The Traditional Square of Opposition

• Contradiction:

A and E propositions are contradictories. If one is true, the other must be false.
For example, "All cats are mammals" (A) and "No cats are mammals" (E) cannot both be true
simultaneously.

• Contrary:

A and E propositions are contraries. Both cannot be true, but they can both be false. For
example, "All cats are mammals" (A) and "No cats are mammals" (E) cannot both be true, but they can
both be false.

• Subcontrary:

I and O propositions are subcontraries. Both cannot be false, but they can both be true.
For example, "Some dogs are brown" (I) and "Some dogs are not brown" (O) cannot both be false, but
they can both be true.

• Subalternation:

A proposition implies its corresponding I proposition, and E proposition implies its

corresponding O proposition. For example, if "All cats are mammals" (A) is true, then "Some cats are
mammals" (I) must also be true.

The traditional square of opposition provides a framework for analyzing the logical relationships
between categorical propositions and is an important tool in traditional Aristotelian logic.

5 rule and fallacies

Rule 1: The middle term must be distributed at least once.

When the middle term is distributed, it allows for a valid inference to be made between the two other
terms (the major term and the minor term). If the middle term is not distributed, it can lead to a fallacy
called the fallacy of the undistributed middle.

Here is an example that violates the rule:

Premise 1: All mammals are animals. Premise 2: Some dogs are mammals. Conclusion: Therefore, some
dogs are animals.

In this example, the middle term "mammals" is not distributed in either of the premises. Therefore, the
conclusion that "some dogs are animals" is invalid.

Rule 2: If a term is distributed in the conclusion, then it must be

distributed in a premise.
This rule ensures that when a term is distributed in the conclusion (referring to all members of its
category), it must have proper support or distribution in at least one of the premises to maintain the
validity of the syllogism.

Here's an example that illustrates this rule:

Premise 1: All cats are mammals. Premise 2: Some mammals are not dogs. Conclusion: Therefore, some
cats are not dogs.

In this example, the term "mammals" is distributed in the conclusion ("some mammals"), indicating that
it refers to all members of the category. The same term "mammals" is also distributed in the first
premise ("All cats are mammals"). Therefore, it adheres to Rule 2 because the distributed term appears
in one of the premises, supporting its distribution in the conclusion.

By following Rule 2, the syllogism maintains its validity, as the distribution of the term "mammals" is
consistent between the conclusion and the premise.

Rule 3: Two negative premises are not allowed.

Fallacy: Exclusive premises.

Example: No fish are mammals.

Some dogs are not fish.

Some dogs are not mammals.

This syllogism may be seen to be invalid because it has true premises and a false

conclusion. The defect is attributable to the fact that it has two negative premises.

Upon reflection, Rule 3 should be fairly obvious. Let ‘‘S,’’ ‘‘P,’’ and ‘‘M’’ once again

designate the minor, major, and middle terms. Now, if the P class and the M class are

separate either wholly or partially, and the S class and the M class are separate either

wholly or partially, nothing is said about the relation between the S class and the P

class. These two classes may be either distinct or identical in whole or in part. Venn

diagrams may be used effectively to illustrate the fact that no conclusion can be validly

drawn from two negative premises.

Rule 4: A negative premise requires a negative conclusion, and a

negative conclusion requires a negative premise.

Fallacy: Drawing an affirmative conclusion from a negative

premise.

or

Drawing a negative conclusion from affirmative premises.

Examples: All crows are birds.

Some wolves are not crows.

Some wolves are birds.

All triangles are three-angled polygons.

All three-angled polygons are three-sided polygons.

Some three-sided polygons are not triangles.

These arguments may be seen to be invalid because each has true premises and a false

conclusion. The first draws an affirmative conclusion from a negative premise, and

the second draws a negative conclusion from affirmative premises.

An alternate formulation of Rule 4 is: Any syllogism having exactly one negative

statement is invalid. Thus, if the conclusion alone is negative, or if one premise is

negative while the other premise and the conclusion are affirmative, the syllogism is

invalid.

Rule 5: If both premises are universal, the conclusion cannot be

particular.

Fallacy: Existential fallacy.

Examples: All mammals are animals.

All unicorns are mammals.

Some unicorns are animals.

All mammals are animals.

All tigers are mammals.

Some tigers are animals.

If a categorical syllogism breaks only Rule 5, it is valid from the Aristotelian standpoint

but not from the Boolean standpoint. The nine syllogistic forms that fall into this

category are those that are included in the ‘‘conditionally valid’’ list in Section 5.1. For

each of these forms, the list specifies one term that must denote existing things before

the syllogism will be valid. In the first example above, the critical term is ‘‘unicorns.’’

If unicorns existed, the syllogism would be valid from the Aristotelian standpoint; but

since they do not exist, it is invalid. It commits the existential fallacy. In the second

example, the critical term is ‘‘tigers.’’ Since tigers exist, the argument is valid from the

Aristotelian standpoint. From the Aristotelian standpoint there is no such thing as an

existential fallacy, and the syllogism breaks no other rules

Role of Logic in Life:

1. Reasoning and Decision Making: Logic provides a framework for reasoning and critical thinking.
It helps individuals analyze information, draw conclusions, and make informed decisions based on sound
reasoning.

2. Problem Solving: Logic is fundamental to problem-solving across various domains. It enables

individuals to break down complex problems into smaller, manageable parts, identify patterns and
relationships, and devise logical strategies to find solutions.

3. Clear Communication: Logic helps in constructing clear and coherent arguments, avoiding
fallacies, and expressing thoughts and ideas in a structured and systematic manner. It enhances effective
communication and facilitates understanding between individuals.

4. Evaluation of Arguments: Logic allows individuals to evaluate the validity and soundness of
arguments by assessing the logical consistency and coherence of the premises and conclusions. It aids in
identifying faulty reasoning and distinguishing between strong and weak arguments.

Role of Logic in Computer Science:

1. Programming and Algorithm Design: Logic forms the foundation of computer programming.
Programmers use logical statements and expressions to create algorithms, define conditions, and control
the flow of execution in software development.
2. Formal Verification: Logic plays a critical role in formal methods and software verification.
Techniques such as model checking and theorem proving rely on logical reasoning to mathematically
analyze and verify the correctness of software systems.

3. Database Management: Logic is used in database systems for query languages, such as SQL,
where logical predicates are employed to retrieve specific data from databases based on given
conditions.

4. Artificial Intelligence: Logic is essential in the field of artificial intelligence (AI). Logical reasoning,
rule-based systems, and formal logic languages like Prolog are used in AI for knowledge representation,
expert systems, automated reasoning, and problem-solving.

5. Circuit Design and Digital Systems: Logic gates and Boolean algebra form the basis of digital
circuits and electronic systems. Logical operators like AND, OR, and NOT are used to design and analyze
digital circuits, ensuring proper functioning and logical operations.