Digital Image Processing Basics

Digital Image Processing means processing digital image by means of a digital computer. We
can also say that it is a use of computer algorithms, in order to get enhanced image either to
extract some useful information. Digital image processing is the use of algorithms and
mathematical models to process and analyze digital images. The goal of digital image processing
is to enhance the quality of images, extract meaningful information from images, and automate
image-based tasks.

The basic steps involved in digital image processing are:

1. Image acquisition: This involves capturing an image using a digital camera or scanner,
or importing an existing image into a computer.
2. Image enhancement: This involves improving the visual quality of an image, such as
increasing contrast, reducing noise, and removing artifacts.
3. Image restoration: This involves removing degradation from an image, such as
blurring, noise, and distortion.
4. Image segmentation: This involves dividing an image into regions or segments, each
of which corresponds to a specific object or feature in the image.
5. Image representation and description: This involves representing an image in a way
that can be analyzed and manipulated by a computer, and describing the features of an
image in a compact and meaningful way.
6. Image analysis: This involves using algorithms and mathematical models to extract
information from an image, such as recognizing objects, detecting patterns, and quantifying
features.
7. Image synthesis and compression: This involves generating new images or
compressing existing images to reduce storage and transmission requirements.
8. Digital image processing is widely used in a variety of applications, including medical
imaging, remote sensing, computer vision, and multimedia.
Image processing mainly include the following steps:
1. Importing the image via image acquisition tools;
2. Analysing and manipulating the image;
3. Output in which result can be altered image or a report which is based on analyzing that
image.
Image Definition: An image is defined as a two-dimensional function, F (x,y), where x and y
are spatial coordinates, and the amplitude of F at any pair of coordinates (x,y) is called
the intensity of that image at that point.
When x,y, and amplitude (intensity or brightness of image) values of F are finite, we call it
a digital image.
In other words, an image can be defined by a two-dimensional array specifically arranged in
rows and columns.
Digital Image is composed of a finite number of elements, each of which elements have a
particular value at a particular location. These elements are referred to as picture
elements ,image elements, and pixels. A Pixel is most widely used to denote the elements of a
Digital Image.
Types of an image
BINARY IMAGE – The binary image as its name suggests, contain only two pixel elements i.e
0 & 1,where 0 refers to black and 1 refers to white. This image is also known as Monochrome.
BLACK AND WHITE IMAGE – The image which consists of only black and white color is
called BLACK AND WHITE IMAGE.
8 bit COLOR FORMAT – It is the most famous image format.It has 256 different shades of
colors in it and commonly known as Grayscale Image. In this format, 0 stands for Black, and 255
stands for white, and 127 stands for gray.
16 bit COLOR FORMAT – It is a color image format. It has 65,536 different colors in it. It is
also known as High Color Format. In this format the distribution of color is not as same as
Grayscale image.
A 16 bit format is actually divided into three further formats which are Red, Green and Blue.
That famous RGB format.
Image as a Matrix
As we know, images are represented in rows and columns we have the following syntax in
which images are represented:
The right side of this equation is digital image by definition. Every element of this matrix is
called image element, picture element, or pixel.
DIGITAL IMAGE REPRESENTATION IN MATLAB:
MATLAB stands for "matrix laboratory". It's a programming language and numeric computing
environment developed by Math Works. MATLAB is used for mathematical work, including
research, development, and analysis. It's a standard instructional tool in universities for courses
in engineering, mathematics, and science.

In MATLAB the start index is from 1 instead of 0. Therefore, f(1,1) = f(0,0).

Hence forth the two representation of image are identical, except for the shift in origin.
In MATLAB, matrices are stored in a variable i.e X, x, input _ image, and so on. The variables
must be a letter as same as other programming languages.
PHASES OF IMAGE PROCESSING:
1. ACQUISITION– It could be as simple as being given an image which is in digital form.
The main work involves:
a) Scaling
b) Color conversion (RGB to Gray or vice-versa)
2. IMAGE ENHANCEMENT– It is amongst the simplest and most appealing in areas of
Image Processing it is also used to extract some hidden details from an image and is
subjective.
3. IMAGE RESTORATION– It also deals with appealing of an image but it is objective
(Restoration is based on mathematical or probabilistic model or image degradation).
4. COLOR IMAGE PROCESSING– It deals with pseudo color and full color image
processing color models are applicable to digital image processing.
5. WAVELETS AND MULTI-RESOLUTION PROCESSING– It is foundation of
representing images in various degrees.
6. IMAGE COMPRESSION-It involves in developing some functions to perform this
operation. It mainly deals with image size or resolution.
7. MORPHOLOGICAL PROCESSING-It deals with tools for extracting image components
that are useful in the representation & description of shape.
8. SEGMENTATION PROCEDURE-It includes partitioning an image into its constituent
parts or objects. Autonomous segmentation is the most difficult task in Image Processing.
9. REPRESENTATION & DESCRIPTION-It follows output of segmentation stage,
choosing a representation is only the part of solution for transforming raw data into processed
data.
10. OBJECT DETECTION AND RECOGNITION-It is a process that assigns a label to an
object based on its descriptor.
OVERLAPPING FIELDS WITH IMAGE PROCESSING

