool for entering and running ad-hoc database statements. It lets you
run SQL statements and PL/SQL blocks, and perform many additional tasks as
well. Through SQL*Plus, you can:

Enter, edit, store, retrieve, and run SQL statements and PL/SQL blocks

Format, perform calculations on, store, print, and create Web output of query
results

List column definitions for any table access, and copy data between SQL
databases

Send messages to, and accept responses from, an end user

Perform database administration

See Also: SQL*Plus User’s Guide and Reference

Memory Structure and Processes Overview

An Oracle server uses memory structures and processes to manage and access the
database. All memory structures exist in the main memory of the computers that
constitute the database system. Processes are jobs that work in the memory of these
computers.
The architectural features discussed in this section enable the Oracle server to
support:

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Memory Structure and Processes Overview

Many users concurrently accessing a single database

The high performance required by concurrent multiuser, multiapplication
database systems
Figure 1–3 shows a typical variation of the Oracle server memory and process
structures.

1-22 Oracle9i Database Concepts

 Memory Structure and Processes Overview

Figure 1–3 Memory Structures and Processes of Oracle

LMS RECO PMON SMON

System Global Area

Database Redo Log

Buffer Cache Buffer

User Shared Dedicated

Process Server Server
Process Process
User Processes

ARC0
CKPT ARC0 Offline
Storage
D000 Device

DBW0
LGWR

Legend:
User
Process Control
LMS Lock process
Files
RECO Recoverer process
PMON Process monitor
SMON System monitor
CKPT Checkpoint Redo Log
ARC0 Archiver Files
DBW0 Database writer
LGWR Log writer
D000 Dispatcher Process

Datafiles

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Memory Structure and Processes Overview

Note: In a UNIX environment, most Oracle processes are part of

one master Oracle process, rather than being individual processes.
On Windows NT, all processes consist of at least one thread. A
thread is an individual execution within a process. Threads enable
concurrent operations within a process so that a process can run
different parts of its program simultaneously on different
processors. A thread is the most fundamental component that can
be scheduled on Windows NT. In UNIX documentation, such as
this book, whenever the word "process" is mentioned, it is
considered a "thread" on Windows NT.

An Oracle Instance
An Oracle server consists of an Oracle database and an Oracle server instance.
Every time a database is started, a system global area (SGA) is allocated and Oracle
background processes are started. The combination of the background processes
and memory buffers is called an Oracle instance.

Real Application Clusters: Multiple Instance Systems

Some hardware architectures (for example, shared disk systems) enable multiple
computers to share access to data, software, or peripheral devices. Real Application
Clusters take advantage of such architecture by running multiple instances that
share a single physical database. In most applications, Real Application Clusters
enable access to a single database by users on multiple machines with increased
performance.
Real Application Clusters are inherently high availability systems. The clusters that
are typical of Real Application Clusters environments can provide continuous
service for both planned and unplanned outages.
An Oracle server uses memory structures and processes to manage and access the
database. All memory structures exist in the main memory of the computers that
constitute the database system. Processes are jobs that work in the memory of these
computers.

Note: Real Application Clusters are available only with Oracle9i

Enterprise Edition.

See Also: Oracle9i Real Application Clusters Concepts

1-24 Oracle9i Database Concepts

 Memory Structure and Processes Overview

Memory Structures
Oracle creates and uses memory structures to complete several jobs. For example,
memory stores program code being run and data shared among users. Two basic
memory structures are associated with Oracle: the system global area and the
program global area. The following subsections explain each in detail.

System Global Area

The System Global Area (SGA) is a shared memory region that contains data and
control information for one Oracle instance. Oracle allocates the SGA when an
instance starts and deallocates it when the instance shuts down. Each instance has
its own SGA.
Users currently connected to an Oracle server share the data in the SGA. For
optimal performance, the entire SGA should be as large as possible (while still
fitting in real memory) to store as much data in memory as possible and to
minimize disk I/O.
The information stored in the SGA is divided into several types of memory
structures, including the database buffers, redo log buffer, and the shared pool.

See Also:

"An Oracle Instance" on page 1-24

"Background Processes" on page 1-27 for more information
about the SGA and the Oracle background processes

Database Buffer Cache of the SGA Database buffers store the most recently used
blocks of data. The set of database buffers in an instance is the database buffer
cache. The buffer cache contains modified as well as unmodified blocks. Because
the most recently (and often, the most frequently) used data is kept in memory, less
disk I/O is necessary, and performance is improved.

Redo Log Buffer of the SGA The redo log buffer stores redo entries—a log of changes
made to the database. The redo entries stored in the redo log buffers are written to
an online redo log, which is used if database recovery is necessary. The size of the
redo log is static.

Shared Pool of the SGA The shared pool contains shared memory constructs, such as
shared SQL areas. A shared SQL area is required to process every unique SQL
statement submitted to a database. A shared SQL area contains information such as
the parse tree and execution plan for the corresponding statement. A single shared

Introduction to the Oracle Server 1-25

Memory Structure and Processes Overview

SQL area is used by multiple applications that issue the same statement, leaving
more shared memory for other uses.

See Also: "SQL Statements" on page 1-10 for more information

about shared SQL areas

Large Pool in the SGA The large pool is an optional area that provides large memory
allocations for Oracle backup and restore operations, I/O server processes, and
session memory for the shared server and Oracle XA (used where transactions
interact with more than one database).

Statement Handles or Cursors A cursor is a handle (a name or pointer) for the memory
associated with a specific statement. (Oracle Call Interface, OCI, refers to these as
statement handles.) Although most Oracle users rely on automatic cursor handling
of Oracle utilities, the programmatic interfaces offer application designers more
control over cursors.
For example, in precompiler application development, a cursor is a named resource
available to a program and can be used specifically to parse SQL statements
embedded within the application. Application developers can code an application
so it controls the phases of SQL statement execution and thus improves application
performance.

Program Global Area

The Program Global Area (PGA) is a memory buffer that contains data and control
information for a server process. A PGA is created by Oracle when a server process
is started. The information in a PGA depends on the Oracle configuration.

Process Architecture
A process is a "thread of control" or a mechanism in an operating system that can
run a series of steps. Some operating systems use the terms job or task. A process
generally has its own private memory area in which it runs.
An Oracle server has two general types of processes: user processes and Oracle
processes.

User (Client) Processes

User processes are created and maintained to run the software code of an
application program (such as a Pro*C/C++ program) or an Oracle tool (such as

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 Memory Structure and Processes Overview

Enterprise Manager). User processes also manage communication with the server
process through the program interface, which is described in a later section.

