Research methods key terms Attrition The loss of participants from a study over time, this is likely to leave

a biased sample, or a sample that is too small. Cohort effects One group of participants (cohort) may have unique characteristics because time-specific experiences during their development, such as a child during the Second World War. This can affect both cross-sