02/03/2015

Module 7 Maintenance Practices Avionics

Topic 7.3.6 Electrical Test Equipment

INTRODUCTION

On completion of this topic you should be able to:

7.3.6.1 State the function and use of general electrical test equipment and
explain their operation.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 2

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ELECTRICAL MEASURING EQUIPMENTS

The common electrical measuring instruments are:

• Ammeter
• Voltmeter
• Ohmmeter
• Wattmeter
Digital and analog are the two general types of
meters currently in use in modern aircraft.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 3

D’ARSONVAL METER MOVEMENT

D’Arsonval meter movement is the basic DC type of meter

movement used in the ammeter, voltmeter, and ohmmeter.
Pointer deflection proportional to current through its moving coil.
Reference magnetic field is created by a horseshoe-shaped
permanent magnet and concentrated by a cylindrical keeper in
centre of open end.
Slotted screw on front of case is for ‘zero adjustment’ of pointer.

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PERMANENT MAGNET MOVING COIL

(PMMC) METER

PMMC meter is based on the D’Arsonval meter movement.

Coil of wire is wound on aluminum frame (bobbin) supported by jeweled bearings.
Hairspring – returns coil to original position when NO current through it.
Also tends to resist movement when there is current through the coil.
As current through coil increases – farther coil will move – good basis for a meter.
Pointer attached to coil – scale marked to indicate amount of current through coil.
2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 5

PMMC METER

2 features are used to increase accuracy and efficiency of the meter movement:
• Iron core is placed inside the coil to concentrate the magnetic fields
• Curved pole pieces are attached to the permanent magnet to ensure that the
turning force on coil increases steadily as current increases

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METER RATINGS AND TERMS

Full-scale current - the amount of current

that flows through the meter coil to
cause a full scale deflection.
Meter resistance - the total internal
resistance of a meter.
Sensitivity of meter - the reciprocal value
of the full-scale current and represents
the total amount of resistance for each
volt needed to produce a full-scale
current.

A meter with the sensitivity of 10,000

ohms per volt requires 100 micro-amps
of current to move the pointer full scale.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 7

DC AMMETER

An ammeter is a device that measures

current.
When connecting a DC ammeter to
circuit:
• +ve terminal / lead (usually red) to
+ve side of circuit.
• -ve terminal / lead (usually black
or blue) to –ve.
Always connected in series with the
circuit path to test.
Caution: Connecting an ammeter with
incorrect polarity or in parallel with the
power supply or the power consuming
load may destroy the meter.
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AMMETER SHUNTS

To measure currents larger than full

scale deflection a shunt resistor in
parallel with the meter is used.
The load current flowing through a
shunt produces a voltage drop that
is proportional to the current.
Shunts are designed to carry a
fixed high proportion of the current
to be measured, say 99% or 99.9%
compared to 1% or 0.1% through
the meter coil.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 9

AMMETER SHUNT RESISTANCE

Suppose a standard D’Arsonval meter movement has a current sensitivity of

1mA and an internal resistance (Rm) of 50Ω.
Now if you use this 1mA meter to measure a 10mA circuit, a shunt resistor will
be inserted.
To calculate the value of shunt resistance (Rsh):
E sh Im R m
R sh   = (1mA × 50Ω) / 9mA = 5.56 Ω
Ish Ish
Shunts may be located in the ammeter case or externally.

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MULTIRANGE AMMETER

By adding several shunt resistors with a

switch to select the desired resistor, the
ammeter will be capable of measuring
several different maximum current
readings or ranges.
This ammeter has 5 ranges selected by a
switch:
• 1 Ampere
• 100 mA
• 10 mA
• 1 mA
• 100 µA

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 11

MULTIRANGE AMMETER
RANGE SELECTION

Part of the correct use of an ammeter is the proper use of the range selection
switch.
If the current to be measured is larger than the scale of the meter selected, the
meter movement will have excessive current and will be damaged.
Therefore, it is important to always start with the highest range when you use an
ammeter.
If the current can be measured on several ranges, use the range that results in a
reading near the middle of the scale.

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AMMETER INSERTION EFFECTS

Expected current in a simple circuit Expected current with an ammeter

I = E / R1 I = E / (R1 + Rm)
The meter affects the circuit resistance and the circuit current in measurements as
all ammeters contain some internal resistance.
Inserting an ammeter in a circuit always increases the resistances of the circuit,
therefore reduces the measured current in the circuit.
The error caused by the meter depends on the value of resistances in ammeter
and also the measured circuit.
The smaller the resistance of the meter movement (Rm), the less it will affect the
circuit being measured.
2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 13

DC VOLTMETER

Used for voltage measurement between two points in an electric circuit.

Works the same type of meter movement as the ammeter but employs a
different circuit external to the meter movement.
Analog voltmeters move a pointer across a scale in proportion to the voltage of
the circuit.
Digital voltmeters give a numerical display of voltage by use of an analog to
digital converter.

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VOLTMETER DESIGN

A resistor (Rs), called a multiplier, is placing in series with the meter movement.
The purposes of the multiplier (Rs) in voltmeter design:
• To extend the voltage range of the meter movements
• To limit the current trough the d’Arsonval meter movement to a maximum full-
scale deflection current
Without multiplier the full scale voltage E = (1mA) (500Ω) = 0.5 volts.
With a multiplier (Rs = 9.5kΩ) the full scale voltage E' = (1mA) (10kΩ) = 10 volts,
increasing the full-scale from 0.5 V to 10 V.
2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 15

MULTIRANGE VOLTMETER

Multi-range voltmeter is achieved through the use of a multi-pole switch and

several multiplier resistors, each one sized for a particular voltage range.
The range selector switch makes contact with only one resistor at a time.
Each resistor is sized to provide a particular full-scale range for the voltmeter, all
based on the particular rating of the meter movement.
For above voltmeter with ranges of 1, 10, 100, and 1000 volts, the multiplier
resistances are calculated.
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VOLTMETER LOADING EFFECTS

When a voltmeter is connected across a circuit component, the voltmeter circuit

itself is in parallel with the component, causing the total circuit resistance lower.
Therefore, the voltage across the component is less whenever the voltmeter is
connected.
This is called voltmeter loading effect and the resulting error is called loading error.
A voltmeter should have a high resistance compared to the circuit being measured,
to minimize the loading effect.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 17

VOLTMETER SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

Minimum safety precautions for using a voltmeter:

• Always connect voltmeters in parallel.
• Always start with the highest range of a voltmeter.
• De-energize and discharge the circuit completely before connecting or
disconnecting the voltmeter.
• In DC voltmeters, observe the proper circuit polarity to prevent damage to the
meter.
• Never use a DC voltmeter to measure AC voltage.
• Observe the general safety precautions of electrical and electronic devices.

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DC OHMMETER

The purpose of ohmmeter is to measure the resistance placed between its leads.
The ohmmeter must then have an internal source of voltage to create the
necessary current to operate the movement.
Also have appropriate ranging resistors to allow just the right amount of current.
To measure resistance, the leads of the meter are connected across the external
resistance to be measured.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 19

OHMMETER SCALE

Ohmmeter scale:
• Very uneven compared to scales of voltmeter and ammeter
• Reversed to scales of voltmeter and ammeter (called “backwards”)
• Comes from inverse relationship of ohms law formula

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OHMMETER DESIGN

The ohmmeter's pointer deflection is controlled by the amount of battery current

passing through the moving coil.
When the leads are shorted, the pointer will be at the full right hand position,
indicating a short circuit or zero resistance.
The purpose of the variable resistor is to adjust the current so that the pointer is at
exactly zero when the leads are shorted.
This is used to compensate for changes in the internal battery voltage due to aging.
When the test leads are separated, the interruption of current and the spring tension
act on the movable coil assembly, moving the pointer to the left side (infinity) of the
scale.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 21

USING THE OHMMETER

After the ohmmeter is adjusted for zero reading, it is ready to be connected in a

circuit to measure resistance.
The power switch of the circuit to be measured should always be in the OFF
position.
The test leads of the ohmmeter are connected in series with the circuit to be
measured.
Movement of the moving coil is proportional to the amount of current flow.
Note: Ohmmeters should never be connected to an energized circuit.

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MULTIRANGE OHMMETER

A practical ohmmeter usually has several

operational ranges.
The reading on the ohmmeter scale is
multiplied by the factor indicated by the
range setting.
Shunt resistors are needed to provide
multiple ranges on the ohmmeter to measure
a range of resistance values from the very
small to very large.
For each range, a different value of shunt
resistance is switched in.
The shunt resistance increases for higher
ohm ranges and is always equal to the
center scale reading on any selected range.
In some meters, a higher battery voltage is
used for the highest ohm range.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 23

SHUNT OHMMETER

Series ohmmeter - the resistance to be

measured is in series with the internal
resistors and the meter movement of the
ohmmeter.
Shunt ohmmeter - the resistance to be
measured shunts (is in parallel with) the
meter movement of the ohmmeter.
Their only difference is that on the shunt
ohmmeter the infinity reading is adjusted,
while on the series ohmmeter the 0 reading is
adjusted.
Shunt ohmmeters are not commonly used
because they are limited generally to
measuring resistances from 5 ~ 400 ohms.
After using a shunt ohmmeter, be certain to
switch it to the OFF position.

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SAFETY OHMMETER

Specifically designed for ultra-safe resistance testing on explosive devices.

Used for testing in volatile and potentially explosive atmospheres.
Uses a very small current for testing (typical: up to 0.5 mA).

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 25

MEGOHMMETER (MEGGER)

Megger is used for measuring resistance of

multimillions of ohms.
Typically is a portable instrument consisting
of two primary elements:
• A hand-driven DC generator - supplies
the high voltage for making the
measurement
• The instrument portion - indicates the
value of the resistance being
measured
Coils a and b are mounted on the
movable member c with a fixed
relationship to each other
They are free to turn as a unit in a
magnetic field

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MEGOHMMETER (MEGGER)

The guard ring shunts leakage current, which prevents false readings.
If the test leads are short-circuited, the pointer rests at zero because the current in
coil a is relatively large.
The instrument is not damaged under these circumstances because the current is
limited by R3.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 27

USING THE MEGGER

To use a megger to check wiring insulation,

connect one test lead to the insulation and the
other test lead to the conductor, after isolating the
wiring from the equipment.
Turn the hand crank until the slip clutch just
begins to slip and note the meter reading should
read infinity.
When a megger is used, the generator voltage is
present on the test leads:
• Use only on high-resistance measurements
• Never touch the test leads while the handle is
being cranked
• Deenergize and discharge the circuit
completely before connecting a megger
• Disconnect the item being checked from other
circuitry, if possible, before using a megger

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AC METERS

A DC meter connected in an AC circuit will indicate zero.

In order to use a DC-style meter movement, the AC must be rectified into DC.
There are two basic types of rectifiers:
•Half-wave rectifier
•Full-wave rectifier

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 29

D'ARSONVAL METER WITH RECTIFIERS

D'arsonval meter can measure AC voltage or current by connecting rectifier.

Full-wave rectifier is more desirable in AC voltmeters because it shows higher
sensitivity rating compared to ½ wave rectifier.
The most frequently used circuit for full-wave rectification is the bridge-type rectifier.
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D'ARSONVAL METER WITH RECTIFIERS

Passing AC through this Rectified AC meter movement will drive it in one direction.
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VALUE OF D’ARSONVAL MM

Although the d'Arsonval meter movement reacts to the average value of the AC, the
value used when working with ac sine wave is the effective value (RMS value).
RMS value is 70.7% of peak. (Note: average value is 63.7% of peak)
Therefore, a different scale is used on an AC meter.
The scale is marked with the effective value, even though it is the average value to
which the meter is reacting.
Other types of meter movements can be used for either AC or DC measurement
without the use of a rectifier.
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DAMPING

Problem with rectifier & d‘Arsonval meter and pulsating DC – pointer oscillation.
Pointer will vibrate (oscillate) around average value indication – difficult to read.
Several techniques used for ‘damping’ (smoothing out) oscillation of pointer.
Movement of coil (conductor) through magnetic field induces current in coil
opposite to current that caused movement of the coil – will dampen oscillations.
Other method uses airtight chamber containing a vane attached to coil.
As coil moves, action of vane against air in chamber opposes coil movement.
2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 33

ELECTRODYNAMIC METER MOVEMENT

Uses same principle as basic moving-coil meter movement except permanent

magnet is replaced by fixed coils.
Pointer attached to moving coil suspended between 2 fixed coils.
Measures AC without need for rectifiers.
3 coils (2 field coils & moving coil) are connected in series across meter terminals.
Same current flows through each coil.
Current flow in either direction causes magnetic field to exist between field coils.
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ELECTRODYNAMIC METER MOVEMENT

Current in moving coil causes it to act as magnet & exert turning force against spring.
If current is reversed, field polarity & polarity of moving coil reverse at same time.
Turning force continues in original direction.
This type of meter can be used to measure both AC (and DC if scale is changed).
Some voltmeters & ammeters use electrodynamic principle of operation.
Most important application is in the Wattmeter.
2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 35

MOVING IRON VANE METER

Can be used to measure both AC and DC voltage and current.

Operates on the principle of magnetic repulsion between like poles.
The measured current flows through field coil which induces a like magnetic field
into a fixed and moving vane, causing the moving vane to deflect a pointer in
proportion to the current or voltage applied to the coil.