Oracle Processes
Oracle processes are invoked by other processes to perform functions on behalf of
the invoking process. The different types of Oracle processes and their specific
functions are discussed in the following sections.

Server Processes Oracle creates server processes to handle requests from connected
user processes. A server process communicates with the user process and interacts
with Oracle to carry out requests from the associated user process. For example, if a
user queries some data not already in the database buffers of the SGA, then the
associated server process reads the proper data blocks from the datafiles into the
SGA.
Oracle can be configured to vary the number of user processes for each server
process. In a dedicated server configuration, a server process handles requests for a
single user process. A shared server configuration lets many user processes share a
small number of server processes, minimizing the number of server processes and
maximizing the use of available system resources.
On some systems, the user and server processes are separate, while on others they
are combined into a single process. If a system uses the shared server or if the user
and server processes run on different machines, then the user and server processes
must be separate. Client/server systems separate the user and server processes and
run them on different machines.

Background Processes Oracle creates a set of background processes for each

instance. The background processes consolidate functions that would otherwise be
handled by multiple Oracle programs running for each user process. They
asynchronously perform I/O and monitor other Oracle process to provide
increased parallelism for better performance and reliability.
Each Oracle instance can use several background processes. The names of these
processes are DBWn, LGWR, CKPT, SMON, PMON, ARCn, RECO, Jnnn, Dnnn,
LMS, and QMNn.

See Also:

"An Oracle Instance" on page 1-24

"System Global Area" on page 1-25 for more information about
the SGA

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Memory Structure and Processes Overview

Database Writer (DBWn) The database writer writes modified blocks from the
database buffer cache to the datafiles. Although one database writer process
(DBW0) is sufficient for most systems, you can configure additional processes
(DBW1 through DBW9 and DBWa through DBWj) to improve write performance
for a system that modifies data heavily. The initialization parameter DB_WRITER_
PROCESSES specifies the number of DBWn processes.
Because Oracle uses write-ahead logging, DBWn does not need to write blocks
when a transaction commits. Instead, DBWn is designed to perform batched writes
with high efficiency. In the most common case, DBWn writes only when more data
needs to be read into the SGA and too few database buffers are free. The least
recently used data is written to the datafiles first. DBWn also performs writes for
other functions, such as checkpointing.

See Also: "Transactions Overview" on page 1-17 for more

information about commits

Log Writer (LGWR) The log writer writes redo log entries to disk. Redo log entries are
generated in the redo log buffer of the SGA, and LGWR writes the redo log entries
sequentially into an online redo log. If the database has a multiplexed redo log,
then LGWR writes the redo log entries to a group of online redo log files.

Checkpoint (CKPT) At specific times, all modified database buffers in the SGA are
written to the datafiles by DBWn. This event is called a checkpoint. The checkpoint
process is responsible for signaling DBWn at checkpoints and updating all the
datafiles and control files of the database to indicate the most recent checkpoint.

System Monitor (SMON) The system monitor performs recovery when a failed
instance starts up again. With Real Application Clusters, the SMON process of one
instance can perform instance recovery for other instances that have failed. SMON
also cleans up temporary segments that are no longer in use and recovers
terminated transactions skipped during recovery because of file-read or offline
errors. These transactions are eventually recovered by SMON when the tablespace
or file is brought back online. SMON also coalesces free extents in the dictionary
managed tablespaces to make free space contiguous and easier to allocate.

Process Monitor (PMON) The process monitor performs process recovery when a user
process fails. PMON is responsible for cleaning up the cache and freeing resources
that the process was using. PMON also checks on dispatcher and server processes
and restarts them if they have failed.

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 Memory Structure and Processes Overview

Archiver (ARCn) The archiver copies the online redo log files to archival storage after
a log switch has occurred. Although a single ARCn process (ARC0) is sufficient for
most systems, you can specify up to 10 ARCn processes by using the dynamic
initialization parameter LOG_ARCHIVE_MAX_PROCESSES. If the workload becomes
too great for the current number of ARCn processes, then LGWR automatically
starts another ARCn process up to the maximum of 10 processes. ARCn is active
only when a database is in ARCHIVELOG mode and automatic archiving is enabled.

See Also: "The Redo Log" on page 1-52 for more information
about the archiver

Recoverer (RECO) The recoverer is used to resolve distributed transactions that are
pending due to a network or system failure in a distributed database. At timed
intervals, the local RECO attempts to connect to remote databases and
automatically complete the commit or rollback of the local portion of any pending
distributed transactions.

Job Queue Processes (Jnnn) Job queue processes are used for batch processing. Job
queue processes are managed dynamically. This enables job queue clients to use
more job queue processes when required. The resources used by the new processes
are released when they are idle.

See Also:

Oracle9i Database Administrator’s Guide for more information
about job queues.

Dispatcher (Dnnn) Dispatchers are optional background processes, present only

when a shared server configuration is used. At least one dispatcher process is
created for every communication protocol in use (D000, . . ., Dnnn). Each dispatcher
process is responsible for routing requests from connected user processes to
available shared server processes and returning the responses back to the
appropriate user processes.

Lock Manager Server (LMS) The Lock Manager Server process (LMS) is used for
inter-instance locking in Real Application Clusters.

See Also: "Real Application Clusters: Multiple Instance Systems"

on page 1-24 for more information about the configuration of the
lock process

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Memory Structure and Processes Overview

Queue Monitor (QMNn) Queue monitors are optional background processes that
monitor the message queues for Oracle Advanced Queuing. You can configure up
to 10 queue monitor processes.

The Program Interface Mechanism

The program interface is the mechanism by which a user process communicates
with a server process. It serves as a method of standard communication between
any client tool or application (such as Oracle Forms) and Oracle software. Its
functions are to:

Act as a communications mechanism by formatting data requests, passing data,
and trapping and returning errors

Perform conversions and translations of data, particularly between different
types of computers or to external user program datatypes

Communications Software and Oracle Net Services

If the user and server processes are on different computers of a network, or if user
processes connect to shared server processes through dispatcher processes, then the
user process and server process communicate using Oracle Net Services.
Dispatchers are optional background processes, present only in the shared server
configuration.
Oracle Net Services is Oracle’s mechanism for interfacing with the communication
protocols used by the networks that facilitate distributed processing and distributed
databases. Communication protocols define the way that data is transmitted and
received on a network. In a networked environment, an Oracle database server
communicates with client workstations and other Oracle database servers using
Oracle Net Services software.
Oracle Net Services supports communications on all major network protocols,
ranging from those supported by PC LANs to those used by the largest of
mainframe computer systems.
Using Oracle Net Services, application developers do not need to be concerned with
supporting network communications in a database application. If a new protocol is
used, then the database administrator makes some minor changes, while the
application requires no modifications and continues to function.

