A COMPUTER-BASED TRAIF!

ING TOOL FOR JOVIAL 573

Lorraine Kotler SofTech, Inc. Fairborn, O H Dale Lange USAF JOVIAL Language C o n t r o l F a c i l i t y (ASD/SCEL) W r i g h t - P a t t e r s o n A i r Force Base, OH

ABSTRACT T h i s paper p r e s e n t s one approach t o t r a i n i n g maintenance programmers i n an o l d e r language, t h e development o f a Computer-based JOVIAL 573 T r a i n i n g course. The b e n e f i t s o f t h i s t y p e o f course, d i s c u s s e d i n t h e paper, i n c l u d e c o n t i n u o u s a v a i l a b i l i t y and r e l a t i v e l y modest c o s t .

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The JOVIAL computer based t r a i n i n g course d e s i g n was based on a two-week JOVIAL c l a s s t h a t was conducted by SofTech f o r t h e A i r Force (ASD) Language C o n t r o l Faci 1it y (LCF). The methodology used i n t r a n s f o r m i n g a human t e a c h e r based c l a s s i n t o a computer based t r a i n i n g c o u r s e i s exammined i n d e t a i l . The b e n e f i t s and d i f f i c u l t i e s o f u s i n g a computer t o t e a c h a computer language a r e compared w i t h those o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l classroom t e a c h i n g method, f r o m an e d u c a t i o n p e r s p e c t i v e . An o v e r v i e w o f t h e JOVIAL computer based t r a i n i n g system w i l l be p r e s e n t e d a l o n g w i t h some o f i t s unique features. 0.1 INTRODUCTION

Systems (ASD/SC) a t W r i g h t - P a t t e r s o n A i r Force Base, performs a s e r i e s o f f u n c t i o n s t o reduce A i r Force c o s t s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a i r b o r n e computer s o f t w a r e development. The LCF p r o v i d e s c e n t r a l c o n t r o l o f t h e JOVIAL 573 High Order Language (HOL) and a c t s as an Ada V a l i d a t i o n F a c i l i t y (AVF) r e s p o n s i b l e f o r Ada c o m p i l e r v a l i d a t i o n s and r e l a t e d t e c h n i c a l s e r v i c e s . As a p a r t o f t h e i r responsibility, t h e LCF has p r o v i d e d t r a i n i n g i n JOVIAL s i n c e 1979.* A l t h o u g h v a r i o u s d i a l e c t s o f t h e JOVIAL language have e x i s t e d s i n c e 1959, t h e 573 s t a n d a r d was n o t c r e a t e d u n t i l March 15, 1979. I n o r d e r t o a s s i s t u s e r s o f t h i s d i a l e c t , t h e LCF e s t a b l i s h e d a U s e r s ' H o t l i n e t o answer t e c h n i c a l q u e s t i o n s , developed JOVIAL 573 r e f e r e n c e and instructional material, d i s t r i b u t e d a video t r a i n i n g course, and p r o v i d e d s e v e r a l JOVIAL 573 p r o g r a m i n g classes. The i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s p r o v i d e d b y t h e LCF i n c l u d e a programming manual and a s e t o f f i f t e e n workbooks. These documents, which have been updated and k e p t c u r r e n t w i t h new r e l e a s e s o f t h e language s p e c i f i c a t i o n , have been w i d e l y d i s t r i b u t e d t o b o t h A i r Force o r g a n i z a t i o n s and contractors. The JOVIAL 573 v i d e o course i s a s e t of f i f t e e n lessons developed f o r use i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e workbooks. However, t h e videotapes were * U n t i l t h e r e l e a s e o f Department of Defense D i r e c t i v e (DoDD) 3405.2 ( 2 Apr 87), which o f f i c i a l l y p r e s c r i b e d Ada as t h e programming language t o be used i n computers i n t e g r a l t o weapon systems, JOVIAL 573 had been t h e r e q u i r e d language f o r A i r Force a i r b o r n e a v i o n i c s and strategic/tactical missile applications. In s u p p o r t o f t h e JOVIAL 573 s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n e f f o r t , t h e LCF has been r e s p o n s i b l e f o r v a r i o u s functions i n c l u d i n g : maintaining the o f f i c i a l 1anguage s p e c i f i c a t i o n ( c u r r e n t l y MIL-STD-1589C) , c o n d u c t i n g f o r m a l c o m p i l e r conformance t e s t i n g , maintaining the JOVIAL Compiler Validation System, p r o v i d i n g t e c h n i c a l a d v i c e t o users, p r o v i d i n g s u p p o r t t o t h e Ada-JOVIAL Users Group, m a i n t a i n i n g and enhancing s e l e c t e d JOVIAL t o o l s , and d i s s e m i n a t i n g i n f o r m a t i o n v i a t h e LCF Ada-JOVIAL N e w s l e t t e r .