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HOT-WIRE METERS

The hot-wire meter movement deflection depends on the expansion of a high-

resistance wire caused by the heating effect of the wire itself as current flows
through it:
•Current flow heats the wire, causing it to expand
•This motion is transferred to the meter pointer through the thread and a pivot

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THERMOCOUPLE METERS

Consists of a resistance wire across the meter terminals, which heats in proportion
to the amount of current.
Attached to this wire is a small thermocouple junction of two unlike metal wires,
which connect across a very sensitive dc meter movement (usually a d'Arsonval
meter movement).
The pointer turns in proportion to the amount of heat generated by the resistance
wire.
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MULTIMETER

Most versatile electrical measuring instrument.

The meter movement can be used for
measuring:
• Current
• Voltage
• Resistance
All in one package.
Two categories of multimeters:
• Analogue
• Digital (often abbreviated DMM or DVOM)
Most multimeters use a d’Arsonval meter
movement and have a built-in rectifier for ac
measurement.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 39

BASIC MULTIMETER

Position A – shunt connected in parallel to meter – read as an ammeter.

Position V –multiplier connected in series with meter – read as a voltmeter.
Position O – meter is connected with battery in circuit – to measure ohms.

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ANALOGUE MULTIMETER

AVO 8 Mk5 Multimeter:

• 28 main ranges for ohms & AC/DC V and A
• Battery operated
• 20,000 ohms/V DC sensitivity
• 1% accuracy (DC V, full scale)
• Electro-mechanical & fuse overload
protection
• Very useful for testing rheostats /
potentiometers linear range of resistance
• More accurate indication – high resistance
faults

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DIGITAL MULTIMETER

Displays the quantity measured as a number,

which prevents parallax errors.
Most commonly used meter:
• Easy to use
• Compact
• Accurate
• Auto-ranging
• Higher sensitivity
Check calibration compliance prior to use.

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MULTIMETER SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

The following safety precautions are the minimum for using a multimeter:
• De-energize / discharge the circuit completely before connecting / disconnecting
• Never apply power to the circuit while measuring resistance with a multimeter
• Connect in series with the circuit for A measurements, in parallel for V values
• Switched to AC before attempting to measure ac circuits
• Observe proper DC polarity when measuring DC
• When you are finished with a multimeter, switch it to the OFF position
• Always start with the highest voltage or current range
• Select a final range that allows a reading near the middle of the scale
• Adjust the "0 ohms" reading after changing resistance ranges and before
making a resistance measurement
• Be certain to read AC measurements on the ac scale of a multimeter
• Observe the general safety precautions for electrical and electronic devices

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CURRENT TRANSFORMER

Also known as CT.

Used to scale large primary currents to a
smaller, easy to measure, secondary currents.
The ratio of the windings determines the
relation between the input and output currents.
When measuring, it is generally connected in
series with the load.
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CURRENT TRANSFORMER

Typical ratios – 50:5, 100:5, 300:5, etc.

If conductor carrying 50 amps passes through a 50:5 ratio CT:
• 5 amp current flow produced in CT leads
Important: CT leads to be connected to ammeter or else shorted together.
Left unconnected - high voltage produced and CT is likely to be destroyed.
Used in clamp meters - may also include DC type clamp meter.
DC system - effect of DC magnetic field on self transmitted AC magnetic field.
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WATTMETER

Electric power is measured by means of a Wattmeter.

Electrodynamic type of meter.
Consists of a pair of fixed coils (current coils), and a movable coil (voltage coil).
• Current coils – a few turns of a comparatively large conductor
• Voltage coil – many turns of fine wire – mounted on a shaft inside current coils
Movable (voltage) coil carries needle which moves over marked scale.
Spiral coil springs hold the needle to a zero position.
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WATTMETER

Current coils (stationary coil) - in series with the circuit (load):

• Strength of its field is proportional to and in phase with line current
Voltage coil (movable coil) - across the line:
• Generally connected in series with a high value resistor
• Strength of its field is proportional to & in phase with line voltage
The actuating force comes from the field of its current coil and its potential coil.
• Proportional to the instantaneous values of line current and voltage
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METER GENERAL SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

To avoid injury to personnel and damage to equipment, follow these basic safety
rules when using electrical measuring instruments:
• Use a meter that meets acceptable safety standards
• Use a meter that is calibrated (check currency)
• Use a meter with fused current inputs
• Inspect test leads for physical damage before use
• Use the meter to check continuity of the test leads
• Use test leads with shrouded connectors and finger guards
• Only use meters with recessed input jacks
• Select the proper function and range for measurement
 If in doubt select higher than required and move selection down
• Do NOT work alone
Remember – Safety First
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CONCLUSION

Now that you have completed this topic, you should be able to:

7.3.6.1 State the function and use of general electrical test equipment and
explain their operation.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 49

This concludes
Module 7 Maintenance Practices Avionics
Topic 7.3.6 Electrical Test Equipment

This concludes

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Module 7 Maintenance Practices Avionics

Topic 7.4 Avionics General Test Equipment

INTRODUCTION

On completion of this topic you should be able to:

7.4.1 State the function and use of general avionic test equipment and
explain their operation.

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INTRODUCTION

This topic covers the function, use and operation of avionic general test
equipment such as:
RF Directional Wattmeter Logic Probe
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) Attenuators
Decade Boxes Time Domain Reflectometer
Signal Generator Comm/Nav Tester
ATC/DME Tester Pitot static Tester
Thermocouple Tester Fuel Quantity Indictor (FQI) Tester
Clamp Meters

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DIRECTIONAL WATTMETER

A RF directional wattmeter is designed to measure forward (Pf) or reflected

power (Pr) in coaxial transmission lines under any load condition.

Standing Wave Ratio (SWR) =

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DIRECTIONAL WATTMETER

The power traveling along the

transmission line to the antenna is
called the Forward Power.

The power traveling back to the

transmitter is the Reflected Power.

The actual power, P, delivered to the

load is the Forward Power less the
Reflected Power.
Most RF wattmeters operate with a
line impedance of 50 ohms.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 5

AN EXAMPLE OF
RF DIRECTIONAL WATTMETER

Bird Model 43 RF Wattmeter is shown as an example.

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A DIAGRAM OF
RF DIRECTIONAL WATTMETER

The schematic of a Bird Model 43 Wattmeter.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 7

RF DIRECTIONAL WATTMETER

Note storage position (on side) for element (typically 2 stored – 1/side).
Ensure front element is correctly rated for both power output and frequency.
Dummy loads can be used for fault finding and testing.
Ensure dummy load correctly rated for both power output and frequency.

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LOGIC PROBE

The ideal logic probe can:

Detect a steady logic level (LO or HI)
Detect a train of logic levels
Detect an open circuit
Detect a high-speed transient pulse – pulse train or single pulse
Have over-voltage protection
Be small, light, and easy to handle

Typically connected directly to power supply of device being tested, although a

few have internal batteries.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 9

BASIC LOGIC PROBE OPERATION

2 NAND gates combined with 2 led’s (red & green).

0
1

0
1 1
0 1

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OSCILLOSCOPES

An oscilloscope is easily the most useful instrument available for testing

circuits because it allows you to see the signals at different points in the
circuit.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 11

OSCILLOSCOPES

The screen of this oscilloscope has 8 squares or divisions on the vertical axis,
and 10 squares or divisions on the horizontal axis. Usually, these squares are
1 cm in each direction:

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OSCILLOSCOPES

On/Off switch: pushed in to switch the oscilloscope

on. The green LED illuminates.

TIME / DIV: Allows the horizontal scale of the

V/t graph to be changed

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OSCILLOSCOPES

Trigger Controls: This group of controls allows the oscilloscope

display to be synchronised with the signal you want to investigate.

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OSCILLOSCOPES

The HOLD OFF control allows you to introduce a delay relative to the
trigger point so that a different part of the signal can be seen.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 15

OSCILLOSCOPES

Intensity and Focus: Adjusting the INTENSITY control changes the

brightness of the oscilloscope display. The FOCUS should be set to produce
a bright clear trace

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OSCILLOSCOPES

X-POS: Allows the whole V/t graph to be moved from

side to side on the oscilloscope screen.

X-MAG: In the IN position, the horizontal scale of the

V/t graph is increased by 10 times.

For example, if TIME/DIV is set for 1 ms per division

and X-MAG is pushed IN, the scale is changed to
0.1 ms per division.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 17

OSCILLOSCOPES

CAL outputs: The top terminal gives a 0.2 V peak to peak square wave,
while the lower terminal gives a 2 V peak to peak square wave, both at 50 Hz

The signals from these outputs are used to confirm that the oscilloscope is
correctly calibrated

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OSCILLOSCOPES

Component Tester: The output socket

provides a changing voltage which allows
component characteristic curves to be
displayed on the oscilloscope screen.

Y-POS I and Y-POS II: These controls allow the

corresponding trace to be moved up or down,
changing the position representing 0 V on the
oscilloscope screen.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 19

OSCILLOSCOPES

CH I and CH II inputs: Signals are

connected to the BNC input sockets
using BNC plugs.

VOLTS / DIV: Adjust the vertical scale of the

V/t graph. The vertical scales for CH I and
CH II can be adjusted independently

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OSCILLOSCOPES

DC/AC/GND slide switches: In the DC position, the signal

input is connected directly to the Y-amplifier of the
corresponding channel, CH I or CH II. In the AC position, a
capacitor is connected into the signal pathway so that DC
voltages are blocked and only changing AC signals are
displayed.

Trace Selection Switches: The settings of

these switches control which traces appear on
the oscilloscope screen

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 21

OSCILLOSCOPES

Setting Up

Before you switch the oscilloscope on, check that all the controls are in their
'normal' positions

all push button switches are in the OUT position

all slide switches are in the UP position

all rotating controls are CENTRED

the central TIME/DIV and VOLTS/DIV and the HOLD OFF controls are
in the calibrated, or CAL position

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 22

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OSCILLOSCOPES

Setting Up

Set both VOLTS/DIV controls to 1 V/DIV and the TIME/DIV

control to 0.2 s/DIV

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 23

OSCILLOSCOPES

Setting Up

Intensity and Focus: Adjusting the INTENSITY control changes the

brightness of the oscilloscope display. The FOCUS should be set to produce
a bright clear trace

Done it before, I know. Just run with it

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 24

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OSCILLOSCOPES

Setting Up

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 25

OSCILLOSCOPES

Setting Up
The diagram shows a lead with a BNC plug at one end and crocodile clips at
the other. When the crocodile clip from the red wire is clipped to the lower metal
terminal, a 2 V square wave is connected to the input of CH 1.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 26

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OSCILLOSCOPES

Setting Up

Adjust VOLTS/DIV and TIME/DIV until you obtain a clear picture of the
2 V signal, which should look like this:

You are now ready to begin troubleshooting the equipment

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 27

OSCILLOSCOPES

You are now ready to begin troubleshooting the equipment

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 28

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ATTENUATOR

An attenuator is an electronic device that reduces the amplitude or power of a

signal without appreciably distorting its waveform.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 29

ATTENUATOR PROBE

Attenuator probe has an internal high-value resistor in series with probe tip.

CRO probe with x10 tip

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 30

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TIME DOMAIN REFLECTOMETER (TDR)

Used for cable length measurement and fault locating on virtually all types of
cable including:
Twisted pair
Coaxial
Parallel conductors
Access to two conductors from one end is required.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 31

THE PRINCIPLE OF TDR

TDR transmits pulses of a known shape and amplitude into one end of a cable that
travel along the cable at the Velocity of Propagation (Vp).

Vp = λf

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 32

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TDR DISPLAY

Note various fault indications.

TDR also:
Reveals the characteristic impedance of the line and is
used to locate and analyze connectors and splices

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 33

DECADE BOXES

An assembly of precision resistors, coils, or capacitors whose individual values

vary in submultiples and multiples of 10.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 34

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DECADE RESISTANCE BOXES

A decade resistance box provides a very broad choice of high-performance

resistance sources.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 35

FUNCTION GENERATORS

The Range Select Switches select the frequency range that you wish to use.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 36

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FUNCTION GENERATORS

The Mode Select Switches select which type of waveform that you wish to
use. Square, Sine or Triangular

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 37

FUNCTION GENERATORS

The Amplitude Control changes the size (amplitude) of the waveform

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 38

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FUNCTION GENERATORS

The Frequency Selection Control is what is used to select the exact

frequency that is required.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 39

FUNCTION GENERATORS

TTL 5V Max

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 40

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SIGNAL GENERATOR (SG)

Connect output test signal into circuit being tested when use.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 41

RF SIGNAL GENERATOR (SG)

A typical radio frequency signal generator contains:

Power supply
An oscillator circuit - produce a desired and accurately frequency signal
A modulator - produce audio (or video) voltage to be superimposed
An output control circuit, usually contains:
An output level meter - indication and control of the output voltage
A calibrated attenuator - selects the amount of output

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 42

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FUNCTION GENERATORS

You are now ready to begin troubleshooting the equipment

2012-12-21 Slide No. 43

MKR/NAV/COMM TEST SET

Signal generator specifically manufactured for testing aircraft systems:

MKR – Marker Beacon
VOR – VHF Omni-directional Range
LOC – Localizer signal of ILS (Instrument Landing System)
G/S – Glideslope signal of ILS (Instrument Landing System)
COMM – Communication systems

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 44

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NAV-COMM RAMP TESTER

Provides test signals for:

Localizer
Glide Slope
VOR
Marker Beacon
Communications

Small size – only 1.3 lbs.

