Review of Basic Data Analytic

Methods and Exploratory Data

Analysis
Part 1

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Outline
• Introduction to a data analytic tool
• Data import and export
• Attribute and data types
• Descriptive statistics
• Exploratory Data Analysis

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Introduction to R
• Software for Statistical Data Analysis and Graphics
• Programming Environment
• Interpreted Language
• Data Storage, Analysis, Graphing
• Free and Open Source Software (under GNU General
Public License)

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Introduction to R
R is an integrated suite of software facilities for data manipulation, calculation and
graphical display. It includes
• an effective data handling and storage facility,
• a suite of operators for calculations on arrays, in particular matrices,
• a large, coherent, integrated collection of intermediate tools for data analysis,
• graphical facilities for data analysis and display either on-screen or on hardcopy,
and
• a well-developed, simple and effective programming language which includes
conditionals, loops, user-defined recursive functions and input and output
facilities.

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Why R?
• It’s free. Active development.
• Reproducible analysis.
• R can handle really large datasets.
–Excel is limited by 1,048,576 rows and 16,384 columns.
• A better way to explore, present and interpret your data.

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Graph and Plotting Using R

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Obtaining R
• https://www.r-project.org
• https://cran.r-project.org
• CRAN is a network of ftp and web servers around
the world that store identical, up-to-date, versions of
code and documentation for R.

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R Graphical User Interface (GUI) & Editor

• Rgui.exe
• R commander
• Rattle
• Rstudio
• Jupyter Notebook
• Replit.com
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R Studio

workspace
scripts

Plot area

consol
e

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R Studio
The four highlighted window panels follow.

• Scripts: Serves as an area to write and save R code

• Workspace: Lists the data sets and variables in the R environment

• Plots: Displays the plots generated by the R code and provides a

straight forward mechanism to export the plots

• Console: Provides a history of the executed R code and the output.

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R Studio
- The console pane can be used to obtain help information on R by entering ?lm at the
console prompt. Alternatively,help (lm) could have been entered at the console
prompt.

-Functions such as edit() and fix() allow the user to update the contents of an R
variable. Alternatively, such changes can be implemented with RStudio by selecting the
appropriate variable from the workspace panel.

- R allows one to save the workspace environment, including variables and loaded
libraries, into an .Rdata file using the save.image() function. An existing .Rdata file can
be loaded using the load . image () function.

- Tools such as RStudio prompt the user for whether the developer wants to save the
workspace connects prior to exiting the GUI.

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• Annual Sales Example (yearly_sales.csv)

• 10,000 retail customers

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# import a csv file of the total annual sales for each customer
sales <- read.csv(“c:/Chapter 3/yearly_sales.csv")

# examine the imported dataset

head(sales)
summary(sales)

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# plot num_of_orders vs. sales

plot(sales$num_of_orders,sales$sales_total,
main="Number of Orders vs. Sales")

# perform a statistical analysis (fit a linear regression model)

results <- lm(sales$sales_total ~ sales$num_of_orders)
results
summary(results)

# perform some diagnostics on the fitted model

# plot histogram of the residuals
hist(results$residuals, breaks = 800)

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summary()
• The summary () function provides some descriptive statistics, such as the mean and median, for each data
column.
• Additionally, the minimum and maximum values as well as the 1st and 3rd quartiles are provided.
• Because the gender column contains two possible characters, an "F" (female) or "M" (male), the
summary () function provides the count of each character's occurrence.

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Plotting

• Plotting
columns.
a dataset's contents can provide information about the relationships between the various

• In this example, the plot() function generates a scatterplot of the number of orders
(sales$num_of_orders) against the annual sales (sales$sales_total).
• The $ is used to reference a specific column in the dataset sales.
plot(sales$num_of_orders,sales$sales_total, main="Number of Orders vs. Sales")

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Plotting

• Each point corresponds to the number of orders and the total sales for each customer.
• The plot indicates that the annual sales are proportional to the number of orders placed.

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Statistical Analysis
• lm() is a linear model function, such like linear regression analysis.
• The sample code below demonstrates how to create a linear model and save it into a variable
results.
• In this particular case, we are using the number of orders to predict the total sales.

