Microgrid

IIEST, Shibpur, West Bengal

November, 2024
Definition

The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) defines a microgrid as ‘‘a

group of interconnected loads and distributed energy resources
within clearly defined electrical boundaries that acts as a single
controllable entity with respect to the grid. A microgrid can
connect and disconnect from the grid to enable it to operate in
both grid-connected or island-mode.”
 KEY CHALLENGES IN POWER SECTOR

India’s RE ambitions & new

era of Grid operations Ensuring Resiliency of the
Reduction in Carbon Network during High Impact Managing Demand &
Footprint Distributed Energy Low Probability events like Generation
Resources (DERs) ‘Amphan’…

Solution ?
Microgrid
 Applications of Microgrid
Typically Microgrid installations are seen in islands, campus of higher educational institutes,
residential communities, commercial / industrial parks, critical establishments like military /
hospital institutions and/or establishments and utility substations.

Key drivers for Microgrid adoption

Institutes Grid Reliability Power Costs Green Image

Community Grid Reliability Power Costs Green Image

Comm/Indst Grid Reliability Power Costs Regulatory

Military / Grid Reliability Power Costs Green Image

Hospital
Island / Remote Power Costs Grid Reliability RE access

Utility Grid Reliability Power Costs RE access

Microgrid Architecture
Microgrid Controller - Functions
 Automatic start of generators
 Automatic voltage control
 Peak shaving – depending on tariff
 Use battery for intelligent dispatch
 Use of Diesel, PV, Battery, Grid in cost effective way
 Under frequency load shedding
 Over frequency generation shedding
 Intended islanding and synchronisation
 Blackout detection and black start
 Cost / CO2 calculation
Microgrid Controller - SLD
Challenges in Microgrid application
 Capex and and Opex
 Regulatory requirement
 Stability of power supply
 Load balancing management
 Power quality management
 Renewable management
 Seamless integration
OBJECTIVE of CESC’s MICROGRID

Improvement in Resiliency and Reliability (Disaster management)

through utilizing multiple sources

Energy arbitrage , Peak Power Management

Stabilization of Renewable Energy Sources by operating Battery Energy

Storage System (BESS) strategically

Potential substitute of polluting DG sets used as a backup

supply

Different profitable business cases possible on microgrids

 CESC’S MICROGRID
Major Components

100kWp Floating Solar 218 kWh BESS

State-of-the-art Microgrid
Controller

Floating Solar
SYSTEM ARCHITECHTURE

Battery Bank
 Energy Graph

Solar Energy (kWh)

Load Energy (kWh)

Load – Generation - Import

Power
Generated
Solar (kW)

Battery
Power (kW)

Load Power
(kW)

Utility
Power (kW)
AC Microgrid – DC Microgrid
PV, generating DC voltage, requires conversion to AC
through an inverter for connection to the AC Bus. The
battery and flywheel produce DC power for backup in
the AC microgrid, which is converted to AC using an
inverter. The AC microgrid features two load terminals,
a purely DC load terminal comprising mobile, fan, and
personal computer, supplied by the AC bus through a
rectifier. An electric vehicle charger, considered a DC
load in the AC microgrid, is connected through a
rectifier.

The challenges for multiple conversion stages, reduce

the reliability and overall system efficiency, can be
mitigated by utilizing highly efficient DC-DC converters,
offering the possibility of directly connecting devices to
the DC grid. In a DC microgrid, renewable energy
sources and power electronics can be connected
effectively and efficiently to loads by selecting a suitable
voltage level, ensuring fewer conversion stages.
Advanced Metering
Infrastructure
 Key challenges in Electricity Distribution Sector

Managing load Easier / Faster

Reduction in Introduction of Grievance
Distribution Interruptions
ToD/ToU Tariff Power Quality Redressal
Losses

The Solution ?
Smart Meter / AMI

15
 Evolution in Metering

Electromechanical Static AMR (Automatic Meter Reading) Smart Meter

meter
 Introduction of Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI)

THE TOPOLOGY OF SMART METERS CONNECTION TO SMART APPLIANCES AND METER DATA MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

17
 Smart Meters

Smart Meter is an electronic device that records consumption of electric energy in intervals of an
hour or less and communicates that information at least daily back to the utility for monitoring and
billing. Smart meters enable two-way communication between the meter and the computers in the
utility control center. Smart meters have load switch for remote connect / disconnect. Smart
Meters usually have real-time or near real-time sensors, power outage notification, and power
quality monitoring features.

Smart Meter National Programme (SMNP) aims to replace 25 crore conventional meters with
smart meters in India. This programme is being implemented under the BOOT model on cost plus
approach by EESL.

Smart Meter are being Supplied by Genus, Secure, Landis+Gyr, L&T, HPL Electric & Power,
Schneider Electric, Iskraemeco etc.

18
 Smart Prepayment Meters

Utility Consumers

Upfront payment and hence no Budget electricity usage and no

payment default unexpected bill
Avoiding regular meter reading Often Tariff is simple and additional
overheads rebate
No billing and bill despatch No Security Deposit
Less billing disputes and hence grievances
Prepaid meters work using electricity tokens or vouchers. The consumer purchases a voucher from a
vending outlet and then loads the tokens specified by the voucher on to their smart meter.
This is done by entering the voucher pin using the meter’s keypad. If the token is valid then a credit of
KWh is added to the meter as credit and electricity usage is deducted from this credit until it is exhausted
or topped up. Once the credit is used up the meter stops the supply of electricity.
Alerts/Alarms are there through IHDs. However, there are Friendly credit to the consumers for the night
time or holidays when the vending outlets would be closed for a duration.
Prepayment meter should display Over load, Exceeding SD, Over voltage, Depletion of credit, no. of
units available, rate of electricity consumption, Non-payment trigger. 19
 Smart Meters – RF, Cellular
230V, 5/60 A 1 Ph meter

RF Cellular

NIC SIM
(Network
Interface
Card)

400V, 10/60 A 3 Ph meter

RF Cellular

NIC
SIM
(Network
Interface
Card)
 Meter Standards
IS 16444 Part 1 – For Direct Connected (Whole Current) Smart Energy (Watthour) Meter Class 1 /2
(Single Phase / Three Phase)
IS 16444 Part 2 – For transformer operated Watthour and Var-Hour Meters Class 0.2S, .5S and 1S

IS 15959 standard, a Companion Specification in the form of a Guide, is intended to provide a field
level basis for efficient and secure transfer of electricity metering data in an open manner with
judicious application of features and protocols of the International Standards.

American National Standards Institute (ANSI) C12 series used mostly in North America - ANSI meters
are usually round, for outdoor use and fit into sockets; only the maximum current is specified

International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) 6205X series followed more in Europe - IEC meters
are usually rectangular with terminal blocks; basic current and rated current are used for whole-
current and transformer operated meters, rated maximum current is specified separately

Tests are – Power consumption; Immunity to electromagnetic HF fields; Immunity to electrostatic

discharges, Tests of Radio Interference; Limits of error; RF technology requirements; Load Switch (IS
15884); Data Exchange Protocol (IS 15959)
 Home Area Network

Home Area Network or HAN is a network contained within a customer's home or

business that connects a customer's qualified energy monitoring device to a smart meter.
This connection allows the customer to observe his or her real-time energy usage through
the energy monitoring device. The network can be on WiFi, PLC, ZigBee etc.