Signals may be radiated or connected directly
to unit tested.
A demodulated signal is available for direct
connection to some converters.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 45

NAV / COM TEST SET

Compact unit is designed for testing:

ILS, VOR, Marker Beacon receivers
VHF AM/FM and UHF AM Transceivers
SELCAL – Generation of ARINC 596
Selective Calling Tones

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 46

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ATC TRANSPONDER TEST SET

Designed to test ATC transponders on bench and

in aircraft.
Contains an interrogation transmitter.
Interrogates ATC Transponder and tests validity of
return signal.
Intended range of interrogation is less than 100 ft.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 47

ATC / DME TESTER

Signal generators which produce simulated DME range and velocity signals.
DME system (in aircraft) calculates slant range from ground station.
DME test sets can normally also be used to check ATC transponder systems.
DME tester range output is variable to test correct aircraft indications.
Variable velocity outputs can simulate inbound or outbound tracks.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 48

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PITOT-STATIC TEST SETS

Used for testing:

Altitude indications
Airspeed indications
Vertical Speed Indications (Rate of climb/descent)
Air Data Computer operation
Transponder operation at simulated altitude
Cabin pressurisation warnings
Leaks in pitot and static systems

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 49

DRUCK PITOT-STATIC TESTER - ADTS 500

Self-contained, portable, pitot-static tester for flight line.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 50

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PITOT-STATIC TESTING

Before commencing a pitot-static leak test, do the following:

Ensure mandatory entry for pitot-static leak check is entered in aircraft’s
maintenance documentation
Perform in accordance with applicable aircraft maintenance manual

Method of testing consists of either applying:

Pressure to Pitot (pressure) heads
Suction to static vents
Ensure you know how to operate particular test set used by your maintenance
section before connecting it to aircraft pitot-static system.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 51

PITOT-STATIC TESTING

Do NOT increase or decrease pressure at a rate exceeding that specified in aircraft

Caution
maintenance manual. Rate is normally given in feet per minute.
Do NOT use mouth and lungs to apply pressure or suction
to a pitot-static
It is not a well controlled pressure system.
and could cause serious damage to instruments.
Warning
Fit protective
Failure tocovers on ground.
observe these
precautions will result in damage
to sensing elements in pitot-static instruments.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 52

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PITOT HEAD AND ADAPTOR

CAUTION
Do NOT place lateral (sideways) load on pitot heads –
alignment is critical.
Ensure heaters are turned off and electrically isolated.
Do NOT apply suction to pressure ports.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 53

STATIC PORT AND ADAPTOR

Pitot pressure entry hole, drain holes and static holes or ports should be
inspected to ensure that they are not blocked.
Size of drain holes and static holes are aerodynamically critical.
Never clear obstruction with tools that are likely to cause enlargement or burring.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 54

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PITOT-STATIC SYSTEM ADAPTORS

Use only approved static port blocking devices when performing tests.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 55

PITOT-STATIC TESTING

Aviation in itself is not inherently dangerous.

But to an even greater degree than the sea, it
is terribly unforgiving of any carelessness,
incapacity or neglect

2012-12-21 Slide No. 56

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PITOT-STATIC LEAK TESTING

Aeroperu Flight 603 Lima, Peru to Santiago, Chile.

70 people died.

Crashed 02 October 1996 – Maintenance Error

The cause of the instrument failure was a maintenance worker's failure to

remove tape covering the static ports necessary to provide correct
instrument data to the cockpit.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 57

TURBINE TEMPERATURE TESTER

Self-contained, battery powered, aircraft turbine

temperature system tester.
Simulates thermocouples or indicator.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 58

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FUEL QUANTITY INDICATION TEST SET

Designed to test capacitance-type liquid gauging systems and components.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 59

FUEL QUANTITY INDICATION TEST SET

Many types of FQI test sets.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 60

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CLAMP METERS

The output of a transformer is a function of the input and it is often advantageous,

when adapting moving-coil instruments for ac measurement.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 61

COMPLIANCE AND CALIBRATION

Only test equipment suitable to perform maintenance must be used.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 62

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CONCLUSION

Now that you have completed this topic, you should be able to:

7.4.1 State the function and use of general avionic test equipment and
explain their operation.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 63

This concludes
Module 7 Maintenance Practices Avionics
Topic 7.4 Avionics General Test Equipment

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Module B-7 Maintenance Practices

Topic 7.7 Electrical Wiring
Interconnecting System (EWIS)

INTRODUCTION

On completion of this topic you should be able to:

7.7.1 Explain continuity, insulation and bonding techniques and associated

testing procedures.
7.7.2 Explain the use of hand and hydraulic operated crimping tools.
7.7.3 Explain the requirements for testing crimp joints.
7.7.4 Explain tools for connector pin removal and insertion and their methods
of use.
7.7.5 Explain testing procedures and installation precautions for coaxial
cables.
7.7.6 State the identification of wire types, their inspection criteria and
damage tolerance.

Continued …

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 2

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INTRODUCTION

On completion of this topic you should be able to:

7.7.7 Explain the following wiring protection techniques:

• Cable looming and loom support
• Cable clamps
• Protective sleeving techniques, including:
 Heat shrink wrapping
 Shielding
7.7.8 Explain EWIS installations, inspection, repair, maintenance and
cleanliness standards.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 3

CIRCUIT TESTS

When electrical circuits are installed, they should be inspected and undergo circuit
tests to ensure the system reliability.
Refer to the appropriate AMM for detailed information before testing and
inspecting.
Circuit tests normally include:
• Bonding testing
• Continuity testing
• Insulation Resistance (IR) testing
• Functional testing
After completion of all tests, the installations
should be inspected to ensure for service.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 4

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BONDING AND GROUNDING

Bonding - the electrical connecting of two or more

conducting objects not otherwise adequately connected.
Grounding - the electrical connecting of conducting
object to primary structure or earth electrode, for return
of current.
Their purposes in aircraft are:
• To protect aircraft and personnel against
hazards from lightning discharge
• To provide power current return paths
• To prevent development of RF potentials
• To protect personnel from shock hazard
• To provide stability and consistency of radio
transmission and reception
• To prevent accumulation of static charge
• To provide fault current return paths
2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 5

BONDING

Main types of bonding are:

• Equipment bonding – low impedance paths to aircraft structure for electronic
equipment
• Metallic surface bonding - all conducting objects on the exterior of the airframe
must be electrically connected to the airframe
• Static bonds - all isolated conducting parts inside and outside the aircraft,
subjected to electrostatic charging are electrically connected to the aircraft
structure

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 6

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BONDING INSPECTION

Check for the evidence of electrical arcing.

Should be secure and free from corrosion.
Metallic conduit should be bonded to structure at each terminating and break point.
Bonding jumpers should not interfere with the operation of movable components.
Self-tapping screws should not be used for bonding purposes. Only standard
threaded screws or bolts of appropriate size should be used.
Exposed conducting frames or parts should have a low resistance bond of less
than 2.5 milliohms to structure.
Resistance tests after connection.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 7

BONDING TESTER

Specially designed for measuring low resistance.

The analogue type bonding tester comprises of:
• A meter
• Two leads
 60 foot lead with single probe permits
portability
 6 foot cable with double probe acts as a
switch
Turns battery on only when performing a test.
Do not vary lead length and gauge matched to
the tester.
Different size plugs prevent incorrect connection.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 8

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BONDING TESTER CONSTRUCTION

The meter inside the bonding tester consists of:

• A ratiometer type ohmmeter
• A single 1.2 volt nickel-alkaline cell housed in a case
The 2 coils mounted at right angle are:
• Control coil
• Deflection coil
They exert opposing torques and the resultant deflection
depends on the resistance under test.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 9

BONDING TESTER CIRCUIT

If the BOND was a short circuit, all of the circuit current would flow through the
control coil and a minimum would flow through the deflection coil, thus minimum
deflection.
If the BOND resistance was increased, more current would be diverted through the
deflection coil and the deflection would increase.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 10

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BONDING TESTER TESTING

The instrument powered by a 1.2V alkaline cell

can measure from zero to 0.1 ohm, with scale
graduated in 0.002 divisions.
To test the meter:
• Short together the three prongs of both
probes to obtain zero reading (Tests control
coil and battery)
• Momentarily short the two prongs of the
double prong probe to obtain full deflection
(Tests deflection coil and battery)

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 11

BONDING TESTER TESTING

To start testing:
• Remove or pierce protective treatments
• Connect the single prong probe of 60-foot static lead to an airframe earth point
• Check resistance between earth terminal and airframe does not exceed 0.025Ω
by touching the double prong probe onto the adjacent airframe, ensuring paint
or coating pierced
• Check that bonding resistance between extremities of the aircraft is within the
manufacturer limits (not exceed 0.05 ohm on all-metal aircraft)
• When checking bonding between components and main earth, the resistance
should not exceed 0.05 ohm (mid-scale deflection):
 Bonds to moving parts should be made of braid (max. length 12 inches)
connected by bolts or clamps with only sufficient slack for movement
 Flexible fuel pipes are bonded internally, the resistance at the end
connections should not exceed 0.05 ohms
• Replace or repair protective finish

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 12

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DIGITAL BONDING TESTER

A typical Digital Low Resistance Ohmmeter (DLRO) for bonding testing:

• Uses two duplex helical spring point leads
• Range from 0 to 60 Ohms in 5 Ranges and 0 to 5.999 Milliohms lowest range
• Basic accuracies of ±0.25% and resolution down to 0.1 µΩ

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 13

MILLIVOLT DROP TEST

Another method of measurement for bonding resistance is the millivolt drop test.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 14

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CONTINUITY TESTING

Continuity defined as the condition of being

unbroken or uninterrupted.
Used to verify:
• Electrical link between designated points
in a circuit
• Resistance of link is within specification
Can be performed by:
• An Ohmmeter
• A Multimeter set to Ohms
Warning:
NEVER have power applied to circuit when
using continuity test equipment.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 15

CONTINUITY TESTING

Carried out after the bonding test

and prior to the insulation test.
Can use metal airframe for return
path of test circuit.
Always consult the Wiring Diagram
Manuals (WDM) to ensure:
• The part of the circuit under test
is open ended
• There is not an alternate path to
result in a false reading

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 16

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CONTINUITY TESTING

To simply check the integrity of a

connection by an ohmmeter:
• If there is a good connection, the
ohmmeter will read a near zero
resistance or a short
• If the circuit is open or has a very
poor connection at some point, the
ohmmeter will read infinity or some
very high resistance
Can also be used to verify the
serviceability of components after they
are removed from the circuit.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 17

INSULATION TESTING

Used to measure the electrical resistance of an insulator separating conductors.

Unless specified, the minimum insulation resistance for electrical wiring, typically:
• Minimum 5 MΩ for single conductor
• Minimum 2 MΩ for bundled wiring
Normally carried out after the visual, bonding and continuity tests.
The insulation tester most commonly used on aircraft is known as a ‘Megger’.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 18

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BASIC CIRCUIT OF A MEGGER

Megger is a ratiometer type ohmmeter.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 19

INSULATION TESTING

Caution: When testing a cable for insulation resistance, both ends of cable must be
disconnected from the circuit, otherwise damage could result
A quick test of the Megger is to leave the leads apart:
• Wind the handle (or press the button) to check needle moves to a high value
• Short the leads together and repeat the test, needle goes to zero
Connect one lead of the Megger to the centre conductor and another to the aircraft
ground, or wire shield, if testing shielded cable.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 20

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FUNCTIONAL TESTING

Used to ensure proper functioning of individual and integrated sections of circuits.

There will be varying levels of test depending on complexity of circuit, from simple
“self tests” to deeper tests that can only be carried out in the workshop.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 21

SOLDERLESS
TERMINATIONS AND SPLICES

Electric wires are terminated with solderless terminal lugs to permit easy and
efficient connection and disconnection.
Solderless splices join electric wires to form permanent continuous runs.
They are plated copper or aluminium, and may be pre-insulated or uninsulated.
When choosing a solderless terminal, the materials of terminal and wire should be
compatible.
Only environment resistant sealed splices shall be used as permanent electrical
wire splices on aircraft.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 22

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SOLDERLESS
TERMINATIONS AND SPLICES

Terminal lugs are available in four styles:

• Straight
• 90 degree upright
• Angle
• Flag

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 23

SOLDERLESS
TERMINATIONS AND SPLICES

Terminal lugs, splices and the crimping tools are divided into two classes:
• Class I Terminal Lugs and Splices - meet all the requirements of the applicable
specification when installed with specified crimping tools
• Class I Tools - meet all the requirements of the applicable specification

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 24

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SOLDERLESS
TERMINATIONS AND SPLICES

Class II Terminal Lugs and Splices - meet the performance requirements of the
applicable specification when installed with a tool recommended by manufacturer.
They are replaceable by Class I terminals.
Class II Tools – meet the performance requirements of applicable specification.
Class II tools, terminal lugs and splices should not to be used on aircraft.