# perform a statistical analysis (fit a linear regression model)

results <- lm(sales$sales_total ~ sales$num_of_orders)
results
Output:

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Output:

• The intercept is -154.1 and the coefficient for the num. of orders is 166.2.
• Therefore, the complete regression equation is
Total Sales= -154.1 + 166.2 * num. of orders
• This equation tells us that the predicted total sales will increase by 166.2 for every unit increase in
the num. of orders.
• Suppose that our research question asks what the expected total sales, given the number of
orders is 7. As follows, we can use the regression equation to calculate the answer to this
question.
predicted total Sales= -154.1 + 166.2 * 7

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summary(results)

Output:

• The summary() function has provided us with a wealth of information, including t-test, F-test, R-
squared, residual, and significance values. All of this data can be used to answer important
research questions related to our linear mode
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Data Structure
• Supports virtually any type of data
• Numbers, characters, logicals (TRUE/ FALSE)
• Arrays of virtually unlimited sizes
• Simplest: Vectors and Matrices
• Lists: Can Contain mixed type variables
• Data Frame: Rectangular Data Set

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Data Structure
Linear Rectangular

All Same Type VECTORS MATRIX*

Mixed LIST DATA FRAME

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Running R
• Directly in the Windowing System (Console)
• Using Editors
• Notepad, WinEdt, Tinn-R: Windows
• Xemacs, ESS (Emacs speaks Statistics)
• On the Editor:
• source(“filename.R”)
• Outputs can be diverted by using
• sink(“filename.Rout”)

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R Session

• First, read data from other sources

• Use packages, libraries, and functions
• Write functions wherever necessary
• Conduct Statistical Data Analysis
• Save outputs to files, write tables
• Save R workspace if necessary (exit prompt)

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Data Import and Export

• Data import into R using the read.csv() function
sales <- read.csv("c:/data/yearly_sales.csv")

R uses a forward slash / as the separator character in the directory and

file paths. tousingabackslash(\) as a separator.
• To simplify the import of multiple files with long path names,the
setwd() function can be used to set the working directory for the
subsequent import and export operations.
setwd ("c: / data/ ")
sales <- read.csv("yearly_sales.csv")

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Data Import and Export

Function Headers Separator Decimal Point
read.table() FALSE “” “.”
read.csv() TRUE “,” “.”
read.csv2() TRUE “;” “,”
read.delim() TRUE “\t” “.”
read.delim2() TRUE “\t” “,”

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Data Import and Export

• Export R datasets to an external file write.table(), write.csv() and write.csv2()
• Add additional column to the sales dataset and exports the modified dataset to an
external files

# add a column for the average sales per order

sales$per_order <- sales$sales_total/sales$num_of_orders

# export data without the row names

write.table (sales, “sales_modified.txt”, row.names= FALSE)

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Data Import and Export

• Sometimes it is necessary to read data from a database management system (DBMS).

• R packages such as DBI and RODBC are available for this purpose.
• These packages provide database interfaces for communication between R and DBMSs such as
MySQL, Oracle, SQL Server, PostgreSQL, and Pivotal Greenplum. The following Rcode demonstrates
how to install the RODBC package with the install.packages() function.

• The library() function loads the package into the R workspace.

• Finally,a connector(conn) is initialized for connecting to a PivotalGreenplum database training2 via
open database connectivity(ODBC) with user user. The training2 database must be defined either in
the Ietc/ODBC.ini configuration file or using the Administrative Tools under the Windows Control

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Data Import and Export

• The connector needs to be present to submit a SQL query to an ODBC database by using the
sqlQuery() function from the RODBC package.
• The following R code retrieves specific columns from the housing table in which household income
(hinc) is greater than $ 1,000,000.

housing_data <- sqlQuery (conn, “select serialno, state, persons, rooms

from housing
where hinc > 1000000”)
head (housing_data)

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Data Import and Export

• Although plots can be saved using the RStudio GUI, plots can also be saved using Rcode by
specifying the appropriate graphic devices.
• Using the jpeg () function, the following R code creates a new JPEG file, adds a histogram
plot to the file, and then closes the file. Such techniques are useful when automating
standard reports. Other functions,such as png (),bmp(),pdf (),and postscript () ,are
available in R to save plots in the desired format.