Ps a r e s u l t o f t h e r e c e n t DoD mandate requiring the use of Ada for avionics a p p l i c a t i o n s , JOVIAL 573 w i l l no l o n g e r be used i n t h e development o f weapon-system programs. Why t h e n should t i m e and money be spent t o d e s i g n and develop a Computer-Based T r a i n i n g (CBT) t o o l t o t e a c h JOVIAL J73? The answer l i e s i n t h e f a c t t h a t t h e l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s o f c u r r e n t software t h a t were w r i t t e n i n JOVIAL s t i l l have t o be maintained. Consequently, t h e need t o t r a i n new programmers i n t h a t " o l d " language w i l l remain f o r many y e a r s t o come; b u t a t t h e same time, languaqe i n s t r u c t i o n resources a r e b e i n g d i v e r t e d t o Ada. The use o f t h e computer t o t e a c h a computer A language p r o v i d e s a way o u t o f t h i s dilemma. CBT t o o l i s an e f f i c i e n t , c o s t - e f f e c t i v e way o f p r o v i d i n g a course o f i n s t r u c t i o n i n JOVIAL. A computer course r e q u i r e s no human teacher; i t can be s e n t where i t i s needed; and i t can be p r o v i d e d f o r a c l a s s o f one s t u d e n t i f such i s t h e need.
0.2 PREVIOUS ACTIVITIES I N JOVIAL TRAINING

The JOVIAL Lanauage C o n t r o l F a c i l i t y (LCF), a s e r v i c e o r g a n i z a t i o n e s t a b l i s h e d b y t h e Language C o n t r o l Agent (LCA) and o p e r a t e d b y t h e Deputy C h i e f o f S t a f f (DCS) f o r Communications-Computer

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c r e a t e d i n l a t e 1979 f o r MIL-STD-1589A and have n o t been updated f o r new v e r s i o n s o f t h e language ca s p e c i f i t ion. The LCF has o f f e r e d t h r e e d i f f e r e n t JOVIAL 573 p r o g r a m i n g classes: I n t r o d u c t o r y JOVIAL 573 Programming, Ada Program Design Language (PDL) f o r JOVIAL 573 Implementation, and Advanced JOVIAL 573 Programming f o r MIL-STD-1750A I n s t r u c t i o n Set Architecture Applications. A1 though t h e advanced c l a s s and t h e Ada PDL c l a s s a r e r e l a t i v e l y new, t h e i n t r o d u c t o r y c l a s s has been o f f e r e d r o u t i n e l y s i n c e 1982. T h i s two-week course, which i n c l u d e s a1 1 JOVIAL 573 language c o n s t r u c t s and r e i n f o r c e s l e c t u r e s w i t h d e t a i l e d l a b o r a t o r y e x e r c i s e s , has been w e l l - a t t e n d e d b y b o t h A i r Force personnel and t h e i r c o n t r a c t o r s . A p p r o x i m a t e l y 30 c l a s s e s have been conducted a t W r i g h t - P a t t e r s o n A i r Force Base, w i t h a d d i t i o n a l c l a s s e s conducted a t o f f - s i t e facilit,ies at the request of Air Force o r g a n i z a t i o n s . O f f - s i t e c l a s s e s have been h e l d a t H i l l AFB, Robbins AFB, and M c C l e l l a n AFB, as w e l l as a t Delco Systems i n s u p p o r t o f t h e C-17; a t Lockheed-Georgia i n s u p p o r t o f t h e C-5B; and i n s u p p o r t o f t h e MX M i s s i l e . In all, Logicon t h e LCF has p r o v i d e d hands-on JOVIAL 573 t r a i n i n g t o o v e r 880 i n d i v i d u a l s . F i g u r e 1 shows p a s t 573 t r a i n i n g t r e n d s and p r o j e c t s f u t u r e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r JOVIAL 573 t r a i n i n g .

0.3 A CBT COURSE TRAINING REQUIREMENTS

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THE ANSWER TO LONG-TERM

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While JOVIAL 573 i s no l o n g e r a requirement f o r new A i r Force programs, e x i s t i n g programs u s i n g JOVIAL w i l l he i n t h e A i r Force i n v e n t o r y f o r many years. Programs u s i n g JOVIAL 573 i n c l u d e t h e B-IR, C-17, C-5B, F-111, F-15, F-16, KC-135, MILSTAR, Low Altitude Navigation Target-pod I n f r a R e d system f o r N i g h t (LANTIRN), Automated Remote T r a c k i n g S t a t i o n (ARTS), Data Systems M o d e r n i z a t i o n (DSM), and t h e MX M i s s i l e . A l l o f these programs must be m a i n t a i n e d w e l l I n o r d e r t o ensure t h e beyond t h e y e a r 2000. e x i s t e n c e o f q u a l i t y t r a i n i n g f o r personnel r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h i s maintenance, t h e LCF examined the currently a v a i 1a h l e training alternatives t o evaluate t h e i r effectiveness. The hands-on i n t r o d u c t o r y course was found t o be by f a r t h e most e f f e c t i v e method c u r r e n t l y a v a i l a b l e , b u t i n t h e l i g h t o f changing language p r i o r i t i e s , i t s long-term continuation could not be assumed. The Workbooks and Programming Manual were found t o be h e l p f u l t o t h e JOVIAL l e a r n e r , b u t d i d n o t meet t h e t o t a l t r a i n i n g requirements o f most o r g a n i z a t i o n s . While t h e videotapes m i g h t a l s o be h e l p f u l t o t h e l e a r n e r i f t h e y were updated, t h e y were expensive t o produce, and users d i d n o t f i n d them s t i m u l a t i n g . Since none