AWG 8
AWG 26-22
AWG 6
AWG 22-18
AWG 4
AWG 16-14
AWG 2
AWG 12-10
AWG 1/0

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 25

CRIMPED TERMINATIONS

A typical crimped termination has two principal sections:

• Crimping barrel
• Tongue
The barrel is designed to fit closely around the cable conductor so that after
pressure has been applied a large number of points of contact are made.
The pressure is applied with a special crimping tool.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 26

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CRIMPING TOOLS

Terminal lugs and splices are crimped to wires by means of:

• Hand crimping tools
• Power crimping tools:
 Portable
 Stationary (Bench-mounted)
These tools crimp the barrel to the conductor, and simultaneously crimp the
insulation grip to the wire insulation.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 27

TERMINATING SMALL COPPER WIRES

Small copper wires (No. 26 ~ No.10) are terminated with solderless pre-insulated
straight copper terminal lugs.
• The use of an insulation sleeve is unnecessary
• The insulation is colour coded and the range of wire sizes is marked on tongue
• Only qualified tools can be used for crimping terminal lugs

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 28

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HAND CRIMPING TOOLS

All approved hand crimping tools have a self-locking ratchet, which prevents the
tool from opening until crimp is complete:
• This mechanism must never be disassembled
M22520/5 and M22520/10 tools are the approved tools to be used in crimping
sizes 26 through 10 splices and terminal lugs:
• M22520/5-01 and M22520/10-01 crimp tools have removable dies

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 29

HAND CRIMPING TOOLS

Standard tools are checked by a GO/NOGO gauge for assurance of quality crimps:
• Gauging should be carried out prior to each series of crimping operations
• Gauging is done with the tool in the fully closed position
• Replace or repair hand tools, which are out of tolerance

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 30

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HAND TOOLS CRIMPING PROCEDURE

The crimping procedure for standard hand tool is as follows:

• Strip the wire insulation to specified lengths using proper stripping procedures
• Check tool for periodic calibration and proper adjustment
• Insert terminal lug, tongue first, into wire side of hand tool barrel crimping jaws,
until terminal lug barrel butts flush against tool stop on the locator

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 31

HAND TOOLS CRIMPING PROCEDURE

Continued
• Squeeze tool handles slowly until the tool jaws hold the terminal lug barrel firmly
in place but without denting it
• Insert the stripped wire into the terminal lug barrel until the wire insulation butts
flush against the near end of the wire barrel
• Squeeze the tool handles until the ratchet releases
• Remove the completed assembly and examine it for the proper crimp

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 32

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TERMINATING LARGE COPPER WIRES

Copper terminal lugs of 2 styles (straight and flag) are used to terminate large
copper wires sizes (No. 8 ~ No. 4/0):
• Available uninsulated in both types and pre-insulated in the straight type
Uninsulated terminal lugs are insulated (after assembly to wire) with heat shrinkable
tubing or with lengths of transparent tubing:
• When the size of sleeving can fit tightly over the terminal lug, the sleeving need
not be tied; otherwise, it is to be tied with lacing cord

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 33

CRIMPING TOOLS
FOR LARGE COPPER WIRES

Hand, and/or power crimping tools are available for crimping large copper wire.
Tools are:
• MS25441-5 hydraulic pedal pump
• MS25441-4 electric hydraulic pump
Used with MS25441-1 hydraulic head and MS25441-3 hose and the proper dies.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 34

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CRIMPING PROCEDURE
FOR MS25441 TOOLS

Crimp large Military Standard (MS) copper terminals as follows:

• Select proper die for terminal and wire size, and install die in tool
 Caution: always disconnect power tool from its pressure source before
installing/removing dies
 Do not use any crimping tool beyond its rated capacity
• Strip wire insulation using recommended practices
• Insert stripped wire into terminal barrel until wire insulation butts flush against
the end of barrel
• Insert wire and terminal lug assembly into die
• Actuate the crimp tool. Press button on handle for electrically operated tool. Do
not release the button until the dies open automatically. Actuate handle for
manual hydraulically operated tool.
• Remove the crimped assembly, and examine it for proper crimp.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 35

TERMINATING ALUMINIUM WIRE

Aluminium wire is used in aircraft because of its weight advantage over copper.
Only approved aluminium terminal lugs are used to terminate aluminium wires.
Aluminium terminal lugs are available in 4 types:
• Straight (MS25435)
• 90 degrees upright (MS25436)
• Left angle (MS25437)
• Right angle (MS25438)
All aluminium terminals have an inspection hole
sealed with a removable plastic plug.
Each aluminium terminal lug is marked with the
letters “AL” indicating it is for use with aluminium
wire, and also with the wire size it will accommodate.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 36

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TERMINATING ALUMINIUM WIRE

The barrels are filled with a petroleum-base abrasive compound.

Use MS25441 tool to install MS aluminium terminal lugs.
Aluminium terminal lugs are not pre-insulated, it is necessary to insulate them, after
assembly, with lengths of transparent flexible tubing or heatshrink sleeves.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 37

INSPECTION OF CRIMPED TERMINATIONS

Examine the crimped connection carefully for the following:

• Indent centred on the terminal lug barrel
• Indent in line with the barrel
• Terminal lug not cracked
• Terminal lug insulation not cracked
• Insulation grip crimped
Do not use any connection that is found defective as a result of a visual inspection.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 38

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SPLICING
- SMALL COPPER WIRES -

Only qualified environmental permanent splices are used to join small copper wire
sizes (No 26 ~ No10):
• Splice pre-insulation extends over the wire insulation
• Each splice size can be used for more than one wire size
• Are colour coded in the same manner as insulated copper terminal lugs
M22520/5 and M22520/10 crimp tools with appropriate dies are the approved tools
for crimping them.

Examples of Splices
2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 39

SPLICING PROCEDURE
- SMALL COPPER WIRES -

Crimping procedures for environmental permanent splices vary only slightly from
those for pre-insulated copper terminal lugs.
Variations are:
• Crimping operation must be done twice, once for each end of splice
• Wire stripping lengths are different and are given in Figure
• Insert wires and observe each stripped wire is visible through inspection hole
• After crimping check that wire ends are still visible through inspection hole

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 40

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SPLICING
- LARGE COPPER WIRES -

Uninsulated splices are used to join large copper wires of sizes (No. 8 ~ No. 4/0):
• There is a different splice for each wire size
• Insulated after assembly with either
 Heat-shrink tubing
 Transparent flexible sleeving
If flexible sleeving method is used, cut sleeve to the required length.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 41

REQUIREMENTS FOR SPLICING

General rules for the use of splices:

• Splicing of electrical wire should be minimize and avoided from vibrations
• Use of a crimp-type self-insulated splice connector is preferred in aircraft
• Typically no more than one splice in any one wire segment between any two
connectors or other disconnect points (with exceptions)
• Splices should not generally be used within 12 inches of a termination device
• Proper crimping tool is selected
• Splices in bundles must be staggered to reduce the bundle’s diameter

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 42

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INSPECTION OF SPLICES

Examine the splicing carefully for the following:

• Crimp indent centred on splice barrels
• Crimp indent in line with barrel
• Splice barrel not cracked
• Splice insulation not cracked
• Splices for correct environmental sealing
• Splices for evidence of overheating
• Spliced wires are butted against the stop (wire ends are visible through
inspection holes)

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 43

CONTACT CRIMPING TOOLS

Standard crimping tools conforming to MIL-DTL-22520 are used to crimp contacts:

• Capable of crimping contact wire barrel sizes 12 to 28, wire sizes 12 to 32
• They are cycle controlled by means of a ratchet mechanism that will not
release until the crimping cycle has been completed
Basic types:
• M22520/1-01
• M22520/2-01
• M22520/4-01
• M22520/7-01

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 44

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CONTACT CRIMPING TOOLS

Caution: Jaws (4)

• Do not disassemble any crimping
tools
• Do not tighten or loosen nuts or
otherwise attempt to adjust
• Required adjustments should be
made only by the manufacturer, or by
a calibration laboratory M22520/3-1 “GO/NO-GO” gage

All crimping tools can be checked for proper calibration of the crimping jaws
(indenters) by means of GO/NO GO inspection gauges.
The tools should be checked before each series of crimping operations.
Do not crimp down on the gauge pins as this will prevent the tool from full cycling
to the ratchet release position.
All crimping tools have positioning devices available that are used for locating
contacts in the proper relation to the tool indenters.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 45

CONTACT CRIMPING PROCEDURES

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INSPECTION OF CRIMP CONTACTS

Note indentations from 4 jaws of crimper.

Determine the proper length of insulation to be
removed:
• Wire must be visible in inspection hole
• Insulation must be between 1/64" to 1/32" from
end of contact
Indentations (4 jaws)

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 47

CONTACT RETENTION SYSTEMS

Two basic types of contact retention used in plug and socket connectors:
• Front release – the extracting tool is inserted into the connector from the front
or face and 'push' the pin or socket out the back of the connector
• Rear release - the contact removal tool is inserted into the contact cavity from
the back or rear of the connector to pull the contact out
Anyway, contacts are inserted through the rear of the connector.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 48

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CONTACT RETENTION SYSTEMS

- INSTALLING AND REMOVAL TOOLS -

Contacts have a certain diameter size to fit in the holes of the receptacle.
Their diameter sizes are standard and follow the same thickness measurement as
wires do - American Wire Gauge (AWG).
The size of the contact (and therefore the size of the holes) decides which contact
removal and insert tool can be used for that contact.

These tools are color

coded for size, typically:
• AWG 12 - yellow tool
• AWG 16 - blue tool
• AWG 20 - red tool

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 49

CONTACT RETENTION SYSTEMS

- FRONT RELEASE -

Tip

Handle

Plunger

With the front release, contact positions can be identified easier from the mating
end of the connector for releasing and servicing purposes.
The removal tool engages the front portion of each contact, then by application of
axial force, the contact is displaced until it is visible at the wire bundle side.
It can then be removed by hand.
Caution: keep the removal tool in line with the axis of the pin.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 50

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CONTACT RETENTION SYSTEMS

- FRONT RELEASE TOOL-

Connectors with front release type contacts

can use a variety of extraction and insertion
tools.
For insertion, some connectors require use of
the tool to disengage the locking mechanism,
and others may be manually inserted.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 51

CONTACT RETENTION SYSTEMS

- REAR RELEASE -

Connectors requiring release and removal of the contacts from the rear of the
connector almost always have a blue color band around the shell (body) of the
connector and utilize insert lock retention.
Removal tools must be put over the wire and inserted through an insert (grommet)
to release the contact; the tool and wire must be pulled together to remove the
contacts from the connectors.
Contact bend damage is minimized since the tool does not shroud the contact.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 52

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CONTACT RETENTION SYSTEMS

- REAR RELEASE TOOL-

Example

White end is
to remove

Coloured end
is to insert

One type of insertion/removal tool - other types are similar.

Colour coding typically reflects the AWG – NOT the same as typical crimper
colour coding.
Note conductor channel and serrations – aids in conductor/contact support.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 53

UNWIRED CONTACT EXTRACTION

Unwired contacts are inserted to complete connector configuration.

To remove the unwired contact, a specially designed tool called a Unwired Contact
Removal Tool as illustrated can be used.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 54

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MAINTENANCE KIT

A maintenance kit contains all of the tooling to connector, contact and terminal cross
reference information needed to support aircraft.
In addition, some kits also contain illustrated operating instructions for the required
tooling.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 55

COAXIAL CABLES

Coaxial cable (or "coax") is the most common

cable used for RF.
A typical coaxial cable consists of:
• An inner (center) conductor
• Insulating dielectric
• Outer conductor (shield)
Some have a double outer conductor
(double shield) for extra shielding
Tri-shielded or quad-shielded
conductor to minimize interference
• Outer jacket (sometime called a sheath)
The characteristic impedance of the most
coaxial cables is 50 ohms, but some have a
48, 53, 75 or 93 ohms.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 56

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COAXIAL CABLE CONNECTORS

Coaxial cable connectors, often called RF (radio frequency) connectors, come in

many impedances, sizes, shapes and finishings.
There are female and male versions of each.
Usually referred to by series designations.
The common series used in aircraft are:
• BNC series
• HN series
• N series
• C series
• TNC series
• Pulse series
• SC series

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 57

COAXIAL CABLE ASSEMBLY

PROCEDURES

An improved version of BNC connectors is used as an example to show the

procedure.
Plug UG-88E/U and Jack UG-89C/U are typical of this version.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 58

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COAXIAL CABLE ASSEMBLY

PROCEDURES

The figure shows how to attach a BNC

clamp connector to coaxial cable.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 59

COAXIAL CABLE TEST

A metal time-domain reflectometer (TDR) is the

most comprehensive instrument used to
characterize and locate faults on coaxial cables.
It sends an electrical pulse onto cable segment
under test, and displays the echo of pulse.
Shape, direction and location of the echo pulse
on the screen provide a good deal of information.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 60

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COAXIAL CABLE ASSEMBLY

GENERAL PRECAUTIONS

A good connection depends on holding coaxial cable and RF connectors to the

design dimensions.
The assembly directions given for each connection should be followed carefully to
avoid trouble.
When working with coaxial cable, never step on it, set anything heavy on it, or bend
it sharply.
Do not use pliers to assemble/disassemble connectors.
Contacts for RF connectors are usually packed unassembled:
• Do not misplace them
When attaching connectors to a double-shielded coaxial cable, make sure both
shields are soldered together at connector.
Use care in starting the nut into a plug or jack body to prevent cross threading.
Keep soldering iron clean, smooth, and well tinned at all times.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 61

COAXIAL CABLE
INSTALLATION PRECAUTIONS

Cable runs should be as direct and as short as possible to minimize RFI hazards.
Outer conductor is typically grounded at both ends (depends on installation).
Each coaxial type must be terminated in manner specified by manufacturer.
Cable ties NOT permitted with coaxial cable – can crush dielectric / damage cable.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 62

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COAXIAL CABLE
INSTALLATION PRECAUTIONS

Minimum bend radius = 6 times the Outer Diameter (O.D) of coaxial cable.
Prevents kinking - if kinked, dented, or crimped, reduction in distance from centre
conductor to shielding may cause electrical interference.
Some coaxial cables have a strictly defined length, do NOT change the length
during the maintenance.
The cable should be supported at a minimum of 24-inch intervals and located in a
position that precludes it from being stepped on or used as a handhold.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 63

WIRE TYPES

Electric wiring in aircraft must be properly

selected, installed and maintained in order to
ensure the safety of the aircraft.
A wire consists of:
• A conductor, often made by
Copper
Aluminum
• Insulation, often surrounded by
PVF
FEP
TFE, also called Teflon or Tefzel
ETFE
A cable is any group of two or more conductors
separately insulated and grouped together by
an outer sleeve.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 64

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WIRE SIZE

Aircraft wire is measured by American Wire Gage (AWG) system.