See Also: Oracle9i Net Services Administrator’s Guide

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 Memory Structure and Processes Overview

An Example of How Oracle Works

The following example describes the most basic level of operations that Oracle
performs. This illustrates an Oracle configuration where the user and associated
server process are on separate machines (connected through a network).
1. An instance has started on the computer running Oracle (often called the host
or database server).
2. A computer running an application (a local machine or client workstation)
runs the application in a user process. The client application attempts to
establish a connection to the server using the proper Oracle Net Services driver.
3. The server is running the proper Oracle Net Services driver. The server detects
the connection request from the application and creates a dedicated server
process on behalf of the user process.
4. The user runs a SQL statement and commits the transaction. For example, the
user changes a name in a row of a table.
5. The server process receives the statement and checks the shared pool for any
shared SQL area that contains a similar SQL statement. If a shared SQL area is
found, then the server process checks the user’s access privileges to the
requested data, and the previously existing shared SQL area is used to process
the statement. If not, then a new shared SQL area is allocated for the statement,
so it can be parsed and processed.
6. The server process retrieves any necessary data values from the actual datafile
(table) or those stored in the SGA.
7. The server process modifies data in the system global area. The DBWn process
writes modified blocks permanently to disk when doing so is efficient. Because
the transaction is committed, the LGWR process immediately records the
transaction in the online redo log file.
8. If the transaction is successful, then the server process sends a message across
the network to the application. If it is not successful, then an error message is
transmitted.
9. Throughout this entire procedure, the other background processes run,
watching for conditions that require intervention. In addition, the database
server manages other users’ transactions and prevents contention between
transactions that request the same data.

See Also: Chapter 8, "Process Architecture" for more information

about Oracle configuration

Introduction to the Oracle Server 1-31

Application Architecture Overview

Application Architecture Overview

There are two common ways to architect a database: client/server or multitier. As
internet computing becomes more prevalent in computing environments, many
database management systems are moving to a multitier environment.

Client/Server Architecture
Multiprocessing uses more than one processor for a set of related jobs. Distributed
processing reduces the load on a single processor by allowing different processors
to concentrate on a subset of related tasks, thus improving the performance and
capabilities of the system as a whole.
An Oracle database system can easily take advantage of distributed processing by
using its client/server architecture. In this architecture, the database system is
divided into two parts: a front-end or a client and a back-end or a server.

The Client
The client is the front-end database application, accessed by a user through the
keyboard, display, and pointing device, such as a mouse. The client has no data
access responsibilities. It requests, processes, and presents data managed by the
server. The client workstation can be optimized for its job. For example, it might not
need large disk capacity, or it might benefit from graphic capabilities.
Often, the client runs on a different computer than the database server, generally on
a PC. Many clients can simultaneously run against one server.

The Server
The server runs Oracle software and handles the functions required for concurrent,
shared data access. The server receives and processes the SQL and PL/SQL
statements that originate from client applications. The computer that manages the
server can be optimized for its duties. For example, it can have large disk capacity
and fast processors.

Multitier Architecture: Application Servers

A multitier architecture has the following components:

A client or initiator process that starts an operation

One or more application servers that perform parts of the operation. An
application server provides access to the data for the client and performs some

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of the query processing, thus removing some of the load from the database
server. It can serve as an interface between clients and multiple database
servers, including providing an additional level of security.

An end or database server that stores most of the data used in the operation
This architecture enables use of an application server to:

Validate the credentials of a client, such as a web browser

Connect to an Oracle database server

Perform the requested operation on behalf of the client
The identity of the client is maintained throughout all tiers of the connection.

Distributed Databases Overview

A distributed database is a network of databases managed by multiple database
servers that are used together. They are not usually seen as a single logical
database. The data of all databases in the distributed database can be
simultaneously accessed and modified. The primary benefit of a distributed
database is that the data of physically separate databases can be logically combined
and potentially made accessible to all users on a network.
Each computer that manages a database in the distributed database is called a node.
The database to which a user is directly connected is called the local database. Any
additional databases accessed by this user are called remote databases. When a
local database accesses a remote database for information, the local database is a
client of the remote server. This is an example of client/server architecture.
A database link describes a path from one database to another. Database links are
implicitly used when a reference is made to a global object name in a distributed
database.
While a distributed database enables increased access to a large amount of data
across a network, it must also hide the location of the data and the complexity of
accessing it across the network. The distributed database management system must
also preserve the advantages of administrating each local database as though it
were not distributed.

See Also : Oracle9i Database Administrator’s Guide for more

information about distributed databases

Introduction to the Oracle Server 1-33

Distributed Databases Overview

Location Transparency
Location transparency occurs when the physical location of data is transparent to
the applications and users of a database system. Several Oracle features, such as
views, procedures, and synonyms, can provide location transparency. For example,
a view that joins table data from several databases provides location transparency
because the user of the view does not need to know from where the data originates.

Site Autonomy
Site autonomy means that each database participating in a distributed database is
administered separately and independently from the other databases, as though
each database were a non-networked database. Although each database can work
with others, they are distinct, separate systems that are cared for individually.

Distributed Data Manipulation

The Oracle distributed database architecture supports all DML operations,
including queries, inserts, updates, and deletes of remote table data. To access
remote data, you make reference to the remote object’s global object name. No
coding or complex syntax is required to access remote data.
For example, to query a table named employees in the remote database named
sales, reference the table’s global object name:
SELECT * FROM employees@sales;

Two-Phase Commit
Oracle provides the same assurance of data consistency in a distributed
environment as in a nondistributed environment. Oracle provides this assurance
using the transaction model and a two-phase commit mechanism.
As in nondistributed systems, transactions should be carefully planned to include a
logical set of SQL statements that should all succeed or fail as a unit. Oracle’s
two-phase commit mechanism guarantees that no matter what type of system or
network failure occurs, a distributed transaction either commits on all involved
nodes or rolls back on all involved nodes to maintain data consistency across the
global distributed database.