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o f t h e e x i s t i n g t r a i n i n g v e h i c l e s adequately addressed t h e A i r F o r c e ' s p r o j e c t e d JOVIAL 573 t r a i n i n g requirements, t h e LCF e v a l u a t e d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a CBT JOVIAL 573 course. The LCF determined t h a t such a course would p r o v i d e an economical and e f f e c t i v e means o f s a t i s f y i n g t h e A i r F o r c e ' s l o n g - t e r m t r a i n i n g requirements.
0.4

a d d i t i o n , s p e c i f i c needs o f a g i v e n s t u d e n t can be determined by erroneous responses to questions. These responses can generate p e r t i n e n t "he1 p" screens. Another advantage o f a computer course i s i t s portability. A new employee who needs t o l e a r n JOVIAL 573 w i l l n o t have t o w a i t a month o r two f o r t h e c o u r s e t o be o f f e r e d ; n o r w i l l he have t o t r a v e l t o a d i s t a n t c i t y . A CBT course i s a v a i l a b l e a t any t i m e i t i s needed, a t any p l a c e equipped w i t h t h e t a r g e t computer.

ADVANTAGES

OF A CBT COURSE

As t h e LCF s u p p o r t c o n t r a c t o r , SofTech was t a s k e d w i t h p r o v i d i n g t h e JOVIAL 573 t r a i n i n g courses d i s c u s s e d above. The same team o f SofTech s o f t w a r e e n g i n e e r s t h a t had p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e classroom JOVIAL course was now t a s k e d t o d e s i g n and develop a CBT course -- t o be adapted f r o m t h e two-week beginners JOVIAL 573 course. Consequentl y , t h i s team was u n i q u e l y q u a l i f i e d f o r t h e i r task. S e r i o u s problems encountered i n t h e f i e l d o f Computer Based I n s t r u c t i o n (CBI) a r e o f t e n r e l a t e d t o t h e f a c t t h a t t e a c h e r s g e n e r a l l y know 1 i t t l e about programming, and programmers know l i t t l e about e d u c a t i o n o r t h e s u b j e c t t o be taught. The team s e l e c t e d t o develop t h e JOVIAL t r a i n i n g t o o l was w e l l - v e r s e d i n b o t h aspects o f t h e task. Although t h e r e a r e some obvious weaknesses i n a t r a i n i n g c o u r s e w i t h o u t a human t e a c h e r t o f a c i l i t a t e t h e l e a r n i n g process, t h e r e a r e a l s o many b e n e f i t s p r o v i d e d b.v a computer-based course. F i r s t o f a l l , a CBT c l a s s i s i n d i v i d u a l i z e d ; w h i l e a t r a d i t i o n a l , human-based classroom i s geared t o a group. The r a t e a t which people l e a r n i s known to vary greatly, Some grasp a concept immediately; o t h e r s need more t i m e and d e t a i l e d explanations. L e a r n i n g s t y l e s a l s o v a r y from individual to individual. The traditional classroom t e a c h e r must f o c u s h i s e f f o r t s on t h e m y t h i c a l average student. Some s t u d e n t s w i l l be l o s t , and o t h e r s w i l l be bored and f e e l t h a t t h e i r t i m e i s b e i n g wasted. A l t h o u g h no course o f s t u d y can be a l l t h i n g s t o a l l people, a computer-based course can be adapted more r e a d i l y t o i n d i v i d u a l needs t h a n can a classroom course. The s t u d e n t works one-on-one w i t h h i s computer. He can s k i p o r s k i m t h r o u g h p a r t s o f t h e program t h a t he i s f a m i l i a r w i t h ; and he can redo lessons d e s c r i b i n g concepts he f i n d s d i f f i c u l t . I f he f i n d s a p a r t i c u l a r s u b j e c t e s p e c i a l l y d i f f i c u l t , he can c o n s u l t p e r t i n e n t " h e l p " screens. The computer teacher, u n l i k e t h e human teacher, i s t o t a l l y a t t h e disposal o f t h e student. Experience t e a c h i n g t h e human-based course has shown t h a t JOVIAL s t u d e n t s come f r o m v a s t l y d i f f e r e n t programming backgrounds. Some s t u d e n t s have had e x t e n s i v e e x p e r i e n c e w i t h JOVIAL-1 ike languages and o n l y need a q u i c k r e f r e s h e r course. Others have had a m i n i m a l amount o f programming experience and a r e t o t a l l y u n f a m i l i a r w i t h many concepts encountered i n JOVIAL (e.g. , p o i n t e r A maintenance types, t a b l e templates, e t c . ) . programmer may be f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e language b u t need h e l p w i t h a s p e c i f i c t o p i c . V a r y i n g needs o f i n d i v i d u a l s can be served i n t h e manner i n which t h e course i s designed. The s t u d e n t can be g i v e n c o n t r o l o v e r t h e s e l e c t i o n o f t o p i c s , t h e sequence of t o p i c s , and t h e pace o f t h e lesson. In

A w e l l - d e s i g n e d CBT course can u t i l i z e t h e computer's c a p a b i l i t i e s t o enhance t h e t e a c h i n g methodology. L e a r n i n g becomes a c t i v e r a t h e r t h a n p a s s i v e i f t h e s t u d e n t must respond t o f r e q u e n t questions; and l e a r n i n g i s r e i n f o r c e d t h r o u g h immediate feedback. The computer's visual e f f e c t s (e.g., c o l o r , g r a p h i c s , a n i m a t i o n ) can be used t o enhance and c l a r i f y m a t e r i a l and keep t h e student's interest.
Also, record-keeping t a s k s a r e handled w e l l by computers. Student r e c o r d s o f any t y p e d e s i r e d -- from t e s t scores t o lessons completed can a l l be s t o r e d on d i s k .