The conductor’s cross-sectional area of a wire:
• Linked to its AWG
• Determined the amount of current it is capable of carrying -
 Expressed in Circular Mil sizes in most cases
 Square Mil - for square or rectangular conductors
 1 Circular Mil = 0.7854 Square Mil
• Circular Mil Area (CMA) = the square of conductor’s diameter

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 65

WIRE GAUGE

A wire gauge is used to determine AWG size of conductors.

The measurement of a bare conductor is taken in the slot, not in the circular area at
the bottom of the slot.
The wire size is marked adjacent to that slot:
• The larger numbers representing the smaller wires

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 66

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WIRE SPECIFICATIONS

All wires used in aircraft must meet the applicable specifications to ensure safety.
The current wire specifications include:
• Major Original Aircraft Manufacturers (OAMs)
• Military Specifications (Mil-Spec), or Defence Standard (Def-Stan)
• Wire Manufacturer’s Specifications
• Industry Standard’s Bodies (SAE, NEMA, UL, ASTM, AECMA)
• Governing Bodies

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 67

WIRE MILITARY SPECIFICATIONS

Mil Specs cover the installation of wiring in aircraft.

Typical specification numbers for approved aircraft wire are:
• MIL-W-5086 (600 volt aircraft wire with copper conductors)
• MIL-C-7078 (600 volt aircraft cable)
• MIL-W-22759 (Teflon and Tefzel insulated airframe wire)
• MIL-W-81381 (Wire, electric polyamide insulated copper and copper alloy)
• MIL-C-27500 (Shielded and unshielded aircraft cables)
• MIL-W-81044 (Irradiated wire for aircraft and hook-up)
• MIL-W-7072 (600 volt aircraft wire with aluminium conductors)
Always install wire IAW the current manufacturers’ data.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 68

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WIRING INSPECTION REQUIREMENTS

Caution: Turn off all electrical power prior to starting an inspection of the aircraft
electrical system or performing maintenance.
Aircraft wiring must be visually inspected for the following requirements:
• Wire and cables should be properly supported and bound
• Metal stand-offs must be used to maintain clearance between wires and
structure
• Insulating tubing is properly secured and must be kept at a minimum
 The use of insulating tubing for support in lieu of stand-offs is prohibited

Improper Proper
2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 69

WIRING INSPECTION REQUIREMENTS

Wiring routing requirements:

• Eliminate potential for chafing against structure or other components
• Position to eliminate/minimize use as handhold or support
• Minimize exposure to damage by personnel moving within the aircraft
• Avoid damage from battery electrolytes or other corrosive fluids
• Adequately protected in wheel wells and other areas suspected to damage

Chafing against
control cable

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 70

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WIRING INSPECTION REQUIREMENTS

Unused wires:
• Are individually dead-ended, tied into a
bundle, and secured to a permanent
structure
• Individually cut with strands even with
insulation
• A pre-insulated closed end connector or
a 1-inch piece of insulating tubing
placed over the wire with its end folded
back and tied
Do not use tape, tie straps, or cord for
primary support.
Do not use tapes which will dry out in
service, produce chemical reactions with
insulation, or absorb moisture. Improper termination with
exposed conductor
Do not use moisture-absorbent material as (should be properly insulated and
“fill” for clamps or adapters. secured to bundle)

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 71

WIRING DAMAGE TOLERANCE

When a replacement wire is required, AMM must first be reviewed to determine if

OAM has approved any substitution. If not, contact for an acceptable replacement.
Wires should be replaced when:
• Chafed or frayed
• Insulation suspected of being penetrated
• Outer insulation is cracking
• Damaged by or known to have been exposed to electrolyte or other fluids
• Evidence of overheating can be seen
Heat Discoloration

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 72

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WIRING DAMAGE TOLERANCE

Wires should be replaced when:

• Wire bears evidence of being crushed or kinked
• Shield on shielded wire is frayed and/or corroded
• Wire shows evidence of breaks, cracks, dirt, or moisture in plastic sleeves
• Sections of wire have splices occurring at less than 10-ft intervals
When replacing wiring or coaxial cables, identify them properly at both equipment
power source ends.

No Marking Correct Indirect Marking

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 73

CABLE LOOMING

A wire bundle consists of a quantity of wires fastened or secured together and all
traveling in the same direction.
Wire bundles may consist of two or more groups of wires.
It is often advantageous to have a number of wire groups individually tied within
the wire bundle for ease of identification.
Comb the wire groups and bundles so that the wires will lie parallel to each other
and minimize the possibility of insulation abrasion.

Comb for straightening wires in bundles

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 74

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CABLE LOOMING
BEND RADII
Minimum bend radius in wire groups or bundles - 10 times the outside diameter of
the largest wire or cable – unsupported.
Exceptions:
• Where the wire is suitably supported, 3 times the diameter of the wire or cable
• RF cables - 6 times the outside diameter
• Thermocouple wire - 20 times the diameter
When not practical to meet radius requirements, enclose bend in insulating tubing.

OK > 3 times diameter

(secured at both ends)

Improper < 3 times diameter

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 75

CABLE LOOMING
SLACK
Wiring should be installed with sufficient slack so that bundles and individual
wires are not under tension.
Wires connected to movable or shock-mounted equipment should have sufficient
length to allow full travel without tension on the bundle.
Wiring at terminal lugs or connectors should have sufficient slack to allow two re-
terminations without replacement of wires, in addition to the drip loop and the
allowance for movable equipment.
Normally, wire groups or bundles should not exceed 1/2-inch deflection between
support points.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 76

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CABLE LOOM SUPPORT

Bind and support wire and wire bundles to prevent:

• Chafing of cables
• Mechanical strain that would tend to break the conductors and connections
• Arcing or overheated wires from causing damage to mechanical control cables
• Interference between wires and other equipment
• Excessive movement in areas of high vibration

Improper - chafing Proper

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 77

CABLE LOOM SUPPORT

Bind and support wire and wire bundles to meet the following requirements:
• Secure wires and wire bundles routed through bulkheads and structural
members
• Fasten wires in junction boxes, panels and bundles for proper routing and
grouping
• Facilitate re-assembly to equipment and terminal hoards
• Permit replacement or repair of individual wires without removing the entire
bundle

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 78

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LACING AND TYING

Wire groups and bundles are laced or tied to provide ease of installation,
maintenance and inspection.
2 methods of securing together of a group or bundle of wires at regular intervals
around the group or bundle:
• Lacing - installed inside enclosures, by means of a continuous cord
forming loops
• Tying - with individual ties, including:
 Self-Clinching Cable Straps

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 79

LACING AND TYING

When lacing or tying wire groups or bundles, observe the following precautions:
• Lace or tie bundles tightly enough to prevent slipping, but not so tightly that
the cord or tape cuts into or deforms the insulation.
 Caution: Do not use round cord for lacing or tying coaxial cable or
bundles that contains coaxial cable.
• Do not use ties on wire groups or bundles located inside a conduit
• When tying wire bundles behind connectors, start ties far enough back from
the connector to avoid splaying of contacts

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 80

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LACING AND TYING

SINGLE CORD LACING

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 81

LACING AND TYING

DOUBLE CORD LACING

Continuous lacing may be used only on

those wire groups or bundles that are to
be installed in panels or junction boxes.
Use either single or double cord lacing
on groups or bundles 1 inch or less in
diameter.
Use double cord lacing on groups or
bundles larger than 1 inch in diameter.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 82

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LACING AND TYING

TYING
Tie all wire groups or bundles where supports are
more than 12 inch apart.
Space ties 12 inch or less apart.
Make ties as follows:
• Wrap cord around wire group or bundle
• Make a clove hitch, followed by a square knot
with an extra loop
• Trim free ends of cord to 3/8 inch minimum

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 83

LACING AND TYING

SELF-CLINCHING CABLE STRAPS

They are adjustable, lightweight, flat plastic straps used for tying and supporting
cable assemblies and wire bundles.
2 types:
• MS3367 cable securing straps - plain
cable straps
• MS3368 identification and securing
straps - have a flat surface for
identifying the cables
They may be used instead of individual
cord ties for fast securing of wire group or
bundles.
Do not use cable straps over wire bundles
containing coaxial cable.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 84

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LACING AND TYING

SELF-CLINCHING CABLE STRAPS

Tiedown straps should NOT be used in the following situations:
• Where total temperature (ambient plus rise) exceeds 85 °C
• Where failure would permit movement of the wiring against parts
• Where failure would permit the strap to fall into moving mechanical parts
• To tie wire groups or harnesses within bundles
• In high vibration areas
• Outside the fuselage
• In wheel wells
• Exposure to ultraviolet light

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 85

LACING AND TYING

Using a Military Standard hand tool to install self-clinching cable straps:

• Follow the manufacturer's instructions
• Tool tension is adjusted for specific applications
Use proper tools and make sure the strap is cut flush with the eye of the strap.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 86

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CABLE CLAMPS

Wire bundles must be securely clamped to aircraft structure using cable clamps.
Clamps must be constructed of materials that are compatible with their installation
and environment.
They should be spaced at intervals not exceeding 24 inches.
Clamps lined with nonmetallic material should be used to support the wire bundle
along the run.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 87

CABLE CLAMPS

The back of the clamp, whenever practical, should be rested against a structural
member.
Use angle bracket with two mounting screws if structural member is angled.
Mount cable clamps directly to “Z” members of structure.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 88

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CABLE CLAMPS

Incorrect Incorrect

Ensure all wires are contained within insulating cushion.

Cables must not rub on components or structures.
Proper clamp fit is needed.
2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 89

CABLE CLAMPS

If there is less than 3/8-inch clearance

between the bulkhead cutout and the
wire bundle, a suitable grommet should
be installed.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 90

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CABLE CLAMPS

Clamps must be installed with their attachment hardware positioned above them.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 91

WIRING PROTECTION

Wiring protection against:

• High temperature - away from high-
temperature equipment and lines
• Personnel and cargo - the structure
affords protection against the use of wiring
as a handhold and damage from cargo
• Battery acids - never route any wires
below a battery
• Solvents and fluids -
Avoid areas where wires will be
subjected to damage from fluids
Wires and cables installed in aircraft
bilges shall be installed at least 6
inches from the aircraft centreline
Use plastic tubing where needed

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 92

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WIRING PROTECTION

Wire protection in wheel wells:

• Make sure all wire bundles are protected by sleeves of flexible tubing securely
held at each end
• No relative movement at point where flexible tubing is secured
• No strain on attachments when parts are fully extended but slack should not
be excessive
Separation from plumbing lines:
• 6 inches or more separation from a parallel
plumbing line
• Route the wires on a level with, or above, the
plumbing lines
• Do not route any wire so that it can possibly
come closer than 1/2 inch to a plumbing line

Warning: Never support any wires or wire bundles from a plumbing line carrying
flammable fluids or oxygen.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 93

WIRING PROTECTION

Route wiring to maintain a minimum clearance of 3 inches from control cables.

If this is not possible, install mechanical guards to prevent contact.
Wire protection in conduit:
• Measure the bundle wires before installing in conduit
• The bundle diameter must not exceed 80% of inside diameter of conduit
• No ties or splices are permitted inside a conduit

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 94

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HEAT SHRINK TUBING

Commonly called "heat shrink“, is a tube which shrinks in diameter when heated.
It can be used to:
• Insulate wires offering abrasion resistance and environmental protection
• Repair wires or bundle them together
• Protect wires or small parts from minor abrasion
• Create cable entry seals

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 95

HEAT SHRINK TUBING

Its diameter and thickness can vary, and there

are 3 main categories:
• Thin-wall tube
• Medium-wall tube
• Thick-wall tube
Heat shrink ratio used in aircraft is normally 2:1.
Heat-shrink tubing is manufactured from a
thermoplastic material.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 96

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HOT AIR GUN

Select the proper type of hot air gun I.A.W. relevant AMM, and when operating:
• Do not operate the hot air gun on or near the airplane when there are
flammable liquids, vapors or gases
• The nozzle and output air from the heat gun get very hot - avoid serious burns
• The use of nitrogen with the heat gun in an enclosed area can be hazardous
• For an aircraft under repair, use electrical power from a ground power unit
(GPU)

Raychem Model AA-400 Hot Air Gun Raychem Model HT-900 Hot Air Gun
2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 97

HOT AIR GENERATORS

Hot air generators are often used on aircraft

with proper reflectors:
• Hot air temperature of generators should
be the same as the shrinking temperature
of shrinkable sleeve or moulding
• Make sure dimensions and shape of
reflector are applicable for related
application

A Type CV1981 Generator PR21 to PR26 Reflector

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 98

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HEAT SHRINK TUBING APPLICATION (1)

Below is a general procedure, refer to the maintenance manual before work.