According to block 1, if input is an image and we get out image as an output, then it is termed
as Digital Image Processing.
According to block 2, if input is an image and we get some kind of information or description
as a output, then it is termed as Computer Vision.
According to block 3, if input is some description or code and we get image as an output, then
it is termed as Computer Graphics.
According to block 4, if input is description or some keywords or some code and we get
description or some keywords as a output, then it is termed as Artificial Intelligence.
Advantages of Digital Image Processing:
1. Improved image quality: Digital image processing algorithms can improve the visual
quality of images, making them clearer, sharper, and more informative.
2. Automated image-based tasks: Digital image processing can automate many image-
based tasks, such as object recognition, pattern detection, and measurement.
3. Increased efficiency: Digital image processing algorithms can process images much
faster than humans, making it possible to analyze large amounts of data in a short amount
of time.
4. Increased accuracy: Digital image processing algorithms can provide more accurate
results than humans, especially for tasks that require precise measurements or quantitative
analysis.
Disadvantages of Digital Image Processing:
1. High computational cost: Some digital image processing algorithms are
computationally intensive and require significant computational resources.
2. Limited interpretability: Some digital image processing algorithms may produce
results that are difficult for humans to interpret, especially for complex or sophisticated
algorithms.
3. Dependence on quality of input: The quality of the output of digital image processing
algorithms is highly dependent on the quality of the input images. Poor quality input
images can result in poor quality output.
4. Limitations of algorithms: Digital image processing algorithms have limitations, such
as the difficulty of recognizing objects in cluttered or poorly lit scenes, or the inability to
recognize objects with significant deformations or occlusions.
5. Dependence on good training data: The performance of many digital image
processing algorithms is dependent on the quality of the training data used to develop the
algorithms. Poor quality training data can result in poor performance of the algorithm.
Components of an Image Processing System
The components of an image processing system differ depending on the type of image, for
example, satellite images and x-ray images cannot be processed by the same type of image
processing system. However, the following components are the minimum requirement of an
image processing system as shown in Fig. 1.
Processing Machine (Computer): It may be a general-purpose computer according to task to be
performed. The basic use of this device is that it will perform all digital image processing tasks
off-line. Storage Device: Storage devices are used for storing of original and processed images
for different purposes and use.
Display Device: It is used for displaying data. Example of a display device is generally a colour
monitor.
Image Processing Software: Image processing software such as IGIS, ERDAS, ENVI and
Geomatica are specially designed programming modules that perform specific tasks on remotely
sensed images.
Printing Device: It is used for representing and storing image data in hard copy format. It could
be laser, inkjet or any other printer.

Fig: 1. Block diagram showing different components of a digital image processing system.
It is important to note that following factors should be considered while selecting a digital image
processing system:
Number of Analysts and Mode of Operation: You should consider a software which could be
accessed and interactively used for data processing by at least the number of people involved in
the study.
Memory and Processing Specifications of Computer: Processing of different types of digital
remote sensing data require different processing capabilities and memory. You should choose
software that is compatible with the specifications of computer. You can use a computer having
at least or better than the minimum specification that is required to process the data of your
interest.
Operating System: The operating system must be powerful and easy to use. MS-DOS, UNIX
and WINDOW’s are the most universally used operating systems, though MS-DOS is no longer
relevant. The chosen image processing software and hardware should be compatible with the
operating system in your computer.
Storage: Digital images are stored usually in matrix form with various multispectral bands and
in different formats. Image processing software which is capable of storing and processing the
concerned image formats should be considered.
Display Resolution: Different image types require different display resolution hence you should
consider software which is capable of handling highest resolution.
Steps in Digital Image Processing: It is now apparent to you that the subject of digital image
processing is very broad. For your understanding, we can generalize the image processing into
following four basic steps (Fig. 2):
 Image Pre-processing

 Image Enhancement

 Image Transformation

 Image Classification

 Accuracy Assessment

The DIP aids in generating thematic maps and decision-making process (Fig. 2).
 Steps of Digital Image Processing