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I n a d d i t i o n t o a l l these advantages, a CBT course i s r e l a t i v e l y economical i n t h e l o n g run. A f t e r t h e i n i t i a l development c o s t s , maintenance c o s t s a r e minimal; and most o f t h e expenses r e l a t e d t o a f o r m a l classroom course a r e eliminated. 0.5 T O ASPECTS OF CBT TOOL DEVELOPMENT: W AND IMPLEMENTATION DESIGN

There a r e two b a s i c aspects t o t h e t a s k of developing a CBT tool: what and how. D e t e r m i n i n g t h e course c u r r i c u l u m -- as w e l l as t h e manner o f d i v i d i n g i t and p r e s e n t i n g i t -- i s a c r i t i c a l aspect o f CBT t o o l development. The computer medium, a l o n g w i t h t h e s u b j e c t t o be t a u g h t and pedagogical techniques, must be t h o r o u g h l y understood by t h e course designers. The goal i s a f i n i s h e d p r o d u c t t h a t w i l l enhance l e a r n i n g , u t i l i z i n g a l l t h e unique c a p a b i l i t i e s o f a computer system, and a t t h e same time, be easy t o use. A s t u d e n t must be a b l e t o focus h i s t i m e and a t t e n t i o n on l e a r n i n g t o use JOVIAL 573, n o t on t h e t e a c h i n g t o o l . Implementation methodology i s no less c r i t i c a l . The language t h e code i s t o be w r i t t e n in and the target machine are crucial c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . I n o r d e r t o be t r u l y u s e f u l , t h e system must be designed f o r machines t h a t a r e a v a i l a b l e a t t h e s i t e s where t h e t o o l w i l l be needed. The language s h o u l d be one w i t h f a c i l i t i e s f o r c r e a t i n g and m a n i p u l a t i n g t e a c h i n g t e c h n i q u e s i n c l u d e d i n t h e system design. Given a f i n i t e amount o f t i m e and money, t h e developer s h o u l d be a b l e t o f o c u s h i s time, a t t e n t i o n , and c r e a t i v e s k i l l s on what i s d i s p l a y e d on t h e screen r a t h e r t h a n on how t o code t h e d i s p l a y .

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OVERALL COURSE DESIGN

The computer course design was based upon t h e course n o t e s t h a t accompanied t h e two-week, b e g i n n e r JOVIAL 573 course d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r . The c o u r s e notes c o n s i s t o f t h e t r a n s p a r e n c i e s , which the i n s t r u c t o r displays i n conjunction w i t h h i s l e c t u r e s ; and which a r e d i s t r i b u t e d t o s t u d e n t s i n paper-copy form. The f o l l o w i n g m o d i f i c a t i o n s had t o b e made i n o r d e r t o adapt t h e course t o t h e computer medi um: [71 The course was r e s t r u c t u r e d i n t o s m a l l e r modules, c o n t a i n i n g t w e n t y t o t h i r t y m i n u t e s o f i n s t r u c t i o n (between t e n and t w e n t y screens). T h i s t i m e i n t e r v a l was s e l e c t e d f o r two reasons. F i r s t o f a l l , i t i s a t i m e framework that i s most e f f e c t i v e for l e a r n i n g ; and secondly, i t i s a b r i e f enough p e r i o d o f t i m e t o f i t i n t o t h e s t u d e n t s ' work schedules. Some o f t h e s l i d e s had t o be d i v i d e d i n t o more t h a n one screen, w i t h t e x t and g r a p h i c s added t o r e p l a c e t h e comments and d i s c u s s i o n questions provided by t h e i n s t r u c t o r . The c r e a t i v e usage o f g r a p h i c s and t h e dynamic n a t u r e o f t h e medium were i n t e n d e d t o do more t h a n j u s t enhance t h e e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e designed to help m a t e r i a l ; t h e y were m a i n t a i n s t u d e n t i n t e r e s t , as w e l l . E x i s t i n g e x e r c i s e s had t o be m o d i f i e d t o make them more s u i t a b l e f o r t h e computer medium. Ouestions had t o be worded i n a way t h a t a l l o w e d minimal v a r i a t i o n i n t h e answers, so t h a t t h e answers c o u l d be r e a d i l y e v a l u a t e d b y computer. M a t e r i a l on how t o use t h e c o u r s e had t o be added t o t h e JOVIAL m a t e r i a l .

g e n e r a t e a p e r t i n e n t r e v i e w and/or an e x p l a n a t i o n o f why t h e answer was wrong. A c o r r e c t answer would e l i c i t a p o s i t i v e l y r e i n f o r c i n g comment, sometimes u s i n g t h e s t u d e n t ' s name (e.g. , Good work, John!) O n - l i n e s t u d e n t " h e l p " was i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e d e s i g n o f t h e system. The " h e l p " f e a t u r e c o n s i s t e d o f b o t h a general, coursewide " h e l p " f e a t u r e and a t o p i c - s p e c i f i c "help". The Qeneral "help" included i n s t r u c t i o n s on u s i n g t h e course.