22
 Neighborhood Area Network

Neighborhood Area Network covers communications between smart meters and the
collector that transmits aggregate data to the control centre. (Also termed as FAN –
Field Area Network)

Radio Frequency Network:

The data is transmitted or
received by a wireless radio
from source (appliance or smart
meter) to destination (Smart
meter or local data aggregator)
and vice-versa. This data sent to
the utility centre for different
energy management operations
and controlling / billing etc.

The NAN network is vulnerable to several types of cyber attacks and, security is essential to
protect sensitive information in the NAN.

23
 Access Point

The smart meter data using RF mesh and PLCC shall be collected by Data
Concentrator Units(DCUs)/Access point and transported to HES through
WAN while the data from smart meters using GPRS/3G/4G technology shall
be transported directly to HES through WAN

WAN Antenna

NAN Antenna Relay

WAN Antenna

Power Connector

Itron (earlier SilverSpringNetwork), CyanConnode, L&G etc. make

RF Mesh equipment
Communication Topology
 Criteria for Selection of Communication Technology

• Latency - The concept of latency refers to the maximum time in which a

particular message should reach its destination through a
communication network
• Reliability – to enable successful and timely messages exchange
• Scalability – to handle increasing no. of meters in the network
• Interoperability - ability of diverse systems to work together
• Adaptability – to different network topology, changing link conditions
• Availability - will survive possible attacks or failures
• Ease of deployment
 Head End System

HES is a combination of hardware and software that pulls the meter data to the computer and
also sends out utility’s commands to the meters. HES are stored on servers in Control room.
Servers are computer hardware or software that can provide various functionalities, often
called "services", such as sharing data or resources among multiple clients, or
performing computation for a client.

The main objective of HES is to acquire meter data automatically, avoiding any human
intervention, and to monitor parameters acquired from meters. In this case HES is managing
the connectivity and scheduling the collection of data from the metering infrastructure including
both the meter devices and communication. However, HES also enables secure access to
meters for configuration, firmware updates on Meter / NIC and ad-hoc requests.
Head End System providers are – Trilliant, Cuculus

Other services:
• Managing outage-related messages from electricity meter (last gap, power restoration
• Enabling DR program using HAN devices
• Enabling threshold violation alarm
27
 Meter Data Management System

The Meter Data Management System supports storage, archiving, retrieval & analysis of meter data
and various other MIS along with validation & verification algorithms. It acts as a central data
repository.
MDM has capability to import raw or validated (VEE – Validation, Estimation & Edit) data in defined
formats and export the processed and validated data to various other systems sources and services
in the agreed format.
It provides validated data for upstream systems such as billing, customer care, analytics , reporting,
Load Analysis, Load Forecasting, Loss calculations, PLM and OMS etc. MDM also supports the
future requirement of utility and should support the integration of other smart grid functionalities like
Distribution Transformer Health Monitoring system, self healing system etc. as and when
implemented by the utility.

MDM to be checked (rated) in terms of Ease of use, Scalability, Integration, Customization,

Validation.

Vendors – Itron, Cuculus, Oracle, Fluentgrid, Siemens etc.

28
Meter Data Management System

Web Portal, SCADA, GIS,

ERP, EVMS, DERMS
Analytics

Energy Audit - A daily automatic feeder loss report (Feeder Head reading minus summation of all
DT meters readings); Automatic LT Energy loss report (DT meter reading minus summation of
readings of all those consumer meters served by the selected DT

Reliability Indices – SAIFI, SAIDI, MAIFI of feeders

Load Management – DT Loading, Consumer load > SD, power factor analysis

PQ – Voltage Deviation, Low pf, DT unbalance

Tamper alert – Consumption comparison (daily / seasonal variation…) suspect cases

Summary Report - high loss DTs/ Feeders, top overloaded DTs/ Feeders, Top feeders/ DTs with
most outages (number and duration), Top feeders with most power quality issues (over voltage,
under voltage, current unbalance, out of band frequency), DTs with high failure rate
AMI Service Providers
AMISP plays a role in managing and maintaining the AMI infrastructure, ensuring its reliability,
security, and optimal performance. AMISP is crucial for ensuring the smooth functioning of the AMI
system, providing support, updates, and maintenance to guarantee its ongoing effectiveness.
Scope of AMISP:-
i. Supply, installation, integration, testing and commissioning of Smart pre-paid metering,
Communication Infrastructure, Head End System (HES), Meter Data Management system (MDM)
with prepaid functionality, Consumer Portal, Mobile Application, Network Operation cum
Monitoring Centre (NOMC), ………
ii. AMI System integration
iii. Consumer indexing on de-novo basis
iv. Development of a comprehensive consumer engagement plan
v. Generation of automated energy audit reports
vi. Operation, maintenance, and support services after the successful completion of the
Operational Go-Live of the system
vii. Training of DISCOM personnel
viii. Other activities to be carried out to ensure successful installation and commissioning

AMISP – EDF, Apraava Energy, Intellismart, L&T, Adani Energy Solutions, HPL…..
 AMI Challenges

AMI has been the fastest growth segment of utility spending over the past few years, and the trend is likely to
continue.

Successfully implementing Advanced Meter Infrastructure (AMI) capabilities and related Meter Data
Management Systems (MDMS) is more challenging than a typical utility project.

AMI projects require utilities to follow an excellent system implementation and integration process due to
challenges related to AMI’s inherent complex technology, the lack of depth in many vendors’ project services,
and the integration points across other enterprise IT systems. Therefore, a successful project requires success
in three key arenas, Technology, Implementation, and Integration.

Common challenges for AMI projects include failure to meet schedule milestones, failure to meet utility
expectations and requirements, poor coordination of necessary implementation tasks, and poor readiness to
accept the organizational changes that AMI systems force upon a utility.

Challenges faced by consumers – Gaps in digital literacy, limited awareness and use of Smart Meter mobile App,
fear of disconnection – difficulties in paying bills or recharging, delay in reconnection

32
 Recovery of Costs

Deploying large scale smart meters requires huge capital investment.

Cost of each meter is about Rs. 6000 - 7000
Cost components and benefits to be analysed (CBA) thoroughly.
Benefits are through:-
• Reduction of distribution losses (AT&C) – Accurate and timely billing, Proper estimation of
Connected/Agreement load, Tariff categorisation
• Reduction of meter reading costs
• Reduction of supply disconnection/re-connection costs
• Application of Demand Side Management applications
• Improvement in reliability of supply (SAIFI, SAIDI)

Regulators, in many cases, are not in favour of passing the cost to the consumers. Thus, the costs
have to be recovered by improving the performance (reducing distribution losses).

33
Smart Metering Status in India as on 15.10.2024
 Units of light Energy
 Consider a point source of light O. The luminous flux crossing
any section of a narrow cone of solidd .The apex of the
cone so formed is at the source. Luminous intensity in the
direction of the cone is the ratio of the flux d to the d , or it
may be defined as the flux emitted by the source / solid
angle. Luminous intensity is represented by
d
I 
d
 It is the ratio of the brightness of a source of light to that of
a standard candle.
 Units of light Energy
 One candle gives out luminous flux of 4 lumens in space.
Thus lumens emitted by one candela source of light is one
lumen / steradian.

r= RSin( )
Area of the surface of the
sphere subtending
at the center 

2 rRd  2 R  sin( )d  4 R2
2
0

Area _ subtended _ at _ center _ by _ a _ part _ of _ the _ sphere

Solid  
( Radius)2
 Units of light Energy
Since light is not emitted uniformly in all directions by
lamps on account of its unsymmetrical shape, therefore
while designing any electrical installation it is essential
to know exactly how the light is distributed.