See Also: "The Two-Phase Commit Mechanism" on page 16-10

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 Distributed Databases Overview

Replication Overview
Replication is the process of copying and maintaining database objects, such as
tables, in multiple databases that make up a distributed database system. Changes
applied at one site are captured and stored locally before being forwarded and
applied at each of the remote locations. Oracle replication is a fully integrated
feature of the Oracle server. It is not a separate server.
Replication uses distributed database technology to share data between multiple
sites, but a replicated database and a distributed database are not the same. In a
distributed database, data is available at many locations, but a particular table
resides at only one location. For example, the employees table can reside at only
the db1 database in a distributed database system that also includes the db2 and
db3 databases. Replication means that the same data is available at multiple
locations. For example, the employees table can be available at db1, db2, and db3.

See Also: Oracle9i Replication

Table Replication
Distributed database systems often locally replicate remote tables that are
frequently queried by local users. By having copies of heavily accessed data on
several nodes, the distributed database does not need to send information across a
network repeatedly, thus helping to maximize the performance of the database
application.
Data can be replicated using materialized views.

Multitier Materialized Views

Oracle supports materialized views that are hierarchical and updatable. Multitier
replication provides increased flexibility of design for a distributed application.
Using multitier materialized views, applications can manage multilevel data
subsets with no direct connection between levels.
An updatable materialized view lets you insert, update, and delete rows in the
materialized view and propagate the changes to the target master table.
Synchronous and asynchronous replication is supported.
Figure 1–4 shows an example of multitier architecture, diagrammed as an inverted
tree structure. Changes are propagated up and down along the branches connecting
the outermost materialized views with the master (the root).

Introduction to the Oracle Server 1-35

Distributed Databases Overview

Figure 1–4 Multitier Architecture

Master Master

Level 1 Level 1
updatable MV updatable MV

Level 2 Level 2 Level 2

updatable MV updatable MV updatable MV

Level n Level n
updatable MV updatable MV

Conflict Resolution In Oracle9i conflict resolution routines are defined at the top
level, the master site, and are pulled into the updatable materialized view site when
needed. This makes it possible to have multitier materialized views. Existing
system-defined conflict resolution methods are supported.
In addition, users can write their own conflict resolution routines. A user-defined
conflict resolution method is a PL/SQL function that returns either true or false.
True indicates that the method was able to successfully resolve all conflicting
modifications for a column group.

See Also: Oracle9i Replication and Oracle9i SQL Reference for more
information about creating and managing multitier materialized
views

Streams Overview
Oracle Streams enables the sharing of data and events in a data stream, either
within a database or from one database to another. The stream routes specified
information to specified destinations. Oracle Streams provides the capabilities
needed to build and operate distributed enterprises and applications, data
warehouses, and high availability solutions. You can use all the capabilities of
Oracle Streams at the same time. If your needs change, you can implement a new
capability of Streams without sacrificing existing capabilities.

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Using Oracle Streams, you control what information is put into a stream, how the
stream flows or is routed from database to database, what happens to events in the
stream as they flow into each database, and how the stream terminates. By
configuring specific capabilities of Streams, you can address specific requirements.
Based on your specifications, Streams can capture and manage events in the
database automatically, including, but not limited to, DML changes and DDL
changes. You can also put user-defined events into a stream. Then, Streams can
propagate the information to other databases or applications automatically. Again,
based on your specifications, Streams can apply events at a destination database.
You can use Streams to:

Capture changes at a database.
You can configure a background capture process to capture changes made to
tables, schemas, or the entire database. A capture process captures changes
from the redo log and formats each captured change into a logical change
record (LCR). The database where changes are generated in the redo log is
called the source database.

Enqueue events into a queue. Two types of events may be staged in a Streams
queue: LCRs and user messages.
A capture process enqueues LCR events into a queue that you specify. The
queue can then share the LCR events within the same database or with other
databases.
You can also enqueue user events into a queue explicitly with a user
application. These explicitly enqueued events can be LCRs or user messages.

Propagate events from one queue to another. These queues may be in the same
database or in different databases.

Dequeue events from a queue.
A background apply process can dequeue events from a queue. You can also
dequeue events explicitly with a user application.

Apply events at a database.
You can configure an apply process to apply all of the events in a queue or only
the events that you specify. You can also configure an apply process to call your
own PL/SQL subprograms to process events.
The database where LCR events are applied and other types of events are
processed is called the destination database. In some configurations, the source
database and the destination database may be the same.

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Distributed Databases Overview

Other capabilities of Streams include the following:

Tags in captured LCRs

Directed networks

Automatic conflict detection and resolution

Transformations

Heterogeneous information sharing

See Also: Oracle9i Streams

Advanced Queuing Overview

Oracle Advanced Queuing provides an infrastructure for distributed applications to
communicate asynchronously using messages. Oracle Advanced Queuing stores
messages in queues for deferred retrieval and processing by the Oracle server. This
provides a reliable and efficient queuing system without additional software such
as transaction processing monitors or message-oriented middleware.
Messages pass between clients and servers, as well as between processes on
different servers. An effective messaging system implements content-based routing,
subscription, and querying.
A messaging system can be classified into one of two types:

Synchronous Communication

Asynchronous Communication

Synchronous Communication Synchronous communication is based on the

request/reply paradigm—a program sends a request to another program and waits
until the reply arrives.
This model of communication (also called online or connected) is suitable for
programs that need to get the reply before they can proceed with their work.
Traditional client/server architectures are based on this model. The major
drawback of this model is that the programs where the request is sent must be
available and running for the calling application to work.

Asynchronous Communication In the disconnected or deferred model, programs

communicate asynchronously, placing requests in a queue and then proceeding
with their work.

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For example, an application might require entry of data or execution of an

operation after specific conditions are met. The recipient program retrieves the
request from the queue and acts on it. This model is suitable for applications that
can continue with their work after placing a request in the queue — they are not
blocked waiting for a reply.
For deferred execution to work correctly in the presence of network, machine, and
application failures, the requests must be stored persistently and processed exactly
once. This is achieved by combining persistent queuing with transaction protection.

See Also: Oracle9i Application Developer’s Guide - Advanced

Queuing

Heterogeneous Services Overview

Heterogeneous Services is necessary for accessing a non-Oracle database system.
The term "non-Oracle database system" refers to the following:

Any system accessed by PL/SQL procedures written in C (that is, by external
procedures)

Any system accessed through SQL (that is, by Oracle Transparent Gateways
and Generic Connectivity)

Any system accessed procedurally (that is, by procedural gateways)
Heterogeneous Services makes it possible for users to do the following:

Use Oracle SQL statements to retrieve data stored in non-Oracle systems.