IMAGE PRE-PROCESSING

Remotely sensed image data are obtained from the imaging sensors mounted on satellite
platforms. This data contains raw images, which are susceptible to a variety of distortions that
have to be corrected before making them suitable for any application. Distortions can affect the
values recorded by the sensors in different wavelengths. As a result, they affect the geometry of
the pixel, alignment of an image with other images and reference maps. Thus, it becomes
important for us to know types of these distortions and their effects of on the images.
Image Distortions: Any kind of errors present in remote sensing images are described as image
distortions. These distortions occur due to data recording procedure, shape and rotation of the
Earth and environmental conditions prevailing at the time of data acquisition. Distortions
occurring in remote sensing images can be categorized into two types:
• Radiometric distortions
• Geometric distortions.
Radiometric distortions: These distortions refer to the incorrect values in the pixels (i.e.,
variation in the pixel intensities) recorded in an image irrespective of the object or scene being
scanned and resultant distortions are known as radiometric distortions. The recorded values get
distorted due to one or more of the following factors:
• Sensor ageing
• Random malfunctioning of the sensor elements
• Atmospheric interference at the time of image acquisition and
• Topographic effects.
Geometric distortions: These distortions usually occur when actual geometry of an
object/spatial feature is not properly captured in an image. As a consequence, distance, area,
direction and shape properties of objects vary across an image and these errors are known as
geometric errors/distortions. These distortions are inherent in images because we attempt to
represent three-dimensional Earth surface as a two-dimensional image. Further, the images are
captured of a moving target (Earth) with a camera mounted on a moving platform (satellite). The
relative motion between the camera and target also results in geometric distortion. Geometric
errors originate during the process of data collection and vary in type and magnitude. There are
several factors causing geometric distortions such as:
• Earth’s rotation
• Earth’s curvature
• Satellite platform instability
• Instrument error
Image Corrections: Raw remote sensing images always contain significant amount of
distortions, they cannot be used directly for image analysis. The image correction involves image
processing operations which normally precede manipulation and analysis of image data to extract
specific information.
  The primary aim of image correction operations is to correct distorted image data to
create a more accurate representation of the original scene. Image corrections are also
known as preprocessing of remotely sensed images.
 It is a preparatory phase that improves quality of images and serves as a basis for further
image analysis. Depending upon the kinds of errors which are present in images, the
image correction functions are comprised radiometric and geometric corrections. Both of
these corrections are made prior to actual use of remote sensing data in resource
management, environmental monitoring and change detection applications by application
scientists.
 Image correction generates a corrected image, which is both radiometrically and
geometrically as close as to the radiant energy characteristics of the original scene.
Complete chain of processing of remote sensing images is shown in Fig. 3. It becomes
clear from this figure that image correction forms an integral part of processing of
images.

Fig.3 Chain of broad steps in remote sensing data processing.

Radiometric Correction: It attempts to improve the accuracy of measurements made by remote

sensors pertaining to the spectral reflectance or emittance or back-scatter from the objects on the
Earth surface. The radiometric correction involves the removal of radiometric distortions or
errors from the image. The internal and external errors are two main types of the radiometric
errors.
Internal errors are introduced by the electronics themselves. These kinds of errors are also
known as systematic errors because of their systematic nature. These errors can be modelled,
identified and corrected based on laboratory calibration or in-flight measurements.
External errors are a result of phenomena that vary in nature through space and time and hence
are also known as non-systematic errors. External variables such as atmospheric disturbances,
steep terrain undulations can cause remote sensor data to exhibit radiometric and geometric
errors.
Correction of radiometric errors requires knowledge about EMR principles and the interactions
that take place during data acquisition process. The radiometric correction can benefit from the
terrain information such as slope and aspect and advanced information like bi-directional
reflectance distribution function characteristics of the scene. There are several techniques to
remove radiometric errors from the image. However, it is found that radiometric correction
procedures can be time consuming and at times problematic.
Geometric Correction: Geometric correction is the process of correcting geometric distortions
and assigning properties of a map to an image (Fig. 4). It involves preprocessing of the remotely
sensed images and removal of geometric distortion so that individual pixels are placed in their
proper map locations. This allows remote sensing derived information to be related to other
thematic information in Geographical Information System (GIS) or Spatial Decision Support
Systems (SDSS). Geometrically corrected imagery can be used to extract accurate distance,
polygon area and direction (bearing) information.

Fig. 4: Landsat 7 FCC images of the Kangra region, Himachal Pradesh, India (A) Before and (B)
After geometric correction.

Geometric errors present in remote sensing images can be categorised into internal or systematic
and external or non-systematic geometric errors. Internal geometric errors are introduced by the
sensor system itself and/or by the effects of Earth’s rotation and curvature. These errors are
predictable or computable and often referred to as systematic that can be identified and corrected
using pre-launch or platform ephemeris. Reasons of geometric distortions causing internal
geometric errors in remote sensing images include the following:
 Skew caused by the Earth’s rotation effects.

 Scanning system induced variation in ground resolution cell size and dimensional relief
displacement.

 Scanning system tangential scale distortion.