This information is usually given in the form of polar

curves

(b)

(a) Vertical Polar Curve (b) Horizontal Polar Curve of a filament lamp
 Units of light Energy
Luminous efficiency of a source of light is the amount of
Luminous flux emitted per unit power radiated by the
source. Therefore, if we say that this light source emits 12
lumen per Watt of radiant power then 12 Lumen/ Watt is
the luminous efficiency of the light source. This measures
the efficacy of a light source which is very important for a
lighting designer to determine efficient light source for
energy saving or reducing cost.

Illumination or illuminance or degree of illumination.

It is denoted as the luminous flux received per unit area
and denoted by E.

E 
A
Lux : It is the illumination at the inside of the surface of a
sphere of radius 1M at the center of which is a source of 1 C.P.
 Units of light Energy
Space - height ratio
In order to achieve illumination and do away with dark areas, area
illuminated by one lamp should not overlap that illuminated by
adjacent lamp.
The horizontal distance between lamps
Space-height ratio 
Mountinght ht.of lamps

Concentrative type reflectors–Value is 1.

Dispersive reflectors – 1.5

Utilization Factor
The value depends on

• The area to be illuminated

• The ht, at which lamps are to be fitted
• The colour of surrounding walls, ceiling, lamps etc.
• The type of lighting - direct / indirect
 Units of light Energy
The true value of Utilization Factor
Direct Lighting: 0.25-0.5
Indirect Lighting: 0.1-0.3

Total lumens utilized on working of lamps

Utilization Factor 
Total lumens radiated by lamp

Depreciation Factor

Illumination under normalcondition / old installation

Depreciation Factor 
Illumination under idealconditions of new installation

The average value of Depreciation Factor is 0.8

 Units of light Energy
If N is the No. of lamps,  is the lumen / Lamp.
Cu = Co. efficient. of utilization
D.F = Depreciation Factor
A = Area of room
E = Average illumination.

N Cu.DF E av Area
E av  N
Area  Cu.DF
Lumen method of design is

Area (Sq.ft)  Illumination ft.candles

Co.eff.ofut. Dep.Factor (for values 1)

Also
Area (sq.ft)  Illumination  Dep.Factor(for value 1)
Co.eff.of utilization
 Units of light Energy
Depreciation / Maintenance Factors

Non-Recoverable Recoverable

Temperature Lamp Lumen

Voltage Depreciation
Ballast Luminaire Dirt
Lamp tilt Deposition
Equipment operating Room Surface Dirt
Heat extraction thermal Deposition Lamp
Ballast / Lamp Photometric Burnouts
Luminaire Surface Depreciation
 Units of light Energy
Colour Rendering :By colour rendering is meant the effectiveness
on the colour appearance of object compared to the colour
appearance under a refence light source. An object
may look different when viewed in succession under lamps giving ligh

The colour Rendering index Ri is equal to 1 00 - 4.6 Ei

Ri = 100 - 4.6 Ei

When Ei is the Chromaticity shift of the circle on the Chromaticity

diagram. Sodium vapour lamp has very high luminous intensity and
very low colour rendering index
Laws of Illumination
 UNIFORMITY RATIO
Uniform lighting is important. When you perceive your environment and experience
sudden breaks due to lighting level drops, then the lighting is not uniform—and non-
uniform light makes it difficult for your end-users to navigate and perform tasks, no matter
how powerful or energy efficient the fixtures are.

Uniformity is the ratio of the minimum lighting level to the average lighting level in a
specified area. It's a quality parameter for the overall illuminance distribution.

Illumination Uniformity Formula

To measure illumination uniformity, the following formula is required.
U1 = E(minimum)/E(average) U2 = E(minimum)/E(maximum)
U stands for uniformity, and E stands for illuminance, respectively. As can be seen from the
above formula, illumination uniformity is the ratio of illuminance or lux level. This Lighting
Uniformity Ratio is important because it lets you determine how evenly the light distributes
light to a given area. If the difference between average and minimum illuminance is not high,
the ratio will be high. The uniformity is high. According to the standard, the minimum
illuminance needs to correspond to the recommended illuminance level. According to the BS
EN 13201-2:2015 standard, the general road lighting scheme sets the uniformity level to 0.4
and 0.6.
 Comparative Study of lamps

Efficacy(lm/watt) Burning hours Color rendering

Index
1 Standard incandescent
25-150W 17 1000 hrs.
High
2 Tungsten halogen 17 – 22 – 33 2000 hrs. High
3. Low pressure Fluorescent lamp
5W-80W 30-90 10000-8000 hrs. High
4 Tube shaped Fluorescent lamp
Energy-Efficient T5 100-120 15000-20000. Quite high
5. Hg vapour
50W-400W 40-65 10000-15000 hrs Low
 Comparative Study of lamps

Efficacy(lm/watt) Burning hours Color rendering Index

6. Metal halide
60W-150W-400W-1000W 80-130 15000 hrs. Very High

7. High pressure Na Vapour

50-1000W 70- 150 -170 15000-24000 hrs.
Low
8. Low pressure Na Vapour
18-180W 200 18000 -24000 HRS.
Very Low
9. LED Lamps 70-160(100 )for white 50000 hrs. Varying Colours
available
 Principle of Operation
THE INCANDESCENT LAMP
The incandescent lamp is the oldest electric light source in general
used. An electric current is passed through a thin wire of
comparatively high resistance so as to heat the latter to
incandescence. To prevent heat loss from surface area, the wire is in the form of coiled coil filaments.
Spectral output of a typical incandescent bulb.
Tungsten Halogen Lamp
Tungsten Halogen Lamp

Technical
• aluminum reflector (outer ∅ 111 mm)
• antiglare cap
• 12V low pressure halogen burner
• base: G53 (but normally contacted by
wires)
Commercial
• “techno” look
• nice beam
• lamp part of luminaire design
• visual comfort
 Principle of Operation
Gaseous Discharge Lamps

Electrodes

( Gas & Metal Vapour )

Glass or Quartz Envelope

• The basic principle of a gas discharge lamp is illustrated above.

• Application of an ignition voltage across the electrodes can result
in a discharge through the gas, which is accompanied by
electromagnetic radiation.
• The wavelength of this radiation depends upon the gas, its
pressure and the metal vapour used in the lamp.
• Argon gas and Na and Hg vapours are commonly used for gaseous
discharge lamps.
 Electric discharge Lamp

The most common application of this technology is in

tubular fluorescent lamps.
• A range of different phosphor coatings are used to
modify the output spectrum.
• The standard fluorescent tube has a diameter of
38mm and a length of 0.6, .9, 1.2, 1.5, 1.8 or 2.4
metres.
• More recently, such lamps are available in both
circular form as well as compact fluorescents
utilising folded tubes of much smaller diameter.
•
Different Types of Fluorescent Lamps
Spectral output of different classes of fluorescent
lamp..
Radiation Spectrums of Fluorescent Lamps
Daylight effect of fluorescent lamp
 Sodium Vapour Lamp(HID)
• Another commonly used discharge lamp is based on Sodium Vapour.