Use Oracle procedure calls to access non-Oracle systems, services, or
application programming interfaces (APIs) from within an Oracle distributed
environment.
Heterogeneous Services is generally applied in one of two ways:

Oracle Transparent Gateway is used in conjunction with Heterogeneous
Services to access a particular, vendor-specific, non-Oracle system for which an
Oracle Transparent Gateways is designed. For example, you would use the
Oracle Transparent Gateway for Sybase on Solaris to access a Sybase database
system that was operating on a Solaris platform.

Heterogeneous Services’ generic connectivity is used to access non-Oracle
databases through ODBC or OLE DB interfaces.

See Also: Oracle9i Heterogeneous Connectivity Administrator’s Guide

Introduction to the Oracle Server 1-39

Data Concurrency and Consistency Overview

Data Concurrency and Consistency Overview

This section explains the software mechanisms used by Oracle to fulfill the
following important requirements of an information management system:

Data must be read and modified in a consistent fashion.

Data concurrency of a multiuser system must be maximized.

High performance is required for maximum productivity from the many users
of the database system.

Concurrency
A primary concern of a multiuser database management system is how to control
concurrency, which is the simultaneous access of the same data by many users.
Without adequate concurrency controls, data could be updated or changed
improperly, compromising data integrity.
If many people are accessing the same data, one way of managing data concurrency
is to make each user wait for a turn. The goal of a database management system is
to reduce that wait so it is either nonexistent or negligible to each user. All data
manipulation language statements should proceed with as little interference as
possible, and destructive interactions between concurrent transactions must be
prevented. Destructive interaction is any interaction that incorrectly updates data or
incorrectly alters underlying data structures. Neither performance nor data
integrity can be sacrificed.
Oracle resolves such issues by using various types of locks and a multiversion
consistency model. Both features are discussed later in this section. These features
are based on the concept of a transaction. It is the application designer’s
responsibility to ensure that transactions fully exploit these concurrency and
consistency features.

See Also: "Data Consistency Using Transactions" on page 1-19 for

more information about concurrency and consistency features

Read Consistency
Read consistency, as supported by Oracle, does the following:

Guarantees that the set of data seen by a statement is consistent with respect to
a single point in time and does not change during statement execution
(statement-level read consistency)

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 Data Concurrency and Consistency Overview

Ensures that readers of database data do not wait for writers or other readers of
the same data

Ensures that writers of database data do not wait for readers of the same data

Ensures that writers only wait for other writers if they attempt to update
identical rows in concurrent transactions
The simplest way to think of Oracle’s implementation of read consistency is to
imagine each user operating a private copy of the database, hence the multiversion
consistency model.

Read Consistency, Undo Records, and Transactions

To manage the multiversion consistency model, Oracle must create a
read-consistent set of data when a table is being queried (read) and simultaneously
updated (written). When an update occurs, the original data values changed by the
update are recorded in the database’s undo records. As long as this update remains
part of an uncommitted transaction, any user that later queries the modified data
views the original data values. Oracle uses current information in the system global
area and information in the undo records to construct a read-consistent view of a
table’s data for a query.
Only when a transaction is committed are the changes of the transaction made
permanent. Statements that start after the user’s transaction is committed only see
the changes made by the committed transaction.
Note that a transaction is key to Oracle’s strategy for providing read consistency.
This unit of committed (or uncommitted) SQL statements:

Dictates the start point for read-consistent views generated on behalf of readers

Controls when modified data can be seen by other transactions of the database
for reading or updating

Read-Only Transactions
By default, Oracle guarantees statement-level read consistency. The set of data
returned by a single query is consistent with respect to a single point in time.
However, in some situations, you might also require transaction-level read
consistency. This is the ability to run multiple queries within a single transaction, all
of which are read-consistent with respect to the same point in time, so that queries
in this transaction do not see the effects of intervening committed transactions.
If you want to run a number of queries against multiple tables and if you are not
doing any updating, you prefer a read-only transaction. After indicating that your

Introduction to the Oracle Server 1-41

Data Concurrency and Consistency Overview

transaction is read-only, you can run as many queries as you like against any table,
knowing that the results of each query are consistent with respect to the same point
in time.

Locking Mechanisms
Oracle also uses locks to control concurrent access to data. Locks are mechanisms
intended to prevent destructive interaction between users accessing Oracle data.
Locks are used to ensure consistency and integrity. Consistency means that the data
a user is viewing or changing is not changed (by other users) until the user is
finished with the data. Integrity means that the database’s data and structures
reflect all changes made to them in the correct sequence.
Locks guarantee data integrity while enabling maximum concurrent access to the
data by unlimited users.

Automatic Locking
Oracle locking is performed automatically and requires no user action. Implicit
locking occurs for SQL statements as necessary, depending on the action requested.
Oracle’s lock manager automatically locks table data at the row level. By locking
table data at the row level, contention for the same data is minimized.
Oracle’s lock manager maintains several different types of row locks, depending on
what type of operation established the lock. The two general types of locks are
exclusive locks and share locks. Only one exclusive lock can be placed on a
resource (such as a row or a table); however, many share locks can be placed on a
single resource. Both exclusive and share locks always allow queries on the locked
resource but prohibit other activity on the resource (such as updates and deletes).

Manual Locking
Under some circumstances, a user might want to override default locking. Oracle
allows manual override of automatic locking features at both the row level (by first
querying for the rows that will be updated in a subsequent statement) and the table
level.

See Also: "Explicit (Manual) Data Locking" on page 20-32

Quiesce Database
Database administrators occasionally need isolation from concurrent non-database
administrator actions, that is, isolation from concurrent non-database administrator

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 Database Security Overview

transactions, queries, or PL/SQL statements. One way to provide such isolation is

to shut down the database and reopen it in restricted mode. The Quiesce Database
feature provides another way of providing isolation: to put the system into quiesced
state without disrupting users.
The database administrator uses SQL statements to quiesce the database. After the
system is in quiesced state, the database administrator can safely perform certain
actions whose executions require isolation from concurrent non-DBA users.

See Also: "Quiesce Database" on page 20-15

Database Security Overview

Oracle includes security features that control how a database is accessed and used.
For example, security mechanisms:

Prevent unauthorized database access

Prevent unauthorized access to schema objects

Audit user actions
Associated with each database user is a schema by the same name. By default, each
database user creates and has access to all objects in the corresponding schema.
Database security can be classified into two categories: system security and data
security.
System security includes the mechanisms that control the access and use of the
database at the system level. For example, system security includes:

Valid username/password combinations

The amount of disk space available to a user’s schema objects

The resource limits for a user
System security mechanisms check whether a user is authorized to connect to the
database, whether database auditing is active, and which system operations a user
can perform.
Data security includes the mechanisms that control the access and use of the
database at the schema object level. For example, data security includes:

Which users have access to a specific schema object and the specific types of
actions allowed for each user on the schema object (for example, user SCOTT
can issue SELECT and INSERT statements but not DELETE statements using the
employees table)

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Database Security Overview

The actions, if any, that are audited for each schema object

Data encryption to prevent unauthorized users from bypassing Oracle and
accessing data

Security Mechanisms
The Oracle server provides discretionary access control, which is a means of
restricting access to information based on privileges. The appropriate privilege
must be assigned to a user in order for that user to access a schema object.
Appropriately privileged users can grant other users privileges at their discretion.
For this reason, this type of security is called discretionary.
Oracle manages database security using several different facilities:

Database Users and Schemas

Privileges

Roles

Storage Settings and Quotas

Profiles and Resource Limits

Selective Auditing of User Actions

Fine-Grained Auditing
Figure 1–5 illustrates the relationships of the different Oracle security facilities, and
the following sections provide an overview of users, privileges, and roles.

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 Database Security Overview

Figure 1–5 Oracle Security Features

Users

PAY_CLERK Role MANAGER Role REC_CLERK Role User Roles

ACCTS_PAY Role ACCTS_REC Role

Application Roles

Privileges to Privileges to
execute the execute the Application Privileges
ACCTS_PAY ACCTS_REC
application application

Database Users and Schemas

Each Oracle database has a list of usernames. To access a database, a user must use
a database application and attempt a connection with a valid username of the
database. Each username has an associated password to prevent unauthorized use.

Security Domain Each user has a security domain—a set of properties that determine
such things as:

The actions (privileges and roles) available to the user

The tablespace quotas (available disk space) for the user

The system resource limits (for example, CPU processing time) for the user
Each property that contributes to a user’s security domain is discussed in the
following sections.

Privileges
A privilege is a right to run a particular type of SQL statement. Some examples of
privileges include the right to:

Connect to the database (create a session)

Introduction to the Oracle Server 1-45

Database Security Overview

Create a table in your schema

Select rows from someone else’s table

Execute someone else’s stored procedure
The privileges of an Oracle database can be divided into two categories: system
privileges and schema object privileges.

System Privileges System privileges allow users to perform a particular systemwide

action or a particular action on a particular type of schema object. For example, the
privileges to create a tablespace or to delete the rows of any table in the database
are system privileges. Many system privileges are available only to administrators
and application developers because the privileges are very powerful.

Schema Object Privileges Schema object privileges allow users to perform a

particular action on a specific schema object. For example, the privilege to delete
rows of a specific table is an object privilege. Object privileges are granted
(assigned) to users so that they can use a database application to accomplish specific
tasks.

Granted Privileges Privileges are granted to users so that users can access and
modify data in the database. A user can receive a privilege two different ways:

Privileges can be granted to users explicitly. For example, the privilege to insert
records into the employees table can be explicitly granted to the user SCOTT.

Privileges can be granted to roles (a named group of privileges), and then the
role can be granted to one or more users. For example, the privilege to insert
records into the employees table can be granted to the role named CLERK,
which in turn can be granted to the users SCOTT and BRIAN.
Because roles enable easier and better management of privileges, privileges are
normally granted to roles and not to specific users. The following section explains
more about roles and their use.

Roles
Oracle provides for easy and controlled privilege management through roles. Roles
are named groups of related privileges that you grant to users or other roles.

See Also: "Introduction to Roles" on page 23-17 for more

information about role properties

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Storage Settings and Quotas

Oracle provides a way to direct and limit the use of disk space allocated to the
database for each user, including default and temporary tablespaces and tablespace
quotas.

Default Tablespace Each user is associated with a default tablespace. When a user
creates a table, index, or cluster and no tablespace is specified to physically contain
the schema object, the user’s default tablespace is used if the user has the privilege
to create the schema object and a quota in the specified default tablespace. The
default tablespace feature provides Oracle with information to direct space use in
situations where schema object’s location is not specified.

Temporary Tablespace Each user has a temporary tablespace. When a user runs a
SQL statement that requires the creation of temporary segments (such as the
creation of an index), the user’s temporary tablespace is used. By directing all users’
temporary segments to a separate tablespace, the temporary tablespace feature can
reduce I/O contention among temporary segments and other types of segments.

Tablespace Quotas Oracle can limit the collective amount of disk space available to
the objects in a schema. Quotas (space limits) can be set for each tablespace
available to a user. The tablespace quota security feature permits selective control
over the amount of disk space that can be consumed by the objects of specific
schemas.

Profiles and Resource Limits

Each user is assigned a profile that specifies limitations on several system resources
available to the user, including the following:

Number of concurrent sessions the user can establish

CPU processing time available for:
– The user’s session
– A single call to Oracle made by a SQL statement

Amount of logical I/O available for:
– The user’s session
– A single call to Oracle made by a SQL statement

Amount of idle time available for the user’s session

Amount of connect time available for the user’s session

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Database Security Overview

Password restrictions:
– Account locking after multiple unsuccessful login attempts
– Password expiration and grace period
– Password reuse and complexity restrictions
Different profiles can be created and assigned individually to each user of the
database. A default profile is present for all users not explicitly assigned a profile.
The resource limit feature prevents excessive consumption of global database
system resources.

Selective Auditing of User Actions

Oracle permits selective auditing (recorded monitoring) of user actions to aid in the
investigation of suspicious database use. Auditing can be performed at three
different levels: Statement Auditing, Privilege Auditing, and Schema Object
Auditing.

Statement Auditing Statement auditing is the auditing of specific SQL statements

without regard to specifically named schema objects. In addition, database triggers
let a database administrator to extend and customize Oracle’s built-in auditing
features.
Statement auditing can be broad and audit all users of the system or can be focused
to audit only selected users of the system. For example, statement auditing by user
can audit connections to and disconnections from the database by the users SCOTT
and LORI.

Privilege Auditing Privilege auditing is the auditing of powerful system privileges

without regard to specifically named schema objects. Privilege auditing can be
broad and audit all users or can be focused to audit only selected users.

Schema Object Auditing Schema object auditing is the auditing of access to specific
schema objects without regard to user. Object auditing monitors the statements
permitted by object privileges, such as SELECT or DELETE statements on a given
table.
For all types of auditing, Oracle allows the selective auditing of successful
statement executions, unsuccessful statement executions, or both. This enables
monitoring of suspicious statements, regardless of whether the user issuing a
statement has the appropriate privileges to issue the statement. The results of
audited operations are recorded in a table called the audit trail. Predefined views of
the audit trail are available so you can easily retrieve audit records.

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Fine-Grained Auditing
Fine-grained auditing allows the monitoring of data access based on content. For
example, a central tax authority needs to track access to tax returns to guard against
employee snooping. Enough detail is wanted to be able to determine what data was
accessed, not just that SELECT privilege was used by a specific user on a particular
table. Fine-grained auditing provides this functionality.
In general, fine-grained auditing policy is based on simple user-defined SQL
predicates on table objects as conditions for selective auditing. During fetching,
whenever policy conditions are met for a returning row, the query is audited. Later,
Oracle executes user-defined audit event handlers using autonomous transactions
to process the event.
Fine-grained auditing can be implemented in user applications using the DBMS_FGA
package or by using database triggers.

Database Administration Overview

People who administer the operation of an Oracle database system, known as
database administrators (DBAs), are responsible for creating Oracle databases,
ensuring their smooth operation, and monitoring their use.

See Also: Oracle9i Database Administrator’s Guide for detailed

information on database administration tasks

Enterprise Manager Overview

Enterprise Manager is a system management tool that provides an integrated
solution for centrally managing your heterogeneous environment. Combining a
graphical console, Oracle Management Servers, Oracle Intelligent Agents, common
services, and administrative tools, Enterprise Manager provides a comprehensive
systems management platform for managing Oracle products.
From the client interface, the Enterprise Manager Console, you can perform the
following tasks:

Administer the complete Oracle environment, including databases, iAS servers,
applications, and services

Diagnose, modify, and tune multiple databases

Schedule tasks on multiple systems at varying time intervals

Monitor database conditions throughout the network

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Database Administration Overview

Administer multiple network nodes and services from many locations

Share tasks with other administrators

Group related targets together to facilitate administration tasks

Launch integrated Oracle and third-party tools

Customize the display of an Enterprise Manager administrator

Database Backup and Recovery Overview

This section covers the structures and mechanisms used by Oracle to provide:

Database recovery required by different types of failures

Flexible recovery operations to suit any situation

Availability of data during backup and recovery operations so users of the
system can continue to work

Why Recovery Is Important

In every database system, the possibility of a system or hardware failure always
exists. If a failure occurs and affects the database, the database must be recovered.
The goals after a failure are to ensure that the effects of all committed transactions
are reflected in the recovered database and to return to normal operation as quickly
as possible while insulating users from problems caused by the failure.

Types of Failures
Several circumstances can halt the operation of an Oracle database. The most
common types of failure are described in the following table.

Failure Description
User error Requires a database to be recovered to a point in time before
the error occurred. For example, a user could accidentally
drop a table. To enable recovery from user errors and
accommodate other unique recovery requirements, Oracle
provides exact point-in-time recovery. For example, if a user
accidentally drops a table, the database can be recovered to
the instant in time before the table was dropped.
Statement failure Occurs when there is a logical failure in the handling of a
statement in an Oracle program. When statement failure
occurs, any effects of the statement are automatically undone
by Oracle and control is returned to the user.

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Failure Description
Process failure Results from a failure in a user process accessing Oracle, such
as an abnormal disconnection or process termination. The
background process PMON automatically detects the failed
user process, rolls back the uncommitted transaction of the
user process, and releases any resources that the process was
using.
Instance failure Occurs when a problem arises that prevents an instance from
continuing work. Instance failure can result from a hardware
problem such as a power outage, or a software problem such
as an operating system failure. When an instance failure
occurs, the data in the buffers of the system global area is not
written to the datafiles.
After an instance failure, Oracle automatically performs
instance recovery. If one instance in a Real Application
Clusters environment, another instance recovers the redo for
the failed instance. In a single-instance database, or in a Real
Application Cluster database in which all instances fail,
Oracle automatically applies all redo when you restart the
database.
Media (disk) failure An error can occur when trying to write or read a file on disk
that is required to operate the database. A common example
is a disk head failure, which causes the loss of all files on a
disk drive.
Different files can be affected by this type of disk failure,
including the datafiles, the redo log files, and the control files.
Also, because the database instance cannot continue to
function properly, the data in the database buffers of the
system global area cannot be permanently written to the
datafiles.
A disk failure requires you to restore lost files and then
perform media recovery. Unlike instance recovery, media
recovery must be initiated by the user. Media recovery
updates restored datafiles so the information in them
corresponds to the most recent time point before the disk
failure, including the committed data in memory that was
lost because of the failure.

Oracle provides for complete media recovery from all possible types of hardware
failures, including disk failures. Options are provided so that a database can be
completely recovered or partially recovered to a specific point in time.
If some datafiles are damaged in a disk failure but most of the database is intact and
operational, the database can remain open while the required tablespaces are

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individually recovered. Therefore, undamaged portions of a database are available

for normal use while damaged portions are being recovered.

Structures Used for Recovery

Oracle uses several structures to provide complete recovery from an instance or
disk failure: the redo log, undo records, a control file, and database backups. If
compatibility is set to Oracle9i or higher, undo records can be stored in either undo
tablespaces or rollback segments.

See Also: "Automatic Undo Management" on page 2-16 for more

information about managing undo records

The Redo Log The redo log is a set of files that protect altered database data in
memory that has not been written to the datafiles. The redo log can consist of two
parts: the online redo log and the archived redo log.
The online redo log is a set of two or more online redo log files that record all
changes made to the database, including both uncommitted and committed
changes. Redo entries are temporarily stored in redo log buffers of the system
global area, and the background process LGWR writes the redo entries sequentially
to an online redo log file. LGWR writes redo entries continually, and it also writes a
commit record every time a user process commits a transaction.
Optionally, filled online redo files can be manually or automatically archived before
being reused, creating archived redo logs.
To enable or disable archiving, set the database in one of the following modes:

ARCHIVELOG: The filled online redo log files are archived before they are
reused in the cycle.

NOARCHIVELOG: The filled online redo log files are not archived.
In ARCHIVELOG mode, the database can be completely recovered from both
instance and disk failure. The database can also be backed up while it is open and
available for use. However, additional administrative operations are required to
maintain the archived redo log.
If the database’s redo log operates in NOARCHIVELOG mode, the database can be
completely recovered from instance failure but not from disk failure. Also, the
database can be backed up only while it is completely closed. Because no archived
redo log is created, no extra work is required by the database administrator.

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Undo Records Undo records can be stored in either undo tablespaces or rollback
segments. Oracle uses the undo data for a variety of purposes, including accessing
before-images of blocks changed in uncommitted transactions. During database
recovery, Oracle applies all changes recorded in the redo log and then uses undo
information to roll back any uncommitted transactions.

See Also:

Oracle9i Database Administrator’s Guide for more information
about managing undo space

"Undo Space Acquisition and Management" on page 5-8 for
information about specifying the undo method at startup

"Automatic Undo Management" on page 2-16 for more
information about managing undo space

Control Files The control files of a database keep, among other things, information
about the file structure of the database and the current log sequence number being
written by LGWR. During normal recovery procedures, the information in a control
file is used to guide the automated progression of the recovery operation. Oracle
can multiplex the control file, that is, simultaneously maintain a number of
identical control files.

Database Backups Because one or more files can be physically damaged as the result
of a disk failure, media recovery requires the restoration of the damaged files from
the most recent operating system backup of a database.
You can either back up the database files with Recovery Manager, which is
recommended, or use operating system utilities. Recovery Manager (RMAN) is an
Oracle utility that manages backup and recovery operations, creates backups of
database files (datafiles, control files, and archived redo log files), and restores or
recovers a database from backups.

Data Warehousing Overview

A data warehouse is a relational database designed for query and analysis rather
than for transaction processing. It usually contains historical data derived from
transaction data, but it can include data from other sources. It separates analysis
workload from transaction workload and enables an organization to consolidate
data from several sources.

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In addition to a relational database, a data warehouse environment includes an

extraction, transportation, transformation, and loading (ETL) solution, an online
analytical processing (OLAP) engine, client analysis tools, and other applications
that manage the process of gathering data and delivering it to business users.

Differences Between Data Warehouse and OLTP Systems

Data warehouses and OLTP systems have very different requirements. Here are
some examples of differences between typical data warehouses and OLTP systems:

Workload
Data warehouses are designed to accommodate ad hoc queries. You might not
know the workload of your data warehouse in advance, so a data warehouse
should be optimized to perform well for a wide variety of possible query
operations.
OLTP systems support only predefined operations. Your applications might be
specifically tuned or designed to support only these operations.

Data Modifications
A data warehouse is updated on a regular basis by the ETL process (run nightly or
weekly) using bulk data modification techniques. The end users of a data
warehouse do not directly update the data warehouse.
In OLTP systems, end users routinely issue individual data modification statements
to the database. The OLTP database is always up to date, and reflects the current
state of each business transaction.

Schema Design
Data warehouses often use denormalized or partially denormalized schemas (such
as a star schema) to optimize query performance.
OLTP systems often use fully normalized schemas to optimize
update/insert/delete performance, and to guarantee data consistency.

Typical Operations
A typical data warehouse query scans thousands or millions of rows.For example,
"Find the total sales for all customers last month."
A typical OLTP operation accesses only a handful of records. For example,
"Retrieve the current order for this customer."

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Historical Data
Data warehouses usually store many months or years of data. This is to support
historical analysis.
OLTP systems usually store data from only a few weeks or months. The OLTP
system stores only historical data as needed to successfully meet the requirements
of the current transaction.

Data Warehouse Architecture

Data warehouses and their architectures vary depending upon the specifics of an
organization's situation. Three common architectures are:

Data Warehouse Architecture (Basic)

Data Warehouse Architecture (with a Staging Area)

Data Warehouse Architecture (with a Staging Area and Data Marts)

Data Warehouse Architecture (Basic)

Figure 1–6 shows a simple architecture for a data warehouse. End users directly
access data derived from several source systems through the data warehouse.

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Data Warehousing Overview

Figure 1–6 Architecture of a Data Warehouse

Data Sources Warehouse Users

Operational Analysis
System

Metadata

Summary Raw Data

Data
Operational Reporting
System

Flat Files Mining

In Figure 1–6, the metadata and raw data of a traditional OLTP system is present, as
is an additional type of data, summary data. Summaries are very valuable in data
warehouses because they pre-compute long operations in advance. For example, a
typical data warehouse query is to retrieve something like August sales.
Summaries in Oracle are called materialized views.

Data Warehouse Architecture (with a Staging Area)

Figure 1–6, you need to clean and process your operational data before putting it
into the warehouse. You can do this programmatically, although most data
warehouses use a staging area instead. A staging area simplifies building
summaries and general warehouse management. Figure 1–7 illustrates this typical
architecture.

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Figure 1–7 Architecture of a Data Warehouse with a Staging Area

Data Staging
Sources Area Warehouse Users

Operational Analysis
System

Metadata

Summary Raw Data

Data
Operational Reporting
System

Flat Files Mining

Data Warehouse Architecture (with a Staging Area and Data Marts)

Although the architecture in Figure 1–7 is quite common, you might want to
customize your warehouse's architecture for different groups within your
organization.
Do this by adding data marts, which are systems designed for a particular line of
business. Figure 1–8 illustrates an example where purchasing, sales, and inventories
are separated. In this example, a financial analyst might want to analyze historical
data for purchases and sales.

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Figure 1–8 Architecture of a Data Warehouse with a Staging Area and Data Marts

Data Staging Data

Sources Area Warehouse Marts Users

Operational Purchasing Analysis

System

Metadata

Summary Raw Data

Data
Operational Sales Reporting
System

Flat Files Inventory Mining

See Also: Oracle9i Data Warehousing Guide

Materialized Views
A materialized view provides indirect access to table data by storing the results of a
query in a separate schema object. Unlike an ordinary view, which does not take up
any storage space or contain any data, a materialized view contains the rows
resulting from a query against one or more base tables or views. A materialized
view can be stored in the same database as its base tables or in a different database.
Materialized views stored in the same database as their base tables can improve
query performance through query rewrites. Query rewrites are particularly useful
in a data warehouse environment.

OLAP Overview
Oracle integrates Online Analytical Processing (OLAP) into the database to support
business intelligence. This integration provides the power of a multidimensional
database while retaining the manageability, scalability, and reliability of the Oracle
database and the accessibility of SQL.

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