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Attribute and Data Types

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Interval aVariable
properties: can take difference of two values.
may not be able to take ratios of two values.

Example: temperature in Celsius and in Fahrenheit.

can take difference of two values.

- You can say that if temperature in Perlis is 40 deg Celsius and that in Shah Alam is 20 deg
Celsius, then Perlis is 20 deg Celsius hotter than Shah Alam (taking difference).
-when we measure temperature (in Fahrenheit), the distance from 30-40 is same as distance
from 70-80.

may not be able to take ratios of two values.

- But you cannot say Perlis is twice as hot as Shah Alam (not allowed to take ratio).
- ratios don't make any sense - 80 degrees is not twice as hot as 40 degrees (although the
attribute value is twice as large).
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Ratio Variable
Properties: you can take a ratio of two values.
has a clear definition of 0.0

you can take a ratio of two values.

Example 40 kg is twice as heavy as 20 kg (taking ratios).
A weight of 4 grams is twice a weight of 2 grams.
has a clear definition of 0.0.
- When the variable equals 0.0, there is none of that variable. Variables like height,
weight, enzyme activity are ratio variables.
- Temperature in Kelvin is a ratio variable, as 0.0 Kelvin really does mean 'no heat'.

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NOT RATIO!!
- Temperature, expressed in F or C, is not a ratio variable.
A temperature of 0.0 on either of those scales does not mean 'no heat'.
A temperature of 100 degrees C is not twice as hot as 50 degrees C.

- pH=0 just means 1 molar of H+. and the definition of molar is fairly arbitrary.
A pH of 0.0 does not mean 'no acidity' (quite the opposite!).
A pH of 3 is not twice as acidic as a pH of 6, because pH is not a ratio variable.

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Data Conversion
• Data of one attribute type may be converted to another.
• For example, the quality of diamonds {Fair, Good, Very Good, Premium, Ideal} is
considered ordinal but can be converted to nominal {Good, Excellent} with a defined
mapping.
• Similarly, a ratio attribute like Age can be converted into an ordinal attribute such as
{Infant, Adolescent, Adult, Senior}.
• Understanding the attribute types in a given dataset is important to ensure that the
appropriate descriptive statistics and analytic methods are applied and properly
interpreted. For example, the mean and standard deviation of U.S. postal ZIP codes
are not very meaningful or appropriate.

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Numeric, Character, and Logical Data Types

• R provides, such as class () and typeof (),to examine the characteristics of a given variable.
• The class() function represents the abstract class of an object.
• The typeof () function determines the way an object is stored in memory. Although i
appears to be an integer, i is internally stored using double precision.

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Numeric, Character, and Logical Data Types

• To test if i is an integer using the is.integer(} function.
• To coerce i into a new integer variable, j, using the as.integer() function.
• Similar functions can be applied for double, character, and logical types.

• The application of the length() function reveals that the created variables each have a
length of 1.

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Vectors
• Vectors are a basic building block for data in R.
• Simple R variables are actually vectors. A vector can only consist of values in the same
class. The tests for vectors can be conducted using the is. vector () function..

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Vectors: Creation and Manipulation

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• Sometimes it is necessary to initialize a vector of a specific length and then populate the
content of the vector later.
• The vector () function, by default, creates a logical vector.
• A vector of a different type can be specified by using the mode parameter. The vector c,
an integer vector of length 0, may be useful when the number of elements is not initially
known and the new elements will later be added to the end of the vector as the values
become available.

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Arrays and Matrices

• The array () function can be used to restructure a vector as an array.
• For example, the following R code builds a three-dimensional array to hold the quarterly
sales for three regions over a two-year period and then assign the sales amount of
$158,000 to the second region for the first quarter of the first year.

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Arrays and Matrices

• A two-dimensional array is known as a matrix. The following code initializes a matrix to
hold the quarterly sales for the three regions.
• The parameters nrow and ncol define the number of rows and columns, respectively, for
the sales_matrix.

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Arrays and Matrices

• R provides the standard matrix operations such as addition, subtraction, and
multiplication, as well as the transpose function t() and the inverse matrix function
matrix.inverse() included in the matrixcalc package.

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Data Frames
• Data frames provide a structure for storing and accessing several variables of possibly different
data types. In fact, as the is.data.frame() function indicates, a data frame was created by the
read.csv() function.

• The variables stored can be easily accessed using the $

• A factor denotes a categorical variable, typically with a few finite levels such as ‘F’ and ‘M’ in
case of gender.

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Data Frames
• Because of their flexibility to handle many data types, data frames are the preferred input
format for many of the modeling functions available in R.

• The use of the str() function provides the structure of the sales data frame. This function
identifies the integer and numeric (double) data types, the factor variables and levels, as well
as the first few values for each variable.

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Data Frames: Subsetting Operators

• aR'ssuccinct
subsetting operators are powerful in that they allow one to express complex operations in
fashion and easily retrieve a subset of the dataset.

Class of the sales

variable is data frame,
type is list.
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List
A list is a collection o f objects that can be of various types, including other
lists.

v <- 1:5

M<-matrix(c(1,3,3,5,0,4,3,3,3),nrow=3,ncol=3)
M
[,1] [,2] [,3]
[1,] 1 5 3
[2,] 3 0 3
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List
• The use of the single set of brackets, [], only accesses an item in the list, not its content.
• The double brackets, [ [] ] , display the content.

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List

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List
• The str () function offers details about the structure of a list. The double brackets, [ [] ] , display
the content.

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Factors
• A factor denotes a categorical variable, typically with a few finite levels such as ‘F’ and ‘M’ in
case of gender.

• Factor can be ordered or not ordered.

• sales$gender contains nominal data.

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Factors
• Included with the ggplot2 package, the diamonds data frame contains three ordered factors.
• Examining the cut factor, there are five levels in order of improving cut: Fair, Good, Very Good,
Premium, and Ideal.
• diamonds$cut contains ordinal data.

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Factors
• To categorize sales$sales_totals into three groups-small,medium, and big-according to the amount of the
sales.

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Factors
• Create and add the factor to a data frame.
• The cbind() function is used to combine variables column-wise.
• The rbind() function is used to combine datasets row-wise.
• The use of factors is important in several R statistical modeling functions, such as analysis of
variance, aov ( ) and the use of contingency tables .

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Factors

vectors

an R factor might be viewed simply as a vector with a bit of extra information that consists of a record
of the distinct values in that vector called levels.

The core of xf here is not (5, 7, 9, 7) but rather (1, 2, 3, 2) i.e. (level-1, level-2, level-
3, level-2). So, the data has been recoded by level.
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cbind() and rbind()

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cbind() and rbind()

• Assign a new column names to vector.

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Contigency table
• Table refers to a class of objects used to store the observed counts across the factors for a given dataset.
• Contingency
table.
table - basis for performing a statistical test on the independence of the factors used to build the

• The code below builds a contingency table based on the sales$gender and sales$ spender factors.
• Based on the observed counts in the table, the summary() function performs a chi-squared test on the
independence of the two factors. Because the reported p-value is greater than 0.05, the assumed
independence of the two factors is not rejected.

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Descriptive Statistics
• Itsuch
has already been shown that the summary () function provides several descriptive statistics,
as the mean and median, about a variable such as the sales data frame.
• The results now include the counts for the three levels of the spender variable based on the
earlier examples involving factors.

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Functions for Descriptive Statistics

• The IQR() function provides the difference between the third and the first quartiles

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function apply()

• The function apply() is useful when the same function is to be applied to several
variables in a data frame.
• For example, the following R code calculates the standard deviation for the first three
variables in sales.
• In the code,
setting MARGIN=2 specifies that the function is applied over the columns.
setting MARGIN=1 specifies that the function is applied over the rows.

• Other functions, such as lapply () and sapply (), apply a function to a list or vector.

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User-defined functions

• Additional descriptive statistics can be applied with user-defined

functions.
• The following R code defines a function, my_range(), to compute the
difference between the maximum and minimum values returned by
the range () function.
• In general, user-defined functions are useful for any task or operation
that needs to be frequently repeated.
• Use help(“function”) for more information.

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