• When this type of lamp is first switched on, a small current passes
through the gas giving off a faint red discharge. After several minutes the
sodium inside evaporates.

• The resulting sodium vapour produces the almost totally monochromatic

emission characteristic to this lamp (589-589.6, yellow).
• This makes colour perception very difficult which means that it is almost
solely used for street lighting.
•
Construction of the Sodium vapour Lamp
Radiation Spectrum of Sodium vapour
Lamp
Radiation Spectrum of mercury vapour
Lamp
Spectral output of mercury lamps with metal
halide additives.
HID Lamps at art Gallery
LED Lamps
 Specific Advantages of LED
• Long Life -50000-100000hours. Reduced maintenance. Life
expectancy is unaffected by switching cycles and 100% output
occurs within 10 nsec
• Defined Colors
• Robust- Since there is no filament or delicate glass they can
withstand shock and vibration
• Environment friendly-Does not contain mercury
• Cool and safe: Free from ultra-Violet and Infra –Red Radiation
• By using large
clusters more light
output is possible
• Only 20percent of
the power is
produced as light,
rest as heat.
• Heat management
techniques similar to
Power Electronic
Devices become
inevitable and an
area of research for
materials science
too
 Power Supplies and Drivers for
LEDs
• A constant current source to operate LEDs is
required
• For High Powered LEDs forward currents in
the range of 350-750 mA needs to be
arranged
 Semiconductors Used

• Key Development– Gallium

Nitride Semiconductor
• GaAs-Infrared
• GaAsP-Red Light
• GaN-Blue
INDUCTION LAMP
Principle of Operation of Induction
Lamp
OPERATION OF AN INDUCTION LAMP
Latest LED lighting accentuated by LCD
Technology
 NEW AGE LIGHTING
• A few lighting companies are in the research and development stage of
presenting organic emitting lighting diodes, (OLEDs) that will illuminate
walls, ceilings, windows and change interior lighting forever.

• The light source is evenly distributed throughout the large surface and can
produce color glows in the ceiling and the walls.

• Glass walls that light up at the flick of a switch and can be adjusted to dim
or brighten according to the consumers desired effect.

• The OLED is the lighting solution of the future. It is not only Eco-friendly,
but it has a wide range of adaptations for the home, commercial and
multi-dwelling environments.

• Currently, OLED is used for decorative lighting purposes only. Its

application for creating illumination to entire environments is about three
to five years in the future.
LED LIGHTING FOR LIVERPOOL
FLYOVER
OFF_GRID LIGHTING
 OFF_GRID LIGHTING
• Solar-powered LED football floodlighting
solution that enables people with little or no
access to electricity to enjoy playing or
watching sport long into the night and at the
same time increases the safety outdoors.
 Lighting System Components
 A lighting system consist of :

-Lamp
-Lamp driver
-ballast
Gears
-ignitor
-capacitor

- optical system
Luminaries
- housing
• A luminaire is a complete lighting unit,
comprised of a light source (lamp or lamps),
together
• with the parts that distribute the light,
position and protect the lamps, and connect
the lamps to the power supply.
• The luminaire’s function is to direct light to
appropriate locations,without causing glare or
discomfort.
• Choosing luminaires that efficiently provide
appropriate luminance patterns for the
application is an important part of energy
 ShieldedDirect
Shielded Direct Lighting
LightingSystems
systems
 Indirect Lighting Systems

• Lighting systems that radiate light up to a reflecting ceiling are

called indirect lighting systems.

• These systems generally employ luminaires suspended from

the ceiling, though cove lights and lights mounted to walls and
furniture can also be used.

• Indirect lighting systems using well-designed and properly

spaced luminaires can provide excellent
illumination,uniformity, and freedom from glare.

• Their success depends on maintaining a high ceiling

reflectance in combination with nearly uniform brightness. In
this way, a maximum amount of light is reflected down to the
work plane
Indirect Lighting systems
Energy Savings with installation of
modern Control Gear
 Energy Savings with installation of
modern Control Gear
• In general the typical overall cost saving potentials
amount 30 - 40 % (50% and
more including Operation & Management) in
comparison between systems of high
pressure mercury lamps/electromagnetic ballasts
and new lamp technologies

• (e.g. Metal Halide-lamps) with electronic ballasts

 Light Management Systems
• The right light in the right amount at the right place and at the
right time promotes our sense of well-being and stimulates us
to be active. In addition to the technical and architectural
aspects, light management systems (LMS) therefore play an
important role in the holistic approach to planning high-
quality lighting systems.

• Light management systems detect and control different

lighting levels and color mixes, so they give lighting a dynamic
dimension.

• Automatic changes to the amount, color and direction of the

light means that the lighting system can be controlled on a
basis of demand – from daylight-dependent control and
dynamic lighting applications to pushbutton selection of
different lighting scenes.
 References:
• Berlin Energy Efficiency
• www.neon-lighting.com
• http://www.lightingassociates.org/i/u/212780
6/f/tech_sheets/Luminaires.pdf.
• Philips Lighting
• Osram Lighting
DESIRABLE CHARACTERISTICS OF A TRACTION MOTOR
DESIRABLE CHARACTERISTICS OF A TRACTION MOTOR

■ Mechanical Features
A. Robust and capable to withstand vibrations
B. The weight of the traction motor should be minimum to increase the payload
capacity of the vehicle. The toque/weight ratio should be high; size preferably low.
C. Ingress protection should be ensured, high IP No required.
■ Electrical Features
A. High Starting Torque
B Simple and wide range of Speed Control
DESIRABLE CHARACTERISTICS OF A TRACTION MOTOR