Warning: the operation of a hot gun can cause an explosion.
• Select applicable heat shrink tubing, make sure that it can be:
 Moved easily over the component
 Held in position permanently after the heat is applied
- After heat applied, it must make 3/16 ~ 1/2 inch overlap with the
insulation of the wire or cable on their assemblies

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 99

HEAT SHRINK TUBING APPLICATION (2)

• Cut the tubing to sufficient length

 Sufficient length = Necessary length + a max. 10% the necessary length
 Make sure that the cutting edges are smooth
• To prevent heat damage, put a split Teflon tubing or fish paper on the wire at
each end of the heat shrink tubing
• To prevent heat damage to all of the adjacent wires with shields, put the
protection on those wires

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 100

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HEAT SHRINK TUBING APPLICATION (3)

• Heat the hot gun for 15 seconds minimum

• Shrink the heat shrink tubing in position:
 Hold the gun 3 inches minimum from the tubing
 Point the gun at the center of the tubing for 5 to 10 seconds
 Do not apply the heat for more than 20 seconds at any one time
• If the heat shrink tubing does not fully shrink:
 Wait for of 5 minutes minimum so that the cable becomes cool
 Do the above Step again

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 101

SOLDER SLEEVE SHIELD TERMINATIONS

Primarily used to attach a ground wire to the braid of

a shielded cable.
Consist of a heat shrinkable insulation sleeve with an
integral solder preformed with flux and thermal
indicator, and two integral rings of sealing material.
Solder sleeves are available:
• With preinstalled lead
• Without preinstalled lead

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 102

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SOLDER SLEEVE SHIELD TERMINATIONS

When the solder sleeve is placed over a cable and heated, the solder melts and
flows connecting the ground lead to the shield.
The outer sleeve shrinks and the thermoplastic insert melts, encapsulating the
termination.
The result is a soldered, strain relieved, environmentally protected termination.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 103

SELF FUSING INSULATION TAPE

Tape is stretched as it is applied – gives it a self fusing property.

Can be used for loom build-up for connector cable clamp, or loom protection
where other methods are not possible.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 104

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SPIRAL WRAP (SPIRAP)

Spiral wrapping used to protect wiring from abrasion.

Easily applied and removed – Just wrap around wires and secure with cable ties.
Wires can enter or break out at any point.
Excellent dielectric properties and is not affected by organic solvents or acids.
Available in a multitude of colours.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 105

WIRING PROTECTION TECHNIQUES

Heat shrink tubing

Cable
clamping

Connector
wiring relief

Loom tying

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 106

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EWIS INSTALLATIONS

Electrical Wiring Interconnection System (EWIS) is introduced to acknowledge the

fact that wiring is just one of many components installed on the aircraft.
EWIS relates to any wire, wiring device, or combination of these, including
termination devices, installed in the aircraft for transmitting electrical energy
between two or more termination points.
Once installed, wires and cables must be protected from overload conditions that
could lead to overheating, causing the release of toxic fumes, possibly fire.

Failure of Wire

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 107

MAINTENANCE, REPAIR,
AND INSPECTION OF EWIS (1)

EWIS system separation:

• Purpose of separation is to prevent:
 Electrical interference
 Mechanical interference
 Simultaneous failure of redundant Chafing
systems
• Types of separation:
 Physical distance
 Physical barrier

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 108

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MAINTENANCE, REPAIR,
AND INSPECTION OF EWIS (2)

EWIS component identification:

• EWIS components must be labelled or otherwise identified using a consistent
method to identify the EWIS component, its function, and its design limitations
• Original Aircraft Manufacturers (OAM) manuals can be used:
 Boeing D6-54446 Standard Wiring Practices Manual (Chapter 20) – SWPM
 Airbus Industrie Electrical Standard Practices Manual - ESPM

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 109

MAINTENANCE, REPAIR,
AND INSPECTION OF EWIS (3)

EWIS safety assessment:

• System Safety - fail safe design concept is applied to EWIS. Any single failure
condition should be assumed to occur regardless of probability.
• Fire Protection - EWIS does not fail in such a way as to propagate fire and
produce hazardous quantities of smoke and toxic fumes.
• Electrical bonding and protection against static electricity - an adequate electrical
return path under both normal and fault conditions must be provided.
• Circuit protective devices - compatible with required circuit protection devices.

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MAINTENANCE, REPAIR,
AND INSPECTION OF EWIS (4)

EWIS protection:
• Accessibility provisions: EWIS components are installed so that inspections,
tests, repairs, and replacements can be undertaken with a minimum of aircraft
disassembly.
• Protection of EWIS: EWIS must be prevented damage from passengers, crew
members, baggage or cargo handlers, or maintenance and service personnel.
• Flammable fluid protection: EWIS located in areas where flammable fluid or
vapours might escape must be considered to be a potential ignition source.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 111

CONTAMINATION TO EWIS

Contamination to EWIS components can be:

• Natural - contamination agent is an
identified material used in aircraft systems
• Accidental - contamination agent comes
from an external source
• The effect of ageing - the contamination
agent is dust

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EWIS CLEANING

Safety practices:
• Read the safety data sheets before using a material
• Obey the local regulations and manufacturer’s instructions
• Use solvents/cleaning agents, sealants and other special materials
 Only with a good flow of air through the work area
 Put on protective clothing
 Do not get them in your mouth, do not smoke, do not breathe the gas
 Get medical help if needed

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 113

TYPES OF CLEANING SOLVENT

You can use solvents only if there is a natural contamination.

Do not use solvents if it is an accidental contamination and you do not know the
material that caused the contamination.

Types of Solvent
Natural Contamination Recommended Cleaning Material
Aircraft hydraulic fluid
Fuel and Oil/Grease
De-icing fluids Isopropyl Alcohol (Material No. 11-010)
or equivalent
Anti-corrosion material (Refer to the local regulations)
Dust

To be treated on a case-by-case basis

Accidental contamination dependent on
the chemical nature of the material

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EWIS CLEANING PROCEDURE

In relation to type of contamination, do these steps:

• For Liquid contamination:
 Stop the contamination source
 Isolate the contamination
 Remove the contamination
• For powder, granular or dust contamination:
 Make sure there are no draughts
 Remove contamination with a vacuum cleaner
• Keep the contaminated area to a minimum
• Find applicable cleaning procedure and method
• Find characteristics of contamination agent if an accidental contamination
• Visually examine contaminated electrical items for traces of damage

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 115

EWIS CLEANING PROCEDURE

Clean only the areas and items that have contamination:

• Ensure the cleaning materials and methods will not cause more contamination
Basic cleaning materials (PH>11) are not permitted.

Type of Damage Procedure

Discoloration (connectors, terminal blocks,
modules, bases, etc.)

Cracks

Expansion of the sealing grommets (module,

connectors, etc.)
Replace the electrical item
Supplier marks erased

Loss of label adhesion

Functional Item Number erased on placards,

sleeves or labels

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EWIS CLEANING METHOD

Precautions:
• Always start from top to bottom & periphery to center of contaminated area
• If you use cleaning agents:
 Test in a low-risk area or on a small surface
 Examine results are satisfactory
• If using a cloth, it is clean, dry and lint-free
• If you use a vacuum cleaner, make sure:
 The filters are in position
 Its outlet is out of the aircraft
Clean with cloth and solvent - obey the safety practice
• Do not get more solvent than is necessary for the task
• Out of the aircraft, transfer only necessary quantity of solvent from its initial
container to small capacity cans (less than ½ litre).
• Never put the cloth in the liquid but always put the liquid on the cloth
2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 117

CONCLUSION

Now that you have completed this topic, you should be able to:

7.7.1 Explain continuity, insulation and bonding techniques and associated

testing procedures.
7.7.2 Explain the use of hand and hydraulic operated crimping tools.
7.7.3 Explain the requirements for testing crimp joints.
7.7.4 Explain tools for connector pin removal and insertion and their methods
of use.
7.7.5 Explain testing procedures and installation precautions for coaxial
cables.
7.7.6 State the identification of wire types, their inspection criteria and
damage tolerance.

Continued …

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CONCLUSION

Now that you have completed this topic, you should be able to:

7.7.7 Explain the following wiring protection techniques:

• Cable looming and loom support
• Cable clamps
• Protective sleeving techniques, including
 Heat shrink wrapping
 Shielding
7.7.8 Explain EWIS installations, inspection, repair, maintenance and
cleanliness standards.

2012-12-21 ☻ Slide No. 119

This concludes
Module B-7 Maintenance Practices
Topic 7.7 Electrical Wiring
Interconnecting System (EWIS)

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Module B-7 Maintenance Practices

Topic 7.15.1: Soldering

INTRODUCTION

On completion of this topic you should be able to:

7.15.1.1 Explain soldering methods and inspection of soldered joints.

7.15.1.2 Explain tinning and the use of heatsinks when soldering.
7.15.1.3 Explain desoldering techniques.
7.15.1.4 Explain soldering techniques on printed circuit boards.
7.15.1.5 Explain wire wrapping techniques.

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SOLDERING

Used in aircraft electrical wiring to form a continuous and permanent metallic

connection having a constant electrical value.
A process of joining metal surfaces together with a metal alloy (solder).
Solder - designed to melt at a temperature lower than melting point of metal it joins.
A soldering flux with a melting point lower than the solder is used to “wet” the metal
and allow the solder to penetrate it and remove the film of tarnish or oxide.
The soldering methods used for general aircraft wiring are essentially the same for
both production soldering and repair work.
2013-01-09 ☻ Slide No. 3

SOLDER

Function - to act as a filler metal while forming a

physical and electrical bond.
An alloy of 2 or more metals and joins component
parts by application of heat.
Solders can be classified as:
• Soft solder - an alloy consisting of various
combinations of tin and lead, with silver and
other additives, which melts at temperatures
below 370 ºC
• Hard solder (often called brazing alloy):
 A silver alloy and is used when greater
mechanical strength or exposure to higher
temperatures is required
 Not used on printed circuits

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SOFT SOLDER

Solder used for electronics is a metal alloys

mainly made up of:
• Tin (Sn)
• Lead (Pb)
Tin/lead solders are also called soft solders:
• Have good corrosion resistance
• Can be used for joining most metals
When heated, the soft solder does not melt
instantaneously, but rather, first becomes soft
or plastic, then become liquid.
The most used type is 60/40 solder- a
combination of 60% tin and 40% lead.

2013-01-09 ☻ Slide No. 5

TIN-LEAD ALLOY PHASE DIAGRAM

Pure lead Pure tin melting

melting point point 232°C
327°C

Solders that contain 19.5% to 97.5% tin remain a solid until they exceed 183°C.
All solder alloys pass through 3 phases, namely, liquid, plastic and solid when
cooled from a molten state, except 63/37 alloy.
A 63/37 solder becomes completely liquid at 183°C.
Where liquidus and solidus lines meet is known as the eutectic point.
Plastic state – the condition where alloy is neither a liquid or a solid.
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WETTING ACTION

Bond is formed by wetting solid metal with liquid solder at correct temperature.
Free flow and spreading of solder to form a uniform, smooth, unbroken and
adherent film of solder on a base metal.
Complete when all of desired surface area is covered by solder and can be
measured by tangent angle at which the solder meets surfaces of metals being
soldered – called dihedral angle of wetting – prime indicator of quality and reliability
of a solder connection.
2013-01-09 ☻ Slide No. 7

LEAD-FREE SOLDER

Lead is toxic to humans because it bio-accumulates in the body.

Lead is very soluble in nature it can be dangerous for our environment, too.
Legislation is being developed worldwide to reduce or remove the lead content in
electronic products.
Lead is a banned substance listed in the EU RoHS Directive.
Rapidly replaced by lead-free solder in electronics / electrical industry.
As of today, Sn-Ag-Cu alloy is the most acceptable lead-free solder, although
having a higher melting point.
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FLUXES

Flux is a cleaning agent to remove oxidation during soldering.

Flux cleans the metal by removing the oxide layer.
Warning:
Liquid solder flux may generate a flammable vapour - keep away from open flames
and other sources of ignition.
Avoid breathing fumes generated by soldering - eye protection is required.
2013-01-09 ☻ Slide No. 9

FLUXES

There are several categories of soldering fluxes:

• Rosin Flux - usually included in solder wire core.
They may be different type of activity:
 R - Rosin only
 RMA - Rosin Mildly Activated
 RA - Rosin Activated
• Acid Flux (or commonly known fluxes: Zinc
chloride, hydrochloric, ammoniac) - most active
group, used for metal mending and plumbing, not
use in electronic device soldering and repair
• Organic Flux
 Almost same effect as acid flux but less
corrosive
 Are biodegradable if stored for longer time
With soft solder, use only type “R” or “RMA” rosin
fluxes in aircraft.
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FLUX-CORE SOLDER

Flux-cored solder is the solder wire with a channel of rosin flux inside.
The most common form of solder used in electrical/electronics repair.
They provide a convenient and controlled flux application.
To avoid atmospheric pollution and hazardous waste disposal, the electronics
industry has been gradually shifting from rosin flux to water-soluble (WS) flux.

2013-01-09 ☻ Slide No. 11

SOLVENTS

Used as a chemical cleaning agent in soldering process to:

• Remove light oils, tarnish and other contaminants prior to soldering
• Remove flux and its residues from connection on completion of soldering
Primary solvent now used for soldering is Isopropyl Alcohol (IPA).
IPA is a general purpose solvent for removal of salts, residues (including flux) and
other contaminants (such as finger oils) in all electronic equipment.
Initial cleaning is performed using a mixture of:
• 3 parts isopropyl alcohol.
• 1 part de-ionised/de-mineralised water
Followed by flushing with water and non-ionic detergent.
Precautions
Flammable - keep away from excess heat and ignition sources.
Solvents will remove skin oils - avoid prolonged skin contact.
Avoid breathing fumes and vapours from the solvents.
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SAFETY HAZARDS AND PRECAUTIONS

BURNS

Soldering presents a real risk of painful or dangerous burns.

Burns may also be caused by chemical substances.
To minimise risk of a burn, following should be observed:
• Do NOT rest a hot iron on work bench or chair – Use appropriate holder
• Do NOT flick excess solder from tip of iron – use clean dry sponge or cloth
• Do NOT touch joints that have just been soldered
• Support large work-pieces securely while soldering

2013-01-09 ☻ Slide No. 13

SAFETY HAZARDS AND PRECAUTIONS

FLUXES AND SOLVENTS

Many solvents & fluxes generate toxic fumes & vapours

particularly when heated.
Effects of poisoning by inhalation or ingestion, either
through the skin or mouth, may not be evident immediately.
To reduce possibility of these occurrences, do the following:
• Wear suitable personal protective equipment (PPE) –
refer MSDS
• Use minimum possible quantity of solvents
• Keep solvent containers capped when not in use
• Follow manufacturers directions
• Provide adequate ventilation
• Do NOT allow solvents or fluxes to touch or remain on
skin unnecessarily
• Wash hands thoroughly before eating or smoking

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SAFETY HAZARDS AND PRECAUTIONS

GENERAL
• Do not smoke, eat, drink or bring food into the work area
• Do not work without supervision
• Do not participate in horseplay
• Keep benches and floors clean and tidy
Before all practical tasks:
• Ensure all tools and equipment are serviceable prior to use
• Remove all jewellery
• Sleeves should be rolled down and fastened
During all practical tasks:
• Observe applicable safety precautions pertinent to equipment being used
• Wear appropriate Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
After all practical tasks:
• Disconnect soldering irons from power source or turn off power source
2013-01-09 ☻ Slide No. 15

FIRST AID

2 most likely hazards requiring immediate first aid

treatment are:
• Burns
• Solvent/Solder in the eye(s)
Burns
• Immediately cool the affected area under gently
running cold water
• Do not apply any creams or ointments
• Seek medical help
Solvent / Solder in Eye(s)
• Do NOT attempt to remove solder
• Allow solder to cool & dilute solvent by flushing
with copious amounts of water
• Place pads on both eyes
• Transport patient to medical aid / hospital
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HEAT APPLICATION METHODS

Soldering Iron - the most commonly used method of heat application for soldering
joints in aircraft electrical wiring is by means of an electrically heated, hand held
soldering iron.
Resistance soldering - frequently used in large volume production where the
operation is standardised.
Torch soldering - is used where a high heat is required - as in silver soldering.
Dip soldering - is the process of immersing connections in molten solder, mostly
used on printed circuits.
2013-01-09 ☻ Slide No. 17

SOLDERING IRON

Most useful tool used in soldering operations is the soldering iron.

Depending on application, various types are commonly used:
• Instant Heat
• Constant Heat
• Thermostatically Controlled
• Electronically Controlled

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INSTANT HEAT

Not for use on electronic equipment

Instant heat iron is used for general soldering where high heat is required.
Power is controlled by an on/off trigger switch.
Temperature at tip is virtually uncontrollable.
Generally prohibited from use on electronic equipment.

2013-01-09 ☻ Slide No. 19

CONSTANT HEAT

Constant heat iron is used for equipment which is not heat sensitive.
General soldering in Automotive/General Service Equipment (GSE).
Tip heats to its idle temperature and when placed on to connection, drops to its
working temperature.

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THERMOSTATICALLY CONTROLLED

Also used for general soldering on Automotive/GSE.

Similar in construction to constant heat iron.
Main difference being a thermostat is used to control the tip temperature.
Thermostat switches power on and off to control tip temperature.
This action maintains the tip within reasonable temperature limits.
Unfortunately, response time allows a sizeable temperature variation resulting in
tip temperature ‘hunting’ around a preset level.
2013-01-09 ☻ Slide No. 21

ELECTRONICALLY CONTROLLED

Notice temperature sensor is very close to tip.

Provides constant feedback to control unit – maintaining stable tip temperature.
Fast heating, rapid recovery time and allows a wide range of temperatures.

2013-01-09 ☻ Slide No. 22

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MAGNETIC TEMPERATURE CONTROL OF

SOLDERING IRONS

Tip temperature is sensed by a piece of magnetic alloy mounted on end of

soldering tip fitted in barrel of iron.
This alloy loses its magnetic properties when its temperature rises above a
specific value (its Curie point).
To change operating temperature, tip itself must be changed.
Tips should be selected according temperature marking on the end of the tip.
2013-01-09 ☻ Slide No. 23

SOLDERING IRON PREPARATION

Before using the soldering iron prepare it as follows:

• File each working surface of soldering
iron tip with a double-cut mill file until it is
smooth and a bright copper colour
• Remove copper fuzz from dressed edges
with a file card
• Plug in the iron and apply cored solder
just as the bright dressed copper colour
is turning to a pigeon-blue, bronze, oxide
colour
Caution: Do not allow the iron to reach full
temperature before tinning operation.
• Wipe off excess solder with a damp
sponge or cloth
Note: Do not file soldering iron tips coated with pure iron. Filing will ruin the
protective coating. If the tip is pitted, replace it.

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SOLDERING IRON MAINTENANCE

Prior to use, remove the tip from the iron and clean out the black scale from the
inside of the iron and from the tip with fine steel wool.
When replacing the tip, it should be inserted to the full depth of the casing and
seated firmly against the heating element.
Caution: Never shake or “whip” an iron to get rid of dross or excess solder droplets.
During use and just before each application, pass the soldering iron tip (with a
rotary motion) through the folds of a damp cleaning sponge or wipe on a wiping
pad.

2013-01-09 ☻ Slide No. 25

SOLDERING IRON TIP MAINTENANCE

To enable a soldering iron tip to readily accept solder, tip should be tinned.
Tips can be polished prior to tinning.
Tip should be kept clean and loaded with excess solder when not in use.
Maintenance of the solder station should be carried out at regular intervals.
Remove tip from barrel of the soldering iron to prevent seizure of the tip.
Using a wire brush, clean barrel to remove traces of oxidisation.
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TIP INSERTION AND EXTRACTION

Care must be taken during both insertion and extraction of solder tip.
Do NOT rotate or bend tip, as damage to temperature sensor may result.
Removal of the soldering tip and sleeve is performed by grasping the protruding
length of sleeve against the tip using tip pliers, and removing by a straight pull.

2013-01-09 ☻ Slide No. 27

SOLDER POTS

A form of constant heat soldering iron, fitted with a crucible for molten solder.
Used for pre-tinning components and wires prior to soldering.

2013-01-09 ☻ Slide No. 28

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RESISTANCE TWEEZERS

Operate differently to soldering irons.

Connection is heated by passing a high current through the terminal.
Commonly used on soldering terminals and plugs, where it is not practical to
use a conventional iron.
Current, and consequently heat, will flow between 2 points where probes
contact the work.
Have these points as close to joint as practical – avoids over-heating work.
Remember... NO electrical contact, NO current flow, NO heat.
2013-01-09 ☻ Slide No. 29

HEAT SINKS

Many components are extremely heat sensitive and could be destroyed during
the soldering operation by flow of heat conducted along the lead.
Heat sinks are used to absorb this conducted heat.
Heat sinks have two basic and essential features:
• A narrow clamping area which is attached to the component lead
• A large body area which absorbs and dissipates heat
2013-01-09 ☻ Slide No. 30

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TYPICAL SOLDERING OPERATION

Following are typical soft-soldering operations used in aircraft electrical wiring:

• Tinning:
 Wires or cables preparatory to joint soldering and to fuse ends
 Contact pins and inside surfaces of solder cups
 Shielded wire braid, after twisting, to fuse, terminal and connect
• Soldering:
 Tinned wires and cables inserted into terminals
 Twisted connections, or broken wire for emergency repair
 PCB conductor pattern defects
• De-soldering:
 Soldered joints prior to re-marking
 remove component for replacement on printed circuit

2013-01-09 ☻ Slide No. 31

TINNING

The process of applying a thin coating of solder to working surface of a metal.

Assists in transfer of heat from tip to work and protects plating on tip from corrosion
(oxidation), and also protects plating on tip from physical damage when not in use.
When properly applied, the tinning should cover the entire working surface of tip.
Excessive tinning is prevented by using anti-wicking tools and tweezers.
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TINNING

The solder shall completely wet the conductor, penetrate to the inner strands, and
exhibit 100% coverage.
Wire strands shall be distinguishable.
Wicking of flux or solder shall be minimized.
Tinning does not extend under insulation – avoids flux being deposited under
insulation (where it cannot be cleaned away).
Also provides a length of flexible wire between tinned portion and insulation.
After tinning, the conductor insulation shall not exhibit any damage.
2013-01-09 ☻ Slide No. 33

GENERAL SOLDERING OPERATION

A quality soldered joint is accomplished only on a

mechanical connection of approved geometry, dress,
and dimensions.
The following instructions apply generally to soldering:
• Cleaning - Ensure that the parts are mechanically
“bright-clean” before soldering.
• Pre-tinning - Wires to be attached to most
electrical connectors must be pre-tinned.
• Selection of flux and solder:
For general applications up to 120 °C use non-
activated flux cored solder, 60% tin, 40% lead
For applications with silver plated components
use non-activated flux cored solder, 62% tin,
2% silver remainder lead
For high temperature applications (190 °C )
use solid wire solder, 97.5% lead, 1% tin, 1.5%
silver
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GENERAL SOLDERING OPERATION

Continued

• Selection of soldering iron:

 60, 100, and 200 watts Irons - general use in aircraft electrical wiring
 20 to 60 watts pencil irons - for soldering small parts
 Lightweight 55 watt iron - for printed circuits
• Choice of soldering tip:
 The shape of the tip
face should provide the
best fit into the joint
and, consequentially,
the best heat flow
 The optimum tip face
should be between 2/3
and 3/4 of the joint
diameter

2013-01-09 ☻ Slide No. 35

GENERAL SOLDERING OPERATION

Continued
• Soldering iron tip - Before the soldering operation, make sure
that the iron tip is clean, smooth, and well tinned.
• Securing the joint – Ensure the joint is mechanically secure.
• Application of heat and solder:
 Apply flux-core solder at the exact point and hold the iron
directly against the assembly
 Melt the solder on the joint, not the iron
 Place the soldering iron firmly against the junction
• Heat application time – Apply proper heat to melt the solder
• Amount of solder:
 Do not use any more solder than necessary
 Do not pile up solder around the joint
 Prevent silver-coated wire from wicking during solder
application
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GENERAL SOLDERING OPERATION

Continued
• Soldering iron holder- Keep the soldering
iron in a holder when not in use.
• Do not allow the iron to overheat
• Cooling the solder joint:
 When the solder joint has been made,
hold the work firmly in place until the
joint has set
 Allow solder joints to cool naturally
• Post solder cleaning:
 Remove any flux residue as soon as
possible, but no later than one hour
 Mechanical means and other methods
of applications may be used in
conjunction with the cleaning solution
 Clean the tip of soldering iron
2013-01-09 ☻ Slide No. 37

SOLDERING VARIABLES

Prior to actually soldering, following variables must be considered:

• Soldering Temperature
• Soldering Time
• Soldering Tip Size and Shape
• Position of the Tip
• Solder Gauge
• Heatbridge
Soldering Temperature – typical:
• Most efficient soldering temperature range is between 240° C and 270° C
Soldering Time:
• Time to raise connection to soldering temperature – no more than 1 to 2 seconds
• The time connection is maintained at this temperature is ideally 2 to 3 seconds
• Total time in region of 3 to 5 seconds, well within safe limits of most components

2013-01-09 ☻ Slide No. 38

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SOLDERING VARIABLES

Soldering Tip Size and Shape:

• Determined by shape and thermal mass of the work-piece to be soldered
• A small tip thermal mass to a large work-piece thermal mass will cause tip
temperature to drop radically and solder joint temperature to rise too slowly
• A large tip thermal mass to a small work-piece thermal mass relationship
could raise temperature at such a rapid rate that overheat may result
Position of the Tip:
• Position tip so all parts of connection will be raised to selected soldering
temperature simultaneously, and in shortest possible time
Solder Gauge:
• Gauge of solder must be selected in relation to the size of the work-piece
• Too large gauge solder – too much solder deposit
• Too small gauge solder – likely to result in overheating, due to excessive time
required to feed in the solder

2013-01-09 ☻ Slide No. 39

SOLDERING VARIABLES

Heat bridge
• Small quantity of solder applied to junction of working surfaces and soldering tip
• Solder will flow by capillary action and gravity, providing heat transfer paths to
all parts of the connection
• Provides more rapid and even heat transfer/distribution to working surfaces

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INSPECTING A SOLDERED JOINT

Acceptable Example

A good soldered joint:

• Have a bright silvery appearance, with smooth fillets and feathered non-
sharp edges
• The connection should be mechanically strong
• The entire joint should be covered with a smooth even coat of solder
• The contour of the joint will be visible

2013-01-09 ☻ Slide No. 41

INSPECTING A SOLDERED JOINT

Unacceptable Example

Any of the following indicate a poor solder joint and are cause for rejection:
• Dull gray, chalky, or granular appearance - evidence of a cold joint
• Hair cracks or irregular surface - evidence of a disturbed joint
• Greyish, wrinkled appearance – evidence of excessive heat
• Partially exposed joint - evidence of insufficient solder
• Scorched wire insulation or burned connector inserts
• Globules, drips, or tails of solder
2013-01-09 ☻ Slide No. 42

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SOLDERING TERMINALS

There are many types of terminals used for

connecting wires and components in electronic
assembly.
Each type usually requires a modification of the
general soldering procedure.
Wires must be stripped and pre-tinned before
soldering to terminals.
5 common types of terminals:
• Turret terminal
• Bifurcated terminal
• Solder cup terminal
• Perforated/Pierced terminal
• Hook/Pin terminal

2013-01-09 ☻ Slide No. 43

SOLDERING TERMINALS
Turret terminal

Insulation gap (referenced from the 1st point of contact of conductor to the terminal)
shall be 1 ~ 2 wire diameters, but shall not be imbedded in the solder joint.
The wire contour shall be visible at the end of the insulation.
Lead outline is discernible, smooth flow of solder on wire and terminal.
A defect - solder fillet is less than 75% of the circumference of wire and terminal
interface.

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SOLDERING TERMINALS
Bifurcated terminal

The lead profile is discernable, with wire and terminal interface completely wetted.
Solder is smooth and shiny, and fillets the entire wire/lead and terminal interface.
When multiple conductors are connected to a terminal:
• Placed in ascending order, with largest on the bottom
• The direction of bend of each additional conductor shall alternate
• The termination shall alternate posts
The end tail shall not extend beyond the diameter of the terminal base.

2013-01-09 ☻ Slide No. 45

SOLDERING TERMINALS
Solder cup terminal

A hollow, cylindrical terminal to accommodate one or more conductors.

The wire is inserted straight into the cup, and is in contact with the back wall for
the full depth of the cup and bottoms in the cup.
The assembly exhibits proper insulation gap and cup interior has been pre-tinned.
The solder shall form a fillet between the conductor and the cup entry slot, and
shall follow the contour of the cup opening.
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SOLDERING TERMINALS
Solder cup terminal

Acceptable Maximum Solder Acceptable Minimum Solder (75%)

Unacceptable Unacceptable
Excess solder Insufficient solder quantity
2013-01-09 ☻ Slide No. 47

SOLDERING TERMINALS
Solder cup terminal

Acceptable multiple terminations Acceptable spillage

Unacceptable Unacceptable
Excessive conductors Spillage
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SOLDERING TERMINALS
Perforated/Pierced terminal

The wire passes through the eye of the terminal, is wrapped in contact with both
sides of the terminal, and does not overhang the terminal edge.
Insulation clearance is less than 1 wire diameter.
The lead profile is discernable, with wire and terminal interface completely wetted.
Solder is smooth and shiny, and fillets the entire wire/lead and terminal interface.
Defect – the solder is dewetted from terminal and solder contact angle is greater
than 90°.

2013-01-09 ☻ Slide No. 49

SOLDERING TERMINALS
Hook/Pin terminal

The conductor is wrapped in full contact with the terminal for a minimum of 180 º
and a maximum of 270º, and is attached to the hook within the 180º arc.
Insulation clearance is less than 1 wire diameter, and wire end does not protrude.
The lead profile is discernable, with wire and terminal interface completely wetted.
Solder is smooth and shiny, and fillets the entire wire/lead and terminal interface.
The conductors are wrapped in full contact for a minimum of 180º. Wraps alternate
direction and do not overlap.
Terminations are located more than one wire diameter from hook end, with majority
located within the 180º arc (hook).

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SOLDERING TERMINALS
Hook/Pin terminal

The termination is not located in the 180º arc of the terminal, with the wrap
located less than one wire diameter from the hook end.
Soldering defect:
• Does not exhibit a solder fillet joining the wire to the terminal for at least 75%
of the wire and terminal contact
• Solder contact angle greater than 90°

2013-01-09 ☻ Slide No. 51

SOLDERING ON
PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARDS

Printed Circuit Boards (PCB) are etched with a pattern of electrically conductive
tracks on one or both sides.
The preparation and precautions for soldering conventionally wired equipment apply
to soldering printed circuit boards.
Additional precautions should be obeyed when soldering printed circuit connections.

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SOLDERING TECHNIQUE

Place the soldering iron tip evenly against both the lead and the circuit
board solder pad.
Heat both for 2 or 3 seconds.

2013-01-09 ☻ Slide No. 53

SOLDERING TECHNIQUE

Then apply solder to other side of connection.

Important: Let heated lead and circuit board foil melt solder.
As solder begins to melt, allow it to flow around connection.

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SOLDERING TECHNIQUE

When both lead and circuit board foil are heated at same time, solder will flow
outward and gradually blend with foil and lead.
Then remove solder and iron and let connection cool.
Hold lead with one hand while you cut off excess lead length close to connection.
• This will protect you from being hit in the eye by flying lead

2013-01-09 ☻ Slide No. 55

SOLDERING TECHNIQUE

When lead is not heated sufficiently, solder will not flow onto the lead.
A dark rosin bead surrounds and insulates lead from connection.

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SOLDERING TECHNIQUE

When foil is not heated sufficiently, solder will flow inward and sit on top of foil.

2013-01-09 ☻ Slide No. 57

CLEANING A SOLDER JOINT

After soldering, there will be a brown waxy substance left on joint – flux residue.
In its original state it is slightly corrosive.
Must be removed from joint before soldering can be considered complete.
If not properly removed, corrosive nature will gradually destroy component leads
or circuit board tracking material.
Flux residue is also 'tacky' and, if not removed, will collect dust and debris and
often leads to circuit failure over time.

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INSPECTION OF SOLDER CONNECTION

ON PCB

The solder joint surfaces are smooth,

nonporous and undisturbed, with a finish
varying from satin to bright.
The fillet completely wets all elements of the
connection and should be concave in shape,
feathering out smoothly to the edge of the pad.

Leads terminated straight through the PCB

shall extend 0.5 mm to 2.29 mm beyond
the pad surface.
Leads may be bend up to 30° from the
vertical plane to retain the part during
soldering.

2013-01-09 ☻ Slide No. 59

BAD SOLDER CONNECTION

Cold joint

Poor
wetting

Cold joint occurs where flux has been unable to remove tarnish from joint and the
viscous solder has displaced flux and bonded directly to tarnish.
At low temperatures, the flux is only partly activated and therefore less effective at
removing tarnish.
Indications of a cold joint include:
• High electrical resistance • A convex solder fillet
• Intermittent electrical connection • A step at the edge of solder flow
• Poor wetting of joint
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BAD SOLDER CONNECTION

Dry joint

A dry joint or resin bond is formed when solder is too viscous to push flux away
from component lead and a layer of the flux becomes trapped around lead.
This layer of flux causes a weak bond and a poor electrical connection.
Indications of a dry joint are similar to those for a cold joint but, in addition,
there is an apparent film of flux trapped against the component lead.
Typically caused by dirty or oxidised leads.
2013-01-09 ☻ Slide No. 61

BAD SOLDER CONNECTION

Too Much Solder Too Little Solder

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BAD SOLDER CONNECTION

Solder Bridge Lifted Trace/Pad

2013-01-09 ☻ Slide No. 63

BAD SOLDER CONNECTION

Not Soldered (Exposed base metal) Flux residue

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DE-SOLDERING

In electronics, desoldering is the removal of solder and components from a circuit

for troubleshooting, for repair purposes, and to salvage components.
To remove components from a PCB, their leads or lugs must first be de-soldered.
There are two ways to remove the solder:
• With soldering wick (also called desoldering wick, copper braid)
• With a desoldering pump (solder sucker)

2013-01-09 ☻ Slide No. 65

DE-SOLDERING
Solder Wick

Solder Wick is a cheap and very effective way of desoldering a joint.

Take care not to overheat the board.
Molten solder is drawn up by capillary action into the braid.

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DE-SOLDERING
Desoldering Pump

A desoldering pump may also be used for desoldering a joint.

The manual type use a manually set pump while de-soldering stations use an
integral electric vacuum pump.
2013-01-09 ☻ Slide No. 67

DE-SOLDERING EXAMPLE

2 solder joints to be de-soldered to enable a component to be replaced.

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DE-SOLDERING EXAMPLE

A suction-type desoldering pump is used.

Firstly, apply the soldering iron tip to melt the solder joint (1-2 seconds).
Ensure the pump is 'primed' and ready to go.

2013-01-09 ☻ Slide No. 69

DE-SOLDERING EXAMPLE

Nozzle is applied to molten solder and spring-loaded plunger is then released.

This will draw the molten solder up into the pump.
Repeat the process if needed.

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DE-SOLDERING EXAMPLE

First joint is now de-soldered.

Second joint will be de-soldered by using braid.

2013-01-09 ☻ Slide No. 71

DE-SOLDERING EXAMPLE

Select a suitable width of braid

Press it down onto the COLD joint using hot tip of iron.

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DE-SOLDERING EXAMPLE

Molten solder is drawn up by capillary action into the braid.

Take care not to overheat, nor 'drag whiskers' of solder over board, nor let
the braid solidify onto the joint.
Remove the braid while the joint is still molten.
2013-01-09 ☻ Slide No. 73

DE-SOLDERING EXAMPLE

The faulty component dropped out of board after de-soldering.

Sometimes, it may need persuading with pliers.

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DE-SOLDERING EXAMPLE

Both joints are desoldered and ready for replacement part to be fitted.

2013-01-09 ☻ Slide No. 75

WIRE WRAPPING

Solderless wire-wrapping process is a convenient method used to terminate a wire.

Not commonly used but still encountered in some equipment types (B747-400).
Made by helically wrapping a solid uninsulated wire, around a specially designed
termination post, to produce a mechanically and electrically stable connection.

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WIRE WRAPPING

3 major components:
• Wrapping Wire
• Wire-wrap Post
• Wire-wrap Tool

2013-01-09 ☻ Slide No. 77

NUMBER OF TURNS

Wire Size Diameter Minimum Number of Turns

(AWG) in mm Class A Class B
30* 0.010 0.25 7 stripped + ½ to 2 insulated turns 7 stripped turns

28* 0.0126 0.32 7 stripped + ½ to 2 insulated turns 7 stripped turns

26 0.0159 0.40 6 stripped + ½ to 2 insulated turns 6 stripped turns

24 0.0201 0.51 5 stripped + ½ to 2 insulated turns 5 stripped turns

22* 0.0253 0.64 5 stripped + ½ to 2 insulated turns 5 stripped turns

20* 0.0320 0.81 4 stripped + ½ to 2 insulated turns 4 stripped turns

18* 0.0403 1.02 4 stripped + ½ to 2 insulated turns 4 stripped turns

Terminations usually have from 4 to 7 turns of bare wire wrapped around post.
Number of turns will vary depending on wire gauge used and terminal size.
2 types of wire-wrap are:
• Class A - Modified Connections
• Class B - Conventional Connections – prohibited in aircraft

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CLASS A - MODIFIED CONNECTIONS

Class A provides improved vibration characteristics, and is the required wrap

style for air-borne hardware applications.
This modified, wire-wrapped joint requires 1/2 to 2 turns of insulated wire being in
contact with at least 3 corners of the wrap post, in addition to uninsulated wraps.

2013-01-09 ☻ Slide No. 79

CLASS B - CONVENTIONAL CONNECTIONS

Helix of uninsulated continuous solid wire tightly wrapped around a terminal.

The insulation, if present, does not contact the terminal post.
Only use in equipment exposed to little or no vibration.

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WIRE WRAPPING PROCESS

Wire stripper stored within tool under cap - Strip approx 2 cm of insulation.
Insert conductor through small hole and out through groove on side.
Place over terminal post and wrap as required.
2013-01-09 ☻ Slide No. 81

WIRE WRAPPING INSPECTION

Acceptable multiple terminations :

• The terminations are properly spaced,
with each having the required number of
insulated and uninsulated turns of wire,
and are clean and free of foreign material
• No conductors overlap

Acceptable overlapped turns - The insulated

conductor overwrap does not exceed 1 turn,
and the termination wrap is tight.

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WIRE WRAPPING INSPECTION

The space between adjacent wrap turns shall not

exceed one-half un-insualted conductor diameter.
The sum of all gaps shall not exceed one wire
diameter, excluding the first and last turn.

2013-01-09 ☻ Slide No. 83

WIRE WRAPPING INSPECTION

The wire shall not be routed in any manner that

will tend to unwrap the termination, and shall
be routed around and between the wrap posts
in a manner that prevents shorting to adjacent
wrap posts.

Insufficient wire slack causing:

• Abrasion between wire insulation
and wrap post
• Tensions on wires between wrap
post causing distortion of posts.
• Pressure on wires that are crossed
by a taut wire

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WIRE WRAPPING INSPECTION

The use of standard conductor for wire

wrapping is prohibited.

The use of wrap posts with silver

underplating is prohibited.
Gold plating over nickel is preferred.

2013-01-09 ☻ Slide No. 85

CONCLUSION

Now that you have completed this topic, you should be able to:

7.15.1.1 Explain soldering methods and inspection of soldered joints.

7.15.1.2 Explain tinning and the use of heatsinks when soldering.
7.15.1.3 Explain desoldering techniques.
7.15.1.4 Explain soldering techniques on printed circuit boards.
7.15.1.5 Explain wire wrapping techniques.

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This concludes
Module B-7 Maintenance Practices
Topic 7.15.1: Soldering

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