A g l o s s a r y and an i n d e x o f terms were a l s o added t o t h e b a s i c framework of t h e course. M a j o r concepts and terms were d e f i n e d i n t h e g l o s s a r y ; and t h e i n d e x would d i r e c t t h e s t u d e n t t o t h e l e s s o n ( s ) i n which t h e t e r m was used.
A r e c o r d - k e e p i n g c a p a b i l i t y was a l s o b u i l t i n t o t h e d e s i g n of t h e system. Means were p r o v i d e d t o keep t r a c k o f a s t u d e n t ' s progress. Lessons which a s t u d e n t had begun b u t n o t completed were t o be marked "sampled"; when t h e l e s s o n q u i z was passed, t h e s t a t u s would be changed t o "complete"; and t h e most r e c e n t l e s s o n a t t e m p t e d b y t h e s t u d e n t was t o be marked " c u r r e n t " . Since s t u d e n t s would be a b l e t o work on t h e course i n t e r m i t t e n t l y , and i n no r e q u i r e d o r d e r , t h i s r e c o r d - k e e p i n g system was expected t o be v e r y h e l p f u l .

0.5.2 THE SELECTION OF THE TARGETED MACHINE: AND AN AUTHORING TOOL

Three machines were c o n s i d e r e d b y t h e LCF as p o s s i b l e v e h i c l e s f o r t h e computer course: Z e n i t h 2-248, Z e n i t h 2-100, and VAX-11/780. For t h i s reason, i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n t o an a p p r o p r i a t e authoring language focused on these t h r e e machines

I n addition, t h e f o l l o w i n g computer-specific f e a t u r e s were i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e d e s i g n o f t h e system:

I n o r d e r t o accommodate b o t h t h e e x p e r i e n c e d JOVIAL maintenance programmer and t h e n o v i c e , t h e c o n t r o l s t r u c t u r e was designed t o enable t h e s t u d e n t t o s e l e c t t h e modules he wished t o work on, as w e l l as t h e sequence o f presentation. T h i s s t r u c t u r e was t o be implemented v i a h i e r a r c h i c a l menus, o r g a n i z e d a l o n g t h e l i n e s o f t h e c h a p t e r s and lessons i n t h e e x i s t i n g JOVIAL course. E x e r c i s e s were added t o h e l p m a i n t a i n t h e s t u d e n t ' s i n t e r e s t and t o h e l p r e p l a c e t h e interaction normally provided by the i n s t r u c t o r . Each l e s s o n module was designed t o conclude w i t h a q u i z . A s t u d e n t would have t o pass t h e q u i z i n o r d e r f o r t h e system t o mark t h a t l e s s o n "complete".

S o f t w a r e t h a t i s designed t o a s s i s t o r direct the learning process is called "courseware". While courseware, l i k e other software, can be w r i t t e n i n any computer language, a u t h o r i n g t o o l s have been developed t o Authoring f a c i 1 it a t e courseware development. t o o l s a r e s p e c i a l - p u r p o s e programming languages and packages geared s p e c i f i c a l l y t o courseware development. They were o r i g i n a l l y developed t o enable educators w i t h l i t t l e o r no computer knowledge t o w r i t e t h e i r own t e a c h i n g programs. But even for e x p e r i e n c e d programmers, an a u t h o r i n g t o o l can i n c r e a s e t h e p r o d u c t i v i t y and enhance t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e courseware b e i n g developed, because i t enables t h e developer t o c o n c e n t r a t e on what i s t o be done, r a t h e r t h a n on how t o implement i t . There tool s: are two basic types of authoring

A l l questions, i n c l u d i n g those i n t h e lesson-end quizzes , were designed t o be l e a r n i n g devices. A wrong answer would

F i r s t , t h e r e a r e complete a u t h o r i n g systems, which provide menu-driven templates for courseware construction and require no programming knowledge. They g e n e r a l l y a l s o

673

include specialized tools, such as g r a p h i c s e d i t o r s , t e s t generators, and course management systems. But t h e y a r e expensive and i n f l e x i b l e . The d e v e l o p e r i s l i m i t e d t o t h e l e s s o n p a t t e r n s i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e a u t h o r i n g system. The second t y p e o f a u t h o r i n g t o o l i s an a h i g h - l e v e l , macro-1 i k e a u t h o r i n g language language w i t h b u i l t - i n c o n s t r u c t s f o r c o d i n g e d u c a t i o n a l o p e r a t i o n s such as answer j u d g i n g . Since this is really just a specialized programming language, i t r e q u i r e s t i m e and e f f o r t t o learn. B u t i t i s r e l a t i v e l y i n e x p e n s i v e and a l l o w s t h e developer f u l l c o n t r o l .

0.6

COURSE DEVELOPMENT

--

The development o f t h e JOVIAL course was a l s o d i v i d e d i n t o two b a s i c k i n d s o f t a s k s : screen design (or scripting) and coding. A1 though t h e two t a s k s were done c o n c u r r e n t l y , a p a r t i c u l a r l e s s o n was n o t coded u n t i l t h e p e r t i n e n t s c r i p t s were completed and approved.