■ C. Self-relieving Property- Spped may fall with increase in Overload

■ D. Possibility of Regenerative Braking
■ E Capability of withstanding Voltage Fluctuations
■ F Capability of withstanding Temporary Fluctuations of Supply
■ G Overload Capacity
■ H Parallel Running
• 33kV Power Supply is received from CESC at four Receiving Substations (RSS) viz. Shyambazar, Central,
Jatin Das Park & Noapara /RSS. 33KV supply is extended from Shyambazar & Jatin Das Park RSS to Masterda
Surya Sen (Bansdroni) RSS.
• The voltage is stepped down to 11 KV and fed to 19 nos. Traction substation and 34 nos. Auxiliary substations
located at stations & mid points.
• All the Receiving Substations are interconnected through 33 kV cable network and all the Traction & Auxiliary
Substations are interconnected through 11 kV cable network to maintain power supply in case of failure of
power supply at any of the RSS.
• In the Traction Substations (TSS), 11 kV is stepped down to 604 Volts, rectified to 750 Volts D.C. and fed to
3rd rail for traction purpose.
• In the Auxiliary Substations (ASS), 11 kV is stepped down to 415 Volts for lighting, Air conditioning and
Ventilation, Pumps, Escalators, Signalling and Telecommunication etc.
· In addition to the 33kV sub-stations mentioned above, there are two receiving sub-stations, one at Metro Rail
Bhawan and another at Belgachhia, where power from CESC is received at 6 kV, basically for auxiliary loads.
· 3rd rail between Dakshineswar and Kavi Subhash is fed at 19 Traction Substations with average spacing of 1.58
Km. From Traction Substations, 750 Volts D.C. is fed to 3rd rail through DC High Speed Circuit Breakers and cables.
Power Supply is controlled through SCADA system from centralised Traction Power Control located at 4th floor of
Metro Bhawan.
· Routine maintenance of these assets is done departmentally. Major repair/replacement work is carried out by
contractual agencies as per requirement.
The power supply system for the Metro Railway in Kolkata.
• Power Source: The Metro receives a 33kV power supply from CESC at four main receiving substations:
Shyambazar, Central, Jatin Das Park, and Noapara1. This power is then stepped down to 11kV and
distributed to various traction and auxiliary substations.
• Traction Power: In the traction substations, the 11kV supply is further stepped down to 750V DC, which is
used to power the third rail system that drives the trains1.
• Auxiliary Power: The auxiliary substations step down the 11kV supply to 415V for lighting, air conditioning,
ventilation, escalators, pumps, and other station facilities1.
• Backup Systems: The Metro is also implementing battery power systems to move stranded trains in case of
power failures2.
• Control and Maintenance: Power supply is controlled through a SCADA system from a centralized Traction
Power Control located at Metro Bhawan. Routine maintenance is done by the department, while major
repairs are handled by contractual agencies1.
This setup ensures a reliable and efficient power supply for the Metro operations.
How Linear Induction Motors Work

The Linear Induction Motor is similar in construction to a circular motor that has been opened out flat.
The magnetic field now sweeps across the flat motor face instead of rotating.

The stator generally consists of a multi phase winding in a laminated iron core. When energized from an
AC supply a travelling wave magnetic field is produced. Travel direction can be reversed by swapping
two phases.

The reaction plate is the equivalent of the rotor. For single sided applications this is usually a conductive
sheet of aluminium or copper backed by steel, and for double sided applications only a conductive sheet
is used.

Currents induced in the reaction plate by the stator travelling field create a secondary magnetic field. It
is the reaction between these two fields which produces the linear thrust.

MAGLEV

https://youtu.be/EbORQVttbeU
 Linear Induction Motors in Traction

When a three-phase supply is connected to the primary winding, a traveling flux

is produced. This flux travels along the length of the primary part and induces EMF in
the secondary. This EMF circulates currents in the secondary. This induced current
interacts with traveling flux and produces force.
If one part (primary or secondary) is the fixed and the second part (secondary or
primary) can move, then force will be produced on the moving member.
If the primary winding is fixed and the secondary is movable, the force or thrust
generates in the same direction as the traveling wave.
Similarly, if the secondary winding is fixed and the primary winding is movable, the force
or thrust generates in the opposite direction of the traveling wave.
The above figure shows the traction locomotive with moving primary and fixed
secondary.
With the help of a pantograph, a single-phase supply is collected from the overhead
conductor. This single-phase supply is converted into a three-phase supply using a
converter. Now, this three-phase supply is given to the primary winding of a three-phase
linear induction motor.
Due to the three-phase supply in the primary winding, it produces traveling flux that links
in the secondary winding and produces EMF.
This EMF circulates current in the secondary winding. And due to interaction with
primary traveling flux and secondary current, thrust or force is produced on a locomotive
and it starts propelling.
The equation of linear synchronous speed is;
VS = 2 τf … m/s
Introduction
Traction-It is the power used by a locomotive to grip or
hold onto a surface while moving and without slipping.
These systems of tractions may be classified broadly into
groups namely
1) The traction system which do not involve the use of
electricity at any stage and called as non-electric tractions
system such as steam engine drive, IC engine drive etc.
2) The tractions system which involves the use of electricity
at some stage and called as electric tractions. System such a
diesel electric drive, electric drive etc.
In India electrification in tractions are conducted with
three types of locomotives.
1. Using single phase A.C. series commutator motor.
2. Using D.C. motor with tapped transformer and rectifier.
3. Indian Railways use 1000 HP and 1500 HP state-of-the-
art 3- Phase Traction Motors manufactured by CLW for
freight (WAG-9) and passenger (WAP-5 & WAP-7)
locomotives since 1998-99
4. Converters for AC asynchronous traction motors
 Existing Tractions System
Existing tractions system uses D.C. motors.
a) The 25 KV over head voltage is step down to 2000 V with
the help of step down transformer.
b) Rectifier rectifies this A.C. voltage to D.C. voltage.
c) This rectified D.C. voltage is used to operate the D.C.
motors in existing system engine.
Causes favouring the DC motors
1) D.C. series motors are less costly, however for some H.P
more efficient and requires less maintenance than A.C.
series motor.
2) Rail conductor system of track electrifications which is less
costly with D.C. system than with A.C. system
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A DC
LOCOMOTIVE
Power From Catenary TO DC Series
Motor
 TRACTION POWER SUPPLY
• In this system 25KV, 50Hz single phase system is employed for supplying power to
the locomotives.
• The locomotive draws power from overhead equipment
• 1 the catenary through sliding contact by means of
• 2 (a) Pantograph (b) Trolley collector(c) Bow collector.
• The locomotive consists of
• 3 ACB provided on the roof of the locomotive mainly to disconnect the locomotive
form the high voltage supply in the event of fault in the equipment and to isolate
the locomotion equipment at a voltage change point or phase change point in the
over head equipment such as before or entry into the neutral section
• 4. load tap changer for variable voltage
• 5. step down transformer to step down voltage to the utilization
• 6.Rectifier for converting a.c. to d.c.
• 7. smoothing choke for reducing the a.c. component of rectified undulating d.c. to
• 8. d.c. traction motors.
 The strong Emergence of AC Motors
for Electric traction in Indian Railways
• The line side converter converts the a.c.voltage into
D.C.Voltage and this D.C.Voltage is converted into 3 phase
AC by inverter with variable frequency which powers AC
traction motors. ... AC traction for locomotives is a major
improvement over the old DC systems.
• DC motor maintenance was very expensive and
regeneration was also not possible. With 3 phase traction
motor maintenance cost is reduced and prime objective of
regeneration is also achieved.
• For locomotive we are using two types of Traction Motors
of rating 1150 KW & 850KW.And for EMU & MEMU motors
upto 270KW.
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF AN A.C LOCOMOTIVE
 Pantographs
• This is one of the most important subsystem of a locomotive
or EMU. The purpose of pantograph is to maintain a link
between the overhead system and power circuit of the
locomotive at speeds which may vary from 100 to 250 kmph
and collect power of the order of 2000 to 6000 kW depending
upon the rating. A positive upward pressure has to be
maintained between the pantograph strip and the contact
wire. Further, this pressure should be minimum consistent
with the current collection duty without sparking or
overheating such that wear at the con¬tact wire is kept down.
• For 25 kV A.C. locomotives, the contact pressure of the
pantograph is 6.5 kg (min.) and 9 kg (max.). The strips are of
steel. In case of DC. locomotives, the contact wire is heavier
and so is the current collected. Hence contact pressures vary
between 10 and 15 kg.
• Initial designs of pantograph were symmetrical and diamond-
shaped,
 There are three main stages in power
circuit of three phases locomotive.
Input converter
1. A transformer section step-down
the voltage from the 25 KV input.
2. This converter rectifies AC from
catenary to as specified dc
voltage using GTO thyristors.
3. It has filter and circuitry to
provide a fairly smooth and stable
dc output, at the same time
attempting to ensure good power
factor.
4. The input converter can be
configured to present different
power factor to power supply.
DC link
1. This is essentially a bank of capacitor and inductor
or active filter circuitry to further smooth.
2. Also to trap harmonics generated by drive
converter and traction motors.
3. The capacitor bank in this section can also provide
a small amount of reserve power in transient
situations (e.g., pantograph bounce) if needed by
the traction motors.
Drive converter
This is basically an inverter
which consist of three
thyristors based components
that switch on and off at
precise times under the
control of a microprocessor.
The three components
produce three phase of A.C.
The microprocessor controller
can vary the switching of
thyristors and thereby
produce A.C. of wide range of
frequency and voltage.
 Advantages Of AC Motors Over DC Motors

1. DC motors use commutators which are prone to failure because of vibration and
shock, and which also result in a lot of sparking and corrosion. Induction AC motors
do not use commutators at all.
2. It is hard to use a DC motor for regenerative braking, and the extra switchgear for
this adds to the bulk and complexity of the loco. AC motors can fairly easily be used
to generate power during regenerative braking.
3. In addition, DC motors tend to draw power with a bad power factor and injecting a
lot of undesirable harmonics into the power system.
4. AC motors have the advantage of a simpler construction.
 The operational ease Of AC Motors Over DC Motors
• The 3-phase AC is fed to the AC traction motors, which are induction motors. As the voltage
and the frequency can be modified easily, the motors can be driven with fine control over
their speed and torque. By making the slip frequency of the motors negative (i.e., generated
AC is 'behind' the rotors of the motors), the motors act as generators and feed energy back to
the OHE — this is how regenerative braking is performed. There are various modes of
operation of the motors, including constant torque and constant power modes, balancing
speed mode, etc. depending on whether their input voltage is changed, or the input
frequency, or both.
• AC motors have numerous advantages over DC motors. DC motors use commutators which
are prone to failure because of vibration and shock, and which also result in a lot of sparking
and corrosion. Induction AC motors do not use commutators at all. It is hard to use a DC
motor for regenerative braking, and the extra switchgear for this adds to the bulk and
complexity of the loco. AC motors can fairly easily be used to generate power during
regenerative braking. In addition,
• DC motors tend to draw power from the OHE poorly, with a bad power factor and injecting a
lot of undesirable harmonics into the power system. AC motors suffer less from these
problems, and in addition have the advantage of a simpler construction.
• Currently produced modern locomotives use insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs), which
offer extremely high switching speeds allowing for finer control over the waveforms
generated. When introduced, the WAP-5, WAP-7, WAG-9 and its variants used GTO thyristors
(Gate Turn-Off thyristors). In 2010, IR began trials of WAP-7 and WAG-9 fitted with IGBTs with
serial production starting sometime in 2015. While retrofitting of IGBTs on older locomotives
has begun, there are still hundreds in active service that use GTOs.
 High Speed trains
• The TGV (French: Train à Grande Vitesse, "high-speed
train") is France's intercity high-speed rail service, operated
by the SNCF, the state-owned national rail operator.
• They are quadri-current, operating under 25 kV, 50 Hz AC
(LGVs), 15 kV 16⅔ Hz AC (Germany, Switzerland), 3 kV DC
(Belgium) and 1.5 kV DC (Dutch and French lignes
classiques). Their top speed is 300 km/h (186 mph) under
25 kV, with two power cars supplying 8,800 kW.
• Germany’s HSR n this case, the HSR Intercity Express (ICE)
• the Japanese Shinkansen has nine high-speed lines with a
total network of 3,041 kilometers in operation,
 The HyperLoop
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zcikLQZI5
wQ
Power Supply , AC - Ventilation

1.0 Power Supply, Air-conditioning & Ventilation and Other General Electrical Assets:
1.1. The activities are distributed in four sections:
· Power Supply Distribution and Third Rail.
· Air-Conditioning, Ventilation, False Ceiling & Lighting.
· Escalators & Lifts
· Pumps and general assets.

1.1.1.Power Supply Distribution and Third Rail:

· 33kV Power Supply is received from CESC at four Receiving Substations (RSS) viz. Shyambazar, Central, Jatin Das Park & Noapara /RSS. 33KV
supply is extended from Shyambazar & Jatin Das Park RSS to Masterda Surya Sen (Bansdroni) RSS. The voltage is stepped down to 11 KV and fed to
19 nos. Traction substation and 34 nos. Auxiliary substations located at stations & mid points. All the Receiving Substations are interconnected through
33 kV cable network and all the Traction & Auxiliary Substations are interconnected through 11 kV cable network to maintain power supply in case of
failure of power supply at any of the RSS. In the Traction Substations (TSS), 11 kV is stepped down to 604 Volts, rectified to 750 Volts D.C. and fed to
3rd rail for traction purpose. In the Auxiliary Substations (ASS), 11 kV is stepped down to 415 Volts for lighting, Air conditioning and Ventilation,
Pumps, Escalators, Signalling and Telecommunication etc.

· In addition to the 33kV sub-stations mentioned above, there are two receiving sub-stations, one at Metro Rail Bhawan and another at Belgachhia,
where power from CESC is received at 6 kV, basically for auxiliary loads.

· 3rd rail between Dakshineswar and Kavi Subhash is fed at 19 Traction Substations with average spacing of 1.58 Km. From Traction Substations, 750
Volts D.C. is fed to 3rd rail through DC High Speed Circuit Breakers and cables. Power Supply is controlled through SCADA system from centralised
Traction Power Control located at 4th floor of Metro Bhawan.

· Routine maintenance of these assets is done departmentally. Major repair/replacement work is carried out by contractual agencies as per
requirement.
The approximate Contract Demand for the different receiving sub-stations is as under.

Name of the RSS Voltage Contract Demand

Shyambazar 33 kV 7.5 MVA
Central 33 kV 10.5 MVA
Jatin Das Park 33 kV 10 MVA
Noapara 33kV 2.5 MVA
Metro Rail Bhawan 6 kV 0.25 MW (commercial)
Belgachhia 6 kV 0.08 MW (domestic)
AC Electrification System :Feeding Systems
Direct-fed System
 Typical Earthing Scheme in
Mainline

For Indian Railways,

The line side converter converts the a.c.voltage into D.C.Voltage and this D.C.Voltage is
converted into 3 phase AC by inverter with variable frequency which powers AC traction
motors. ... AC traction for locomotives is a major improvement over the old DC systems.
DC motor maintenance was very expensive and regeneration was also not possible. With
3 phase traction motor maintenance cost is reduced and prime objective of
regeneration is also achieved.

For locomotive we are using two types of Traction Motors of rating 1150 KW & 850KW.And for
EMU & MEMU motors upto 270KW.

TRACTION MOTOR AND GEAR DRIVE

3.0 TRAIN SET PARAMETERS

S. No. Description Value

1. Wheel diameter:
New Wheel 952mm
Half worn 915mm
Fully worn wheel 877mm
2. No of Traction Motors per MC 4
3. Maximum Tractive effort of MC 106 kN
4. Max power at wheels per Motor Coach during motoring 1296 kW
5. Gear ratio 5.158
6. Maximum braking effort 94 kN
7. Max power at wheels per Motor Coach during braking 1567 kW
8. Gear efficiency 98.00%

3.1 TECHNICAL DATA OF TRACTION MOTOR

S. No. Description Details

1. Designation 3 phase AC Asynchronous Traction
Motor
2. Designed by TSA
3. Make Medha
4. Type designation TME 49-35-4
5. Weight of traction motor drive with half 1000 kg ±3%
coupling
6. Power 265.26 kW (electrical)
7. Shaft output 252 kW (mechanical)
 8. rpm 3338 rpm
9. Voltage 1375 V
Continuous rating
10. Current 123 A
11. Frequency 112.3 Hz
12. Slip at full load 0.89%
13. Power factor 0.9
14. Power 291.88 kW (electrical)
15. Voltage 1375 V
16. Current 136 A
17. Frequency 112.4 Hz
1 hour rating
18. Slip 0.99%
19. Shaft output 277 kW (mechanical)
20. Power factor 0.9
21. rpm 3337 rpm

S. No. Description Details

22. Motor efficiency at rated power 95.00%

23. Maximum working speed of TM 4992 rpm
24. Maximum frequency 167.5 Hz
25. Maximum temperature index of 237°C
winding insulation
26. Type of suspension Fully suspended motor with partly
suspended gear drive
27. Speed at 160kmph with full worn 4992 rpm
wheels (877mm dia)
28. Type of cooling Self ventilated, air cooled
29. Air entrance temperature ≤ 50°C
30. Protection system IP 20 (machine protected solid objects
greater than 12 mm)
31. Class of insulation material Class 220
32. Terminal box protection degree IP 65 (machine protected against
ingress of dust)
33. Overall dimensions 1431 (L)x1157 (W) x 701 (H)
34. Constructional details viz. Rotor bar Rotor bar and end ring joints
and rotor end ring arrangement, protected by use of high strength
overhang to terminal box connection alloy shrink ring. All overhangs
etc. suitably supported.
Bogie of a Railway Locomotive: Design Principle, Wheelsets,
Suspension System & Drive System
What is a Railway Bogie ?
Just like the chassis of your passenger car, the bogie of a Locomotive is an essential part of
the train. However, bogie has much more function to perform than a normal automobile
chassis. Bogies are hardly noticed by the passengers but it’s the bogie only which carries the
locomotive’s drive system, wheel-axle, brakes, suspension system, auxiliary equipment,
guidance mechanism, and off-course carry the weight of all the parts. In simple terms, a
bogie is a structure underneath a railway body that carries and ties all the components of
the locomotive together and axles & wheels are attached through bearings. A standard
railway locomotive has two bogies (Bogie 1 and 2 in the picture), generally located near the
vehicle’s ends.
Each bogie is a 4-wheel set or 6-wheel set truck and the below picture is an example of 6
wheelsets of an Electric Locomotive. Bogie is also known as wheel truck, truck, or simply car,
and wheelset is also known as an axle or journal.

Wheel set arrangement classification

The wheel-set arrangement classification is a systematic tool to sort railway vehicles by the position
of the wheel-sets (axles), bogies, and connections of vehicle bodies. Although different countries
may use different classifications of locomotives however the International Union of Railways
(UIC) classification scheme is widely used and is written in the UIC’s “Leaflet 650 – Standard
designation of axle arrangement on locomotives and multiple-unit sets”.
B’ B’ – two bogies or wheel assemblies under the unit. Each bogie has two powered axles, connected
by driving rods or gears.
Bo´Bo´- two bogies under the unit and each bogie have 2 individually-driven powered axles or
wheelsets (power via traction motors). 75% of all modern locomotives are configured as Bo´Bo´.
Co´Co´- two bogies under the unit and each bogie have 3 individually-driven, powered axles (power
via traction motors).
The bogie structure.
If  be the efficiency of transmission gear, maximum power o/p of motors
.278 x Fg x 9.81 Vm
 Watts

where Fg is in kg.

Specific Energy Consumption

It is the energy consumed in W-hrs / tonne kilometrage of train.
Total energy output of driving axles is spent as follows :
(i) To accelerate the train Ea
(ii) To overcome gradient Eg
(iii) To overcome train resistance including curve E r

(a) Ea = F a x distance OAD

 1 V x1000 Vm 
= 277.8We  m  Watt seconds
 2 3600  
 1 V x1000 Vm  1
= 277.8We  m  Watt hour
 2 3600   3600
= 0.01072 Vm2 We (W-H)

(b) Eg = Fg x Dt
where, Dt = OABE and is the distance over which power remain on
Eg = 9.81 WG x 1000 D1 joules or watt sec.

9.81 x1000
 WGD1 Watt-hrs.
3600
= 2.725 WGD1 W-hrs. ; G= 1000 sin 

(c) Er = Fr D1 Joules
W .r.D1 x1000
= Watt-hrs.
3600
= 0.2778 WrD1 Watt-hrs.

where r is the train resistance in N/tonne and W is the weight of the train in tones and D 1
in Kms.

Total energy output of driving axles.

E = 0.01072 Vm2 We  2.725 WGD1 + 0.2778 WrD1

E = E a + Eg + Er

specific energy output = E / WD Watt - hrs / tonne Km.

Special values
(i) 50 – 75 W-hrs / tonne hr for suburban
(ii) 20 – 30 W-hrs / tonne hr. of mainline service.

Specific energy o / p at driving wheels

Specific energy consumption 
Overall  of transmissi on gear and motor

Factors affecting specific energy consumption

(a) Distance between stops
(b) Retardation and acceleration values
(c) Gradient
(d) Train resistance and speed resistance
(e) Type of train equipment / Electric locomotive design
(f) Strategies in traction power supply installations (g) coefficient of adhesion.

Mechanics of Train Movement

T = Motor Torque
F1 = Tractive effort at the pinion
F = Tractive effort at the driving wheel
 = Efficiency of transmission of power from motor to axle
 Fw = radius of driving wheel
d1
F x D =  F1 x d Fx = T
2
2T 2T
=  d F1 =
d1 d1

2T d 2d d
F =   T   if   is the gear ratio
d1 D  D  d1 d1

d N
   1
d1 N 2
Speed of motor pinion in rpm

speed of driving axle in rpm
Diameter of gear wheel

Diameter of pinion

2
F = T 
D

Gear:
A toothed wheel designed to mesh with another.
Gears :
A system of two or more gears meshed together so that motion of one is passed onto
others.
A high gear provides greatest speed.
A low gear greatest power.
Pinion :
A small cogwheel with teeth that fits into a gearwheel or rack.
 Coefficient of Adhesion
The increase in the torque exerted by the motor increases the tractive effort at the driving
wheels. This is possible upto a certain limit after which the driving wheels slip. The
maximum value of tractive effort at which the driving wheels will not slip depends upon
the dead weight over the driving axle.

 F W

or F =  aW

If F in N and W in tones

F =  a x 9.81 x 1000 W

where,  a is the coefficient of adhesion.

Therefore weight on the driving wheels along with the horse-power of the traction motors
are to be increased to increase the tractive effort of a locomotive. The maximum tractive
effort which can be exerted by a locomotive without slipping of the driving wheels is 15
to 25% of the weight on the wheels. Adhesive weight can be increased by increasing the
number of driving axles and wt/axle. It also depends upon the tractive structure and load-
bearing soil. To ensure high productivity from its fixed assets (i) increasing the loading
per train (ii) increasing the line capacity and utilizing it are. These targeted considerations
finally translate to high tractive force and power from the motor power, and for which the
co-effn. Of adhesion is important.

While braking, if braking effort is > adhesive weight of the vehicle, sliding/skidding will
result. Coefficient of adhesion is > at starting than coefficient of adhesion at other speeds.
Presence of oil, dew reduces adhesion, whereas rust, sand, dust or dry rails improve
adhesion.

The term adhesive weight in connection with traction systems refers to the effective weight or gravitational
force that helps maintain the traction or grip between the wheels of a vehicle (such as a train) and the
track or surface it moves on. This concept is crucial in determining the overall performance and efficiency
of traction systems. Below is a detailed explanation of adhesive weight and its significance in traction
systems.
Insertion of res. In dc. makes the T.S Uniflattess. In case of a.c. locomotives, on
occurrence of slight slip, torque developed reduces by larger amount because of
steepness of the curved. This makes the tracture effort less than the adhesion benut and
registers grip on the track.
Speed-time curves for Train Movement

(i) 0 – t1 motor accelerates from rest, the current taken by the motors and tractive
effort are practically constant. This is known as the notching up period.
Tractive effort is the force in Newtons exerted by the driving wheel on the
rail to produce movement. Sum of the tractive efforts exerted by all the
driving wheels of a locomotive is called gross tractive effort which is
proportional to the combined torque exerted by the motors.

During this period, starting resistance is gradually cut till the motor current is
a certain value. The voltage across the motor is gradually increased from zero
to full (normal) voltage and the current is kept constant at normal rated value
by reducing the ext. res. Gradually.

To cut the starting resistance, handle has to be moved from one notch to
another and hence the name.

 V  Eb 
In the period 0 – t1,   is kept constant. Motor current and hence
 ra 
torque fluctuate, shown in the diagram. Since the tractive effort and train
resistance remains more or less same, the acc. is constant and speed-time
curve is a straight line.

(ii) t1 – t2 – When all the starting resistance is cut out, train continues to accelerate
in the period t1 – t2. Full supply voltage V is applied Eb  N . The torque
gradually falls with the speed and increases acceleration to the torque speed
characteristic of the motor. Finally the train reaches a speed when the tractive
 effort equals the train resistance. Train will continue to run at the maximum
speed.

(iii) t2 – t3 – It indicates the free running period and the train runs at constant speed.

(iv) t3 – t4 – At a point 3, the power is cut off and train is allowed to run at its own
Kinetic Energy and due to train resistance, speed of the train gradually
decreases (Coasting period).

(v) t4 – t5 – Braking period – Brakes are applied to bring the train to stop.

Traction Drives

(i) Rotary motor dirve.

(ii) Linear ind. Motor drive (LIM) – Low cost / h.p of rolling stock.

It is conventional rotary I/M which is cut open and roled out. LIM is produced by
unrolling the stator and rotor of I/M into flat surfaces and bringing in proximity to each
other.

Advantages

(i) Speed of LIM can be increased to any limit by designing suitable pole pitch.

(ii) It carries only the primary member and therefore weight is reduced.

Tractive Effort

Tractive effort is the force developed by the traction unit at the wheel rims for moving the
traction unit and its train.

Let a train of dead weight W tonnes being accelerated at  Km. Phps.

F = mf

F = 1000 W. f = 1000 W kg-f

If f is in α m/sec2 then

 1000
F = 1000 W  Newton
3600
 = 277.8 W  Newton.

When a train is accelerated, the rotating parts are also to be accelerated and hence
additional tractive effort to produce angular acceleration is also required.

Ft = 277.8 We  Newtons; if  = 1 km phps.

Where, We = 1.1 to 1.2 W

If W X 1000 X 9.8 is the dead weight

 277.81.1100 
 Ft / W = 3.11%.  
 1000 9.8 

Therefore tractive effort is necessary to

(i) to give necessary linear and angular acceleration

(ii) to overcome the gravity component of the weight of the train parallel to the
track (W sin  )

(iii) To overcome the wind and frictional resistance of the train

700
(iv) To overcome the curve resistance. Fc = W  Kg
R

Train Resistance

Train resistance consists of all the forces which oppose the motion of the train on level
track. These forces can be classified as these forces which are internal to the rolling stock
such as friction at journals, axle guides etc. and these forces which are external to the
rolling stock such as friction between wheels and rails, flange friction, resistance as a
result of temporary deflection of track and aerodynamic drag.
Train resistance=(a + bv + cv2)

v = train speed in km/hr.

a = const. representing mechanical resistance such as journal friction, track

resistance, etc.

b = flange resistance and internal frictions of train

 c = wind resistance coefficient

Flange resistance increases with oscillations of the coach and is affected by side wind
pressure.
Developments in the following areas will further improve the performance of high power
locomotives.

(i) IGBT current converters, which now perform upto 150 KW are being made
capable of service of the 6 MW class.

(ii) Weight will be reduced through progress in energy conversion, by, for e.g.
using medium and high frequency transformers that take into account the
traction power required (thereby optimizing adhesion to rails and minimizing
wear and tear on them).

A. Trapezoidal speed time curve used in main line service.

Vm
 where, t1 and t3 are in seconds
t1

Vm
 where, Vm = kmph,  ,  = km ph ps
t3

Total distance = total area

= OAE + AEB + BEC

= OAE + DEB + BEC

= OAE + CBD
 = 1  OE  AD + 1  BE  CD
2 2

1  T  t3  1  T  t1 
= Vm    Vm  
2  3600  2  3600 

=
Vm
2T  t3  t1 
7200

Vm  V V 
=  2T  m  m 
7200   

Vm   1 1 
D = 2T  Vm   
7200     

 
If =K
2 

D =
Vm
T Vm K  …….(1)
3600

or, KVm2 - VmT + 3600D = 0

T  T 2 14400 KD
Vm 
2K

Positive sign gives very much high value of Vm. Hence – ve sign is adopted.

T  T 2  14400 KD
 Vm 
2K

Vm T V 2K
D =  m
3600 3600

3600 Vm T 
K =   D
Vm 2  3600 

 
3600D  Vm 
=  3600D 1
Vm 2  
 T 
 1  1 1  3600 D Vm 
    1
2    Vm 2  Va 

where Va is the average speed.

3600 D
Va 
T

Dis tan ce between the stops

Average Speed 
Actual time of run

Dis tan ce between the stops

Scheduled Speed 
Actual time of run  stop time

Power of the Traction Motor

P = Ft x velocity

F d W
= 
t t

Pmax at D, when tractive effort required before D is maximum and after D is less, as no
acceleration takes place.

Vm  1000
Pmax = Ft. Watts
3600
where Vm = km / hr.

= .278 Ft. Vm

If tractive effort is expressed in Kg

= .278 x Fg x 9.81 Vm

If  be the efficiency of transmission gear, maxm power o/p direction

.278 Fg  9.81 Vm
= Watts, Fg wbs