External geometric errors are usually introduced by phenomena that vary in nature through
space and time. The most important external variables that can cause geometric error in remote
sensor data are random movements by the spacecraft at exact time of data collection, which
usually involve:
 Altitude changes
 Attitude changes (yaw, roll and pitch).
There are several methods used to remove the geometric errors. It may be noted that systematic
geometric error is generally easier to identify and correct than non-systematic or random
geometric error.
IMAGE ENHANCEMENT: Different errors/distortions affect the quality of remotely sensed
data and are removed by using image correction techniques. After that you can extract usable
information from an image that has been corrected for radiometric and geometric errors. Visual
interpretation of remote sensing images is one of the most powerful ways to retrieve information.
Depending on the quality of image and human expertise in image interpretation, many of the
attributes are readily identified by human eyes. However, at times it is required to highlight
(enhance) certain features of interest in images to make the image better interpretable. This is
achieved by a technique known as image enhancement.
Image enhancement simply refers to the techniques used to increase the human interpretability
and ability to derive meaningful information from remotely sensed images. It improves the
quality and clarity of images.
 The enhancement operations include enhancing contrast and suppressing noise, for
revealing details to a human interpreter. For example, image enhancement of a blurred
and low contrast satellite image of the Himalayan Mountains could be made clear by
increasing contrast range in the original image.
  The original image might have areas of very high and very low intensity, which mask
details. The enhanced image will have improved contrast providing details of the masked
image regions.
 It is important to know that the removal of blur is known as digital image restoration. It
requires knowledge of the point spread function of the source of blur. It is a highly formal
and mathematical model based process while image enhancement is often subjective, to
suit the liking of the interpreter.
 The primary goal of image enhancement is to improve the visual interpretability of the
images. This is done by increasing the apparent distinction between features in the image.
Image enhancement involves use of a number of statistical and image manipulation
functions available in an image processing software. Image features are enhanced by the
following two operations:
1. Point Operations: In this operation, value of pixel is enhanced independent of
characteristics of neighbourhood pixels within each band. Image enhancement techniques
based on point operations are used for contrast enhancement.
2. Local (Neighbourhood) Operations: In this operation, value of pixel is modified based
on neighbouring brightness values. The image processing techniques based on
neighbourhood operations are also known as spatial enhancement techniques.
IMAGE TRANSFORMATION: Image transformation involves manipulation of multiple
bands of data, from a single multispectral image or from two or more images of the same area
acquired at different times. In this process, a raw image or several sets of images undergo some
mathematical treatment to achieve a new imagery (Fig. 5). As a consequence, new resultant
transformed image generated from two
or more sources highlights particular features or properties of interest better than original input
images. Hence, the transformed image may have properties that make it more suited to a
particular purpose than original input images.
There are several transforms namely, Fourier transform, wavelet transform, or textural transform
that are applied to a single band or the panchromatic image. Therefore, it is essential to quality
the operations involving more than one band as multiband transformations or multiband
operations. Image transformation by itself does not imply that it requires multiple bands.
Fig.5. Landsat 7 FCC images of Kangra region, Himachal Pradesh, India: (A) Before; and
(B) After Normalised Difference Vegetation Index transformation.
Multiband transformation techniques are useful for compressing bands having similar kind of
information into fewer bands and also to extract new bands of data that are more interpretable to
human eye. Such operation is also known as spectral enhancement method. It is important to
note that these transformation techniques require more than one band of data. There are a number
of multiband transformation techniques available, in which arithmetic operations and image
fusion are the two common techniques used for image transformation.
IMAGE CLASSIFICATION: Different image correction, enhancement and transformation
techniques, which help us to better visualize and interpret remotely sensed images. It may be
noted that all these techniques aid in providing only better visual information and, therefore,
have limited utility. Now, we will move a step further and will learn how to make more sense of
the landscape/image by dividing it into separate classes based on surface characteristics. This
process is known as image classification. It involves conversion of image data into finite set of
classes that represent surface types in the imagery. It may be used to identify vegetation types,
anthropogenic structures, mineral resources, etc. or transient changes in any of these features.
Additionally, classified remotely sensed image can be converted to vector features (e.g.,
polygons) in order to compare with other data sets or to calculate spatial attributes (e.g., area,
perimeter, etc.). Image classification is a very active field of study broadly related to the field of
pattern recognition
Image classification is the process of assigning spectral classes into information classes. Spectral
classes are groups of pixels that are uniform with respect to their brightness values in different
spectral channels of data. Information classes are categories of interest that an analyst attempts to
identify in the image on the basis of his knowledge and experience about the area. For example,
a remote sensing image contains spectral signatures of several features present on the ground
covered by pixels of DN values in different spectral bands. An interpreter or analyst identifies
homogeneous groups of pixels having similar values and labels the groups as information classes
such as water, agriculture, forest, etc. while generating a thematic map. When this thematic
information is extracted with the help of software, it is known as digital image classification.
It is important to note that there could be many spectral classes within an information class
depending upon the nature of features the image represents or the purpose of the classification. In
other words, different spectral classes may be grouped under one information class. In short, we
can define image classification as a process of assigning all pixels in the image to particular
classes or themes based on spectral information represented by the digital numbers. The
classified image comprises a mosaic of pixels, each of which belongs to a particular theme and is
a thematic map of the original image.
There are two general approaches to image classification:
• Supervised Classification: It is the process of identification of classes within a remote sensing
data with inputs from and as directed by the user in the form of training data.
• Unsupervised Classification: It is the process of automatic identification of natural groups or
structures within a remote sensing data, without considering their thematic class labels.
Both the classification approaches differ in the way the classification is performed. In the case of
supervised classification, specific land cover types are delineated based on statistical
characterization of sample data drawn from known examples in the image (known as training
sites). In unsupervised classification, however, clustering algorithms are used to uncover the
commonly occurring land cover types, with the analyst providing interpretations of those cover
types at a later stage. The underlying assumption for this approach is that spectrally similar
pixels are also commonly found in physical proximity of each other. Merits and demerits of both
the supervised and unsupervised classification methods are summarized in Table 14.1
Merits and demerits of supervised and unsupervised classification methods.