0.6.1

SCRIPT DESIGN

A t h i r d o p t i o n t h a t was c o n s i d e r e d b y t h e d e s i g n e r s o f t h e JOVIAL computer course was t o w r i t e t h e courseware i n a s t a n d a r d h i g h o r d e r language. T h i s would i n v o l v e t h e v i r t u a l c r e a t i o n o f an a u t h o r i n g language, since capabilities p r o v i d e d b y an a u t h o r i n g t o o l would have t o be coded as s u b r o u t i n e s . The s e l e c t i o n o f t h i s o p t i o n would t u r n t h e t a s k i n t o a m a j o r s o f t w a r e development e f f o r t , r e q u i r i n g t i m e f o r design, coding, c o m p i l i n g , and debugging -- i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e t i m e needed t o r e v i s e t h e JOVIAL course itself. The o n l y advantage t o t h i s approach would have been t h e a b i l i t y t o s e l e c t a language t h a t would r u n on a l l t h r e e d e s i r e d t a r g e t machines

A s c r i p t i s a d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n o f what i s t o be d i s p l a y e d on a screen. I t i n c l u d e s t h e textual material, a l l special graphic effects, t h e use o f c o l o r , t h e dynamics o f the p r e s e n t a t i o n i n c l u d i n g animation, and t h e o v e r a l l A s c r i p t d e s i g n form, l a y o u t o f t h e screen. which was completed f o r e v e r y screen, i s shown i n f i g u r e 3.
I n developing t h e s c r i p t s f o r a p a r t i c u l a r lesson, t h e d e v e l o p e r would b e g i n w i t h t h e course n o t e s f o r t h e lesson. He would t h e n enhance these s l i d e s w i t h a d d i t i o n a l t e x t , g r a p h i c s and a n i m a t i o n , where needed. O f t e n one s l i d e would r e s u l t i n s e v e r a l screen d i s p l a y s . Script w r i t e r s were t o l d n o t t o c o n s i d e r implementation details. They were t o c o n s i d e r o n l y t h e b e s t ways i n which t o u t i l i z e t h e computer's c a p a b i l i t i e s t o convey JOVIAL concepts t o t h e learner. D i s c u s s i o n q u e s t i o n s on t h e s l i d e s o f t e n had t o be m o d i f i e d f o r t h e computer system; and u s u a l l y a d d i t i o n a l q u e s t i o n s had t o be generated f o r t h e lesson-end q u i z . Feedback data f o r e v e r y q u e s t i o n were i n c l u d e d i n t h e s c r i p t s . C o r r e c t answers were r e i n f o r c e d b y immediate p o s i t i v e feedback, and a s t u d e n t would always l e a r n from h i s e r r o r s . B e f o r e b e i n g approved f o r coding, each s c r i p t was c a r e f u l l y checked f o r adherence to scripting standards, detailed e x p l a n a t i o n o f what had t o happen on t h e screen, accuracy o f t h e JOVIAL concepts covered, and A l e s s o n was general f l o w o f t h e lesson. r e q u i r e d t o do more t h a n j u s t p r e s e n t t e x t . It had t o make use o f c o l o r and m o t i o n t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e m a t e r i a l and keep t h e s t u d e n t ' s i n t e r e s t . 0.6.2 CODING THE SCRIPTS

A l i t e r a t u r e search was conducted t o d i s c o v e r appropriate authoring vehicles. Technical j o u r n a l s i n t h e CBT f i e l d and Datasources, a c a t a l o g u e o f computer s o f t w a r e , were t h e most p r o d u c t i v e sources o f i n f o r m a t i o n . Available a u t h o r i n g t o o l s were reviewed, b u t no t o o l was found t h a t was c o m p a t i b l e w i t h a l l t h r e e machines. The m a j o r i t y o f a u t h o r i n g t o o l s a r e t a r g e t e d f o r e i t h e r t h e IBM-PC/AT and c o m p a t i b l e s ( w h i c h i n c l u d e t h e Z e n i t h 2-248) o r Apple computers. The few t o o l s t a r g e t e d f o r t h e VAX a r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y more expensive t h a n t h e o t h e r s . Since several a u t h o r i n g t o o l s were a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e Z e n i t h 2-248, and Z e n i t h 2-248 computers have become an A i r Force standard, t h e Z e n i t h 2-248 was s e l e c t e d as t h e t a r g e t machine f o r t h e JOVIAL course.[71 A list of recommended a u t h o r i n g tool c a p a b i l i t i e s , based on t h e course design, was generated (see f i g u r e 2); and f o u r a u t h o r i n g t o o l s were evaluated. They i n c l u d e d a "bare" a u t h o r i n g language as w e l l as a t o t a l a u t h o r i n g system. TenCOPE, t h e system s e l e c t e d , i s an a u t h o r i n g language enhanced w i t h a p p r o p r i a t e t o o l s . The TenCORE system i n c l u d e s a l l o f t h e recommended Minimum C a p a b i l i t i e s l i s t e d i n f i g u r e 2, and l a c k s o n l y i t e m number f o u r o f t h e H i g h l y D e s i r a b l e c a p a b i l i t i e s . I t i n c l u d e s many o f t h e b a s i c t o o l s i n a t o t a l system (e.g., lesson t e x t , graphics, and f o n t e d i t o r s ) w h i l e a f f o r d i n g t h e d e v e l o p e r c o n t r o l and f l e x i b i l i t y by a l l o w i n g him t o w r i t e d i r e c t l y i n t h e a u t h o r i n g language. The o n l y disadvantage t h a t TenCORE had -- t h e f a c t t h a t t h e d e v e l o p e r would have t o code a l l l o g i c and screens was n o t c o n s i d e r e d t o be a problem, s i n c e t h e course would be devel oped by experienced programmers. [7]

--

When t h e s c r i p t s f o r a l e s s o n were completed and approved, c o d i n g i n t h e s e l e c t e d a u t h o r i n g language, TenCORE, c o u l d begin. The t a s k o f c o d i n g t h e s c r i p t s was g r e a t l y s i m p l i f i e d b y t h e p r i o r development o f an e x t e n s i v e l i b r a r y o f utilities designed to perform repetitive, t e d i o u s , and/or d i f f i c u l t tasks. For example: Standard f u n c t i o n keys were s e t , c l e a r e d , and d i s p l a y e d by u t i l i t i e s . U t i l i t i e s were a l s o used t o s e t screen c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and c r e a t e commonly d i s p l a y e d i n f o r m a t i o n such as an end-of-lesson screen and an e n d - o f - q u i z screen. A u t i l i t y was designed w i t h a random number g e n e r a t o r t o produce a v a r i e t y o f p o s i t i v e l y r e i n f o r c i n g messages, which would be d i s p l a y e d f o l l o w i n g c o r r e c t u s e r responses. Arrows, b o t h animated and s t a t i o n a r y , as w e l l as a v a r i e t y o f t e x t h i g h l i g h t i n g techniques, were a l s o c r e a t e d v i a

674

MINIMUM CAPABILITIES
1. Compatibilitywth selected target hardware the Zenith 2.248

2.

W &cumentation on the tool and how Io use k. wnh a lulor~al.on-line help lor the author. and phone suppon.

3. Ability to keep track 01 moduleslhat a studenl has initialed or wmpleed. as well as c ~ i r e n l status Imm one session IOamher.
4. Supporllor text dispiay (positioning.bnghlness. size) and lor simple graphics (tines, boxes.

Circles. hghlighling obiects. moving objects).

5. Lesson text ednorwlh full screen and the minimm Capabilities io add delele, rmdity seam and mpy lines or b k k s 01 18x1
6. Lessongraphics edrior, in(egral8dwtih Ihe text &tor, lhat supports the minimum capabililiei meam deiele, and move ten and ObpClS

7. Characterse1 and Ion! ednors that allow lha cfeatmn and integralton01 spacialcharacter sets and fonls.
8. Lesrtln test capabilinythat allows the developerto ~n and debug an enlire lesson or an i n d i u a i una. w l h all graphic enects and special Character seis displayed. 9. b i n - i n quesliodresponse judging capabilitythat allows speclicatian 01 the actions to take l o more than one mrrect answer,the actions lor specnic wrong answers. variabilityin allowable answers, and leedback.

10. 6ranchinQcapabilirylo supoorl menus. moving backward or loward. genlnp to on4ne help. repaled action. mndilonal actions, handlingspacial Iunclbn keys, 'calling' olhsr modules.

HIGHLY DESIRABLE CAPABILITIES

1. On-sle training by the vendor.

2.

Suppan lor Special Capabililles,such as animation,Xund, and cabt.

3 Other supponing ufirriies lor wpying lessons from One course to amlher, printingIes5ons. . listing and cmss-relerencinglessons to all liles.
4.

Ability to record sludem mmments on modules.

5. Ability to call prcgrawroutines wrinen in other languages.

Figure 2. Recommended Capabilities for the Authoriing Tool

to

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l"Ch0r: screen: unit :

I ............................................................................... 1 ) ......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 I .......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 I ............................................................................... 1 I.........I.........1 ......... I.........1 .........I .........I ......... I . . . . . . . . .I 1 ......... .........I ......... I ......... I .........I .........I ......... I . . . . . . . . . I 1 I ............................................................................... 1 1 .........1 .........1 ......... 1 .........1 .........I......... 1 .........1 . . . . . . . . . 1 I .........I ......... I ......... I ......,..I .........I .........I ......... I ......... 1 I ....... . . I .........I. ........ I......'...I .........I.. ...... . I . . ....... I . ........ I I .........I.........I......... 1 ......... 1 .........1 .........1 ......... 1 . . . . . . . . . 1 I .........I .........I ......... I ......... 1 ......... 1 .........1 ......... I ......... I I .........1 .........I ......... I ......... I ......... I .........I ......... I ......... I I .........I .........I ......... I......... 1 .........1 .........1 ......... 1 ......... 1 I .........I .........I .........I .........I .........1 .........I ......... I . . . . . . . . . 1 I .........I .........I .........I .........I .........I .........1 ......... I . . . . . . . . . 1 I .........I ......... . . . . . . . . .I .........I ......... 1 ......... I . . . . . . . . . 1 . . . . . . . . . 1 I I .........1 .........I ......... I .........I .........1 . . . . . . . . . I ......... I . . . . . . . . . 1 I.........I .........I .........1 ......... I ......... I . . . . . . . . .I ......... I . . . . . . . . . 1 1 . . . . . . . . . I .........I ......... I ......... 1 .... ?.... 1 ......... 1 . . . . . . . . . 1 . . . . . . . . . 1 I ......... I .........I ......... I ......... .........I . . . . . . . . . I ......... I ......... 1 I I ......... I .........I .........I .........I .........I . . . . . . . . .I . . . . . . . . . I ......... I I .........I......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 . I .........I......... ............................................................ 1 I.........I .........I .........1 .........1 ......... 1 ......... I . . . . . . . . . I . . . . . . . . . I
1 10 20

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675

utilities. I n addition, simplify t h e dynamic execution.

u t i l i t i e s were used t o illustration of code

0.7

UNIQUE CAPABILITIES OF A CBT SYSTEM

which d i s p l a y t h e o b j e c t s ' changing v a l u e s i n s i d e (see f i g u r e 4). The computer i s a dynamic medium and, consequently, l e n d s i t s e l f w e l l t o t e a c h i n g computer programming and computer 1 anguages. The w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d f i e l d o f Computer Based I n s t r u c t i o n (CBI) i s g r o w i n g as more and more educators o f e v e r y d i s c i p l i n e b e g i n t o r e c o g n i z e t h e tremendous p o t e n t i a l o f t h e computer as a t e a c h i n g device. Currently, attempts a r e being made t o a p p l y a r t i f i c i a l i n t e l l i g e n c e techniques t o CBI. But a s e a r c h o f CBI l i t e r a t u r e shows t h a t t h e use o f t h e computer t o t e a c h computer science t o p i c s has been minimal. Computer p r o f e s s i o n a l s a r e u n i q u e l y q u a l i f i e d t o develop C B I courses on computer s c i e n c e t o p i c s , and t h e computer i s c e r t a i n l y an a p p r o p r i a t e medium f o r I t i s t o be hoped t h a t i n t h e such courses. f u t u r e more computer languages and o t h e r computer t o p i c s w i l l be t a u g h t by way o f computer systems.

The dynamic n a t u r e o f computer programming makes some concepts d i f f i c u l t t o e x p l a i n i n a s t a t i c medium. B u t a computer-based c o u r s e u t i l i z i n g g r a p h i c s and a n i m a t i o n can r e a d i l y i l l u s t r a t e these concepts i n a dynamic way. The e x e c u t i o n o f a s e c t i o n o f JOVIAL code can be i l l u s t r a t e d by h i g h l i g h t i n g each l i n e o f code as i t i s "executed" and, a t t h e same time, showing changes i n computer memory b r o u g h t about by t h e code b e i n g "executed". The d e r e f e r e n c i n g o f p o i n t e r t y p e s i s one o f t h e more d i f f i c u l t concepts i n JOVIAL J73, b u t i t can be i l l u s t r a t e d r e a d i l y by u s i n g dynamic arrows and boxes , which a r e l a b e l e d above w i t h t h e names o f o b j e c t s , and

START PROGRAM SAMPLE: BEGIN TYPE CHARS c 4; ITEM OW1 CHARS 5 ' M E ITEM OW2 CHARS i' Y O U ITEM PTRI P CHARS:

OBJl

FRAME 1

STAAT PROGRAM SAMPLE: BEGIN TYPE CHPRS C 4; ITEM OW1 CHARS = 'ME; ITEM OW2 CHARS = 'YOU; ITEM PTRI P CHARS

FRAME 2

STAm PROGRAM SAMPLE: BEGIN TYPE c w c 4: ITEM OW1 CHARS = 'ME'; r E M OW.? CHARS 'YOU; REM mRI P CHARS: PTRI = LOC (Owl); OBJ2 = @PTRI;

[ PTRI = LOC (OW.?):)

FRAME 3

START PROGRAMSAMPLE: BEGIN mcHARsc4 ITEMOW1 CHARS = 'ME; ITEM OW2 CHARS = 'YOU; ITEM PTRI P CHARS;

OBJl

tNU

FRAME 4

F i g u r e 4.

I l l u s t r a t i n g t h e D e r e f e r e n c i n g o f P o i n t e r Types

676

ACKNOWLEDGMENT As t h e Task Leader o f t h e JOVIAL CBT p r o j e c t a t SofTech, Cathy J e n k i n s d i d t h e p r e l i m i n a r y r e s e a r c h on t h e p r o j e c t . I n a d d i t i o n , she was instrumental i n developing t h e o v e r a l l design o f t h e CBT course. W i t h o u t h e r e f f o r t s , t h i s paper would n o t have been p o s s i b l e . REFERENCES

1.

J. Bonner, "Computer Courseware: Frame-Based o r I n t e l l i g e n t ? " E d u c a t i o n a l Technology, pp. 30-33, March 1987. C. C h a p e l l e and J. Jamieson, "Authoring Systems f o r Coursware Development: What Should Beginners Look For?" C a l i c o J o u r n a l , pp. 14-19, March 1986. B.L. Dear, " A r t i f i c i a l I n t e l l i g e n c e Techniques: Applications for Courseware pp. Development ,'I Educa t iona 1 Techno1 ogx, 7-15, J u l y 1986. M. G i l l i n g h a m , P. Murphy, K. C r e s c i , S. Klesenow, B. Sims-Tucker, D. Slade, and D. Wizer, "An E v a l u a t i o n o f Computer Courseware Authoring Tools and a Corresponding Assessment Instrument for Use by Instructors," E d u c a t i o n a l Technology, pp. 7-17, September 1986. I n t r o d u c t i o n t o Computer-Based Education, D i g i t a l Equipment C o r p o r a t i o n , 1984. C. Jenkins, I n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f Procedures f o r C r e a t i n g a Computerized JOVIAL T r a i n i n g T o o l , May 28, 1987. ( U n p u b l i s h e d r e p o r t ) .

2.

3.

4.

5.
6.

7.

C. Jenkins, Procedures f o r C r e a t i n g a Computerized JOVIAL T r a i n i n g Tool: Final Report, August 17, 1987. (Unpublished report)
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8.

9.

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