ACCURACY ASSESSMENT: Once you have a prepared a thematic map using image
classification, the next step is that you would want to know how much accurate those outputs are
because inaccuracies in outputs will have their bearing on the map’s utility and users would have
greater confidence in utilising data if its accuracy is high
Accuracy assessment is the final step in the analysis of remote sensing data which helps us to
verify how accurate our results are. It is carried out once the interpretation/classification has been
completed. Here, we are interested in assessing accuracy of thematic maps or classified images
which is known as thematic or classification accuracy. The accuracy is concerned with the
correspondence between class label and ‘true’ class. A ‘true’ class is defined as what is observed
on the ground during field surveys. For example, a class labeled as water on a classified
image/map is actually water on the ground.
In order to perform accuracy assessment correctly, we need to compare two sources of
information which include:
 Interpreted map/classified image derived from the remote sensing data and
 Reference map, high resolution images or ground truth data.
Numerical reporting of the classification accuracy requires a separate ground truth data set
(labeled pixel sets belonging to different classes) that is different from the training data set.
Relationship between these two sets of information is commonly expressed in two forms,
namely:
 Error matrix that describes the comparison of these two sources of information.
 Kappa coefficient which consists of a multivariate measure of agreement between rows and
columns of error matrix.
Without performing the essential measures to evaluate the accuracy or validity of the map, a map
created utilizing remotely sensed data or other spatial data cannot be considered the finished
product. Visual inspection, non-site-specific analysis, creating difference images, error budget
analysis, and quantitative accuracy assessment are just a few of the techniques available to
analyze accuracy/error in spatial data
Digital Image Interpretation
 Digital image interpretation involves computer-based manipulation of the original digital
images to enhance their quality so that more information can be extracted from them.
 Digital image interpretation only enhances the visualization of the image for extracting more
accurate information but it cannot add more information than what the original image already
has.
 Processing machine (computer), storage device, display device, image processing software and
printing device are the main components of an image processing system.
 Image pre-processing, image enhancement, image transformation, image classification and
accuracy assessment are the main steps in digital image processing.
 Any kind of errors present in remote sensing images are described as image distortions and
radiometric and geometric distortions are two main types image distortions.
 Image correction involves the removal of distortions in the image data to create a more
accurate representation of the original scene.
 Image enhancement is the technique used to increase the human interpretability and ability to
derive meaningful information from remotely sensed images.
 Multiband image transformation involves manipulation of multiple bands of data, from a single
multispectral image or from two or more images of the same area acquired at different times.
 Image classification is the technique is used to divide into separate thematic classes based on
surface characteristics.
 Accuracy assessment is the final step in the analysis of remote sensing data which help us to
verify how accurate our results or thematic maps are.
Image interpretation & analysis

In order to take advantage of and make good use of remote sensing data, we must be able to
extract meaningful information from the imagery. This brings us to the topic of discussion in this
chapter - interpretation and analysis - the sixth element of the remote sensing process which
we defined in Chapter 1. Interpretation and analysis of remote sensing imagery involves the
identification and/or measurement of various targets in an image in order to extract useful
information about them. Targets in remote sensing images may be any feature or object which
can be observed in an image, and have the following characteristics:
 Targets may be a point, line, or area feature. This means that they can have any form,
from a bus in a parking lot or plane on a runway, to a bridge or roadway, to a large
expanse of water or a field.
 The target must be distinguishable; it must contrast with other features around it in the
image.
 Much interpretation and identification of targets in remote sensing imagery is performed
manually or visually, i.e. by a human interpreter. In many cases this is done using
imagery displayed in a pictorial or photograph-type format, independent of what type of
sensor was used to collect the data and how the data were collected. In this case we refer

to the data as being in analog format. As we discussed in Chapter 1, remote sensing

images can also be represented in a computer as arrays of pixels, with each pixel
corresponding to a digital number, representing the brightness level of that pixel in the
image. In this case, the data are in a digital format. Visual interpretation may also be
performed by examining digital imagery displayed on a computer screen. Both analogue
and digital imagery can be displayed as black and white (also called monochrome)
images, or as colour images (refer back to Chapter 1, Section 1.7) by combining different
channels or bands representing different wavelengths.
 When remote sensing data are available in digital format, digital processing and
analysis may be performed using a computer. Digital processing may be used to enhance
data as a prelude to visual interpretation. Digital processing and analysis may also be
carried out to automatically identify targets and extract information completely without
manual intervention by a human interpreter. However, rarely is digital processing and
analysis carried out as a complete replacement for manual interpretation. Often, it is done
to supplement and assist the human analyst.
Image interpretation of remote sensing data is to extract qualitative and quantitative information
from the photograph or imagery. It involves identification of various objects on the terrain which
may be natural or artificial consists of points, lines, or polygons. It depends on the way how
different features reflect or emits the incident electromagnetic radiation and their recording by a
camera or sensor.
In image or photograph, some objects may be readily identifiable while other may not. It
depends on individual perceptions and experience. The detail to which an image or photograph
can be analyzed depends on the resolution of the image and scale of the photograph. Satellite
images are generally have small scale than aerial photographs and cannot be analyzed
stereoscopically.
Elements of Visual Interpretation
In our daily life we interpret many photos and images, but interpretation of aerial photographs
and images are different because of three important aspects: (1) the portrayal of features from an
overhead, often unfamiliar, perspective; (2) the frequent use of wavelengths outside of the visible
portion of the spectrum; and (3) the depiction of the earth’s surface at unfamiliar scales and.
Eight fundamental parameters or elements are used in the interpretation of remote sensing
images or photographs. These are tone or color, texture, size, shape, pattern, shadow, site and
association. In some cases, a single such element is alone sufficient for successful identification;
in others, the use of several elements will be required.

Ordering of image elements in image interpretation.

A. Basic, first order elements of image interpretation
i) Tone or color: Tone is the relative brightness of grey level on black and white image or
color/F.C.C image. Tone is the measure of the intensity of the reflected or emitted radiation of
the objects of the terrain. Lower reflected objects appear relatively dark and higher reflected
objects appear bright. Figure 9.1a represents a band imaged in NIR region of the electromagnetic
spectrum. Rivers does not reflect in NIR region thus appear black and the vegetation reflects
much thus appears bright. Our eyes can discriminate only 16-20 grey levels in the black and
white photograph, while more than hundreds of color can be distinguished in a color photograph.
In multispectral imaging, optimal three bands are used to generate color composite image. False
Color Composite (FCC) using NIR, red and green are most preferred combination for visual
interpretation. In a standard FCC, NIR band passes through red channel, red band passes through
green channel and green band passes through blue channel. Vegetation reflects much in NIR
region of the electromagnetic spectrum therefore in standard FCC vegetation appears red (Fig.
9.1b), which is more suitable in vegetation identification.

Satellite image of area in (a) grey scale and in (b) standard FCC.
B. Second order — Geometric Arrangements of Objects
i) Texture: Texture refers to the frequency of tonal variation in an image. Texture is produced
by an aggregate unit of features which may be too small to be clearly discerned individually on
the image. It depends on shape, size, pattern and shadow of terrain features. Texture is always
scale or resolution dependent. Same reflected objects may have difference in texture helps in
their identification. As an example in a high resolution image grassland and tree crowns have
similar tone, but grassland will have smooth texture compared to tree. Smooth texture refers to
less tonal variation and rough texture refers to abrupt tonal variation in an imagery or
photograph.
 High resolution image showing different textures.
The similar kinds of reflectance/colour (green) appear throughout the image, three distinct land
cover types can be seen from image texture. Triangular patch at the bottom left corner is the
plantation which has rough texture where individual trees can be seen. Right side on top of
image, the trees are closer together and tree canopies merge together, forming medium textural
pattern and at the right bottom corner with smooth texture indicating that it is probably an open
field with short grass.
ii) Pattern: Pattern refers to the spatial arrangement of the objects. Objects both natural and
manmade have a pattern which aids in their recognition. The repetition of certain general form or
relationship in tones and texture creates a pattern, which is characteristic of this element in image
interpretation. In the Fig. 9.3 it could be easily understood that at the left bottom corner of the
image, it is plantation, where the tress are nearly equally spaced. Whereas at the upper right and
bottom right corners show natural vegetation.
iii) Size: Size of objects on images must be considered in the context of the image scale or
resolution. It is important to assess the size of a target relative to other objects in the scene, as
well as the absolute size, to aid in the interpretation of that target. A quick approximation of
target size can make direct interpretation to an appropriate result more quickly. The most
measured parameters are length, width, perimeter, area, and occasionally volume. For example,
if an interpreter had to distinguish zones of land use, and had identified an area with a number of
buildings in it, large buildings such as factories or warehouses would suggest commercial
property, whereas small buildings would indicate residential use.

Satellite view of a part of a city.

iv) Shape: Shape refers to the general form, configuration or outline of an individual object.
Shape is one of the most important single factors for recognizing object from an image.
Generally regular shapes, squares, rectangles, circles are signs of man-made objects, e.g.,
buildings, roads, and cultivated fields, whereas irregular shapes, with no distinct geometrical
pattern are signs of a natural environment, e.g., a river, forest. In a general case of
misinterpretation in between roads and train line: roads can have sharp turns, joints
perpendicularly, but rails line does not. From the shape of the following image, it can be easily
said that the dark-blue colored object is a river.

Satellite image of an area

C. Third order — Location or Positional Elements
i) Shadow: Shadow is a helpful element in image interpretation. It also creates difficulties for
some objects in their identification in the image. Knowing the time of photography, we can
estimate the solar elevation/illumination, which helps in height estimation of objects. The outline
or shape of a shadow affords an impression of the profile view of objects. But objects within
shadow become difficult to interpret. Shadow is also useful for enhancing or identifying
topography and landforms, particularly in radar imagery.

Shadow of objects used for interpretation.

ii) Association: Association refers to the occurrence of certain features in relation to others
objects in the imagery. In urban area a smooth vegetation pattern generally refers to a play
ground or grass land not agricultural land (Fig 9.7).

Satellite image of an urban area

iii) Site: Site refers to topographic or geographic location. It is also an important element in
image interpretation when objects are not clearly identified using the previous the elements. A
very high reflectance feature in the Himalayan valley may be snow or cloud, but in Kerala one
cannot say it as snow.
iv) Height : Height can add significant information in many types of interpretation tasks;
particularly those that deal with the analysis of man-made features. How tall a tree is can tell
something about board feet. How deep an excavation can tell something about the amount of
material that was removed (in some mining operations excavators are paid on the basis of
material removed as determined by photogrammetric analysis). High rise buildings with
symmetry of windows and parking arrangements shows residential (figure 9).

High rise buildings with parking arrangements

Interpretation Keys
The criterion for identification of an object with interpretation elements is called an
interpretation key. The image interpretation depends on the interpretation key which an
experienced interpreter has established from prior knowledge and utilizes in the interpretation of
the current images. It provides guidance about the correct identification of features or conditions
on the images. Generally, eight standardized keys are established to eliminate the difference
between different interpreters. The eight interpretation elements are: size, shape, shadow, tone,
colour, texture, pattern, and association. For agricultural and tree species identification a number
of keys have been successfully employed used on a region-by-region and season-by-season
basis, as vegetation can widely vary depending on location and season. Besides these, the time
the photograph is taken, film type, and photo-scale should be carefully considered while
developing interpretation keys.
 The Table 1 shows an example of interpretation keys for forestry mapping. The keys are
specified with respect to the crown’s shape, rim shape of the crown, tone, shadow, projected, tree
shape, pattern, texture, and other factors.
Table 1: Interpretation keys for forestry mapping

Edge of
Species Crown shape Tone Pattern Texture
Crown

Conical with sharp Circular and

Dark Spotted grain Hard and coarse
Cedar spear sharp

Dark but
Conical with Circular but
Cypress lighter than Spotted Hard and fine
round crown not sharp
cedar

Cylindrical with Circular but Light and Irregularly

Pine Soft but coarse
shapeless crown unclear unclear spotted

Conical with Circular with Lighter than

Larch Spotted Soft and fine
unclear crown unclear edge cypress

Conical with wide Circular with Dark and

Fir/spruce Irregular Coarse
crown zig-zag edge clear

Deciduous Irregular shapes Unclear Lighter Irregular Coarse

Generation of Thematic Maps

An image interpretation map is usually produced by transferring the interpreted information to a
base map which has been prepared in advance. The requirements of the base map should be as
follows:
1. Proper map scale to enable appropriate presentation of interpreted information.
2. Geographic coordinate system to establish the geographic reference.
3. Basic map information to be printed in light tones as background which results in
enhancement of interpreted information
Normally, a topographic map (Toposheet), plan map, or orthophotomap is used as a base map.
A topographic map with a scale of 1:50,000 to 1:250,000 is usually the preferable base map for
higher resolution satellite image interpretation. For oceanographic purposes or marine science, a
scale of 1:50,000 to 1:500,000 may be used as the base map.
Orthophotomap are more easily used by cartographers for the transfer of interpreted information.
For example, in case of forest classification.
The methods of transfer of information to a base map are as follows:
 The interpreted image is traced on to a base map by overlaying on a light table.
 The interpreted image is projected via a lens and a mirror onto a base map optical
projection. The optical zoom transfer scope or mirror projector is very useful for image
interpretation.
 Using grid system grid lines are drawn on both image and base map. Then the
interpreted information in a grid on the image is transferred to the corresponding grid
on the map.
 Photogrammetric plotting aerial photographs are interpreted into a thematic map using
a photogrammetric plotter.
Steps to prepare thematic maps using visual interpretation
Step 1: Acquisition of data
 Standard false color composite made of green, red and infrared bands of RS data of two
seasons Kharif (June-September) and Rabi (October – March).
 Ancillary data – Topographical maps (As per the requirement i.e. 1:250,000 or 1:50,000
scale).
Step 2: Preliminary Interpretation
 Check the area to be interpreted is covered on RS data.
 Spread the satellite imagery on a light table and fix it firmly.
 Orient the imagery with respect to SOI map corresponding to the scene, with
reference to latitudes and longitudes marked on the imagery and physical and
cultural features.
 Cut to the size of the imagery the artian tracing sheet or polyester tracing sheet
(rough surface facing top) or acetate base film and fix it on the scene with
transparent tape.
  For interpretation use ordinary pencil (HB or H)
 At the bottom corner, note latitude, longitude from scene, date and year of
scene. Scene path-row number, name of district, state etc.
Step 3: Final Interpretation
 Identify and recognize the different land use / land cover, on the imagery based
on image characteristics, for correct classification of land use, refer
classification system.
 Considering the general interpretation key for land use land cover, develop a
separate interpretation key for the specific area under study.
 After identification of a category, delineate and map it on transparent over lay,
for better clarity and discernibility, use magnifying lens.
 To minimize doubtful area, use other satellite images, information from
topographical maps, forest maps or any other maps available.
 Use numerical or alphabetical notation or colours to each of the land use / land
cover classes delineated.
 Land use / land cover categories having similar spectral signature, appearing
side by side require detail ground verification.
 Minimum mapping unit is 3 mm x 3 mm, all details less than the minimum
mapping units are excluded from mapping, for better visual separation and
cartographic representation.
Step 4: Transfer of details on to the base map
 Transfer the interpreted details on to a base map prepared from topographic
map. Transfer notified forest boundaries on to the base map.
 Finalize the map after incorporating post field data.
Step 5: Area Calculation
 Calculate area of different land use / land cover categories either using a
millimeter Polythene graph sheet and / or a planimeter.
  For better consistency and accuracy of area calculation, repeat the operation at
least thrice and select the average of the two nearest values.
 Compute the area both in square km and in hectares, also calculate percentage.
Generation of Cartographic Quality map
i. Retrace the map on a new transparent sheet using appropriate rotring pens.
ii. Prepare the fair drawing original, with proper legend, scale, north arrow etc.
Interpretation aids: On the basis of tasks to be carried out, visual interpretation aids
can be classified into three categories viz. Aids for viewing including enhancement,
transfer of detail and measurement. Interpretation aids can also be classified as
equipment for monoscopic viewing and stereo viewing. It should however be pointed
out that the categorization is not rigid as certain equipment can be classified into more
than one category particularly some of the projection devices which can be used for
both viewing and transfer of details. Some of the equipments have become obsolete
due to availability of high quality and cost effective FCC data products. In context of
land use/cover the aids used only for transferring of details have been discussed here.
Basically the equipment in this category are meant for delineating the details from
image to a map on the same scale or different scale. These devices employ the means
for simultaneous viewing of both the image and the map. There are following three
types of equipments which are commonly used for mapping i.e. HME, LFOE,
PROCOM and light tables. First two types come under the optical projection types
instruments. The schematic presentation if interpretation process is shown in figure
High magnification enlarger (HME): HME is developed at SAC is a versatile aid
for visual interpretation of remotely sensed data in the form of transparencies. i.e.
B/W or FCC dia-positives. Enlargements upto 20 times are possible in this instrument
thus enabling a 1:1million dia-positives such as LANDSAT TM transparency to be
enlarged up to the scale of 1:50 000 corresponding to SOI topographic sheets. Even
high magnifications have also been attempted with this equipment comparison.
Projection of the image is carried out on a table attached to the equipment on which a
map can be fixed for registration with image and also a tracing film for the
preparation of a thematic map.
Large format optical enlarger(LFOE): Large format optical enlarger has also been
developed at SAC .It is used for two and four times enlargement of 240mm
diapstives.1:1M scale images such as LANDSAT TM and MSS data can be enlarged
upto the scale of 1:250 000 scale corresponding to SOI topographical scale at this
scale . IRS LISS II images at 1:500 000 scale can be enlarged to a scale of 1:250 000
using a LFOE having capability of two times enlargements. It can also project multi-
spectral images in 70 mm format for easy comparison.
Light tables: In addition to the instruments used for optical projection an interpretation aid used
for delineation of features from hardcopy paper prints are light tables. Interpretation
corresponding to the scale of paper print can be carried out. Handling of images for interpretation
is relatively easier using light tables.

Fig.10: Schematic Presentation of the Interpretation Process.

Techniques of Photographic/Image Interpretation
1. Collateral Material: A review of all existing source material that pertains to a given
area, process, type of facility or object, can aid in the interpretation process. The use of
collateral material may also result in a better definition of the scope, objectives and
problems associated with a given project. Also called “ancillary data”, collateral material
may come in the form of text, tables, maps, graphs, or image metadata. Census data, a
map or description of the flora of a given area, a land use map, meteorological statistics,
or agricultural crop reports can all be used in support of a given interpretation. Basically,
 collateral material represents data/information that an interpreter may use to aid in the
interpretation process. Material contained within a Geographic Information System (GIS)
that is used to assist an interpreter in an analysis task can be considered collateral data.
Two classes of collateral materials deserve special mention:
Interpretation keys and Field verification.
Interpretation Keys: An interpretation key is a set of guidelines used to assist interpreters in
rapidly identifying features. Determination of the type of key and the method of presentation to
be employed will depend upon,
a) The number of objects or conditions to be identified.
b) The variability typically encountered within each class of features or objects within the key.
Some authors say that as a general rule, keys are more easily constructed and used for the
identification of man-made objects and features than for natural vegetation and landforms. For
analysis of natural features, training and field experience are often essential to achieve consistent
results. Basically, an interpretation key helps the interpreter organize the information present in
image form and guides him/her to the correct identification of unknown objects. Keys can be
used in conjunction with any type of remotely sensed data. Such keys can differ from those
employed in other disciplines in that they can consist largely of illustrations, e.g. landforms,
industrial facilities, military installations. Many types of keys are already available, if you can
find or get your hands on them. This can often be very difficult and a reason why people develop
their own keys.
Depending upon the manner in which the diagnostic features are organized, two types of keys are
generally recognized.
1) Selective keys
2) Elimination keys.
Selective keys are arranged in such a way that an interpreter simply selects that example that
most closely corresponds to the object they are trying to identify, e.g. industries, landforms etc.
Elimination Keys are arranged so that the interpreter follows a precise step-wise process that
leads to the elimination of all items except the one(s) that they are is trying to identify.
Dichotomous keys are essentially a class of elimination key. Most interpreters prefer to use
elimination keys in their analyses.
3 Field Verification: Field verification can be considered as form of collateral material because
it is typically conducted to assist in the analysis process. Essentially, this is the process of
familiarizing the interpreter with the area or type of feature. This type of verification is done
prior to the interpretation to develop a visual “signature” of how the feature(s) of interest appear
on the ground. After an interpretation is made field verification can be conducted to verify
accuracy. The nature, amount, timing, method of acquisition, and data integration procedures
should be carefully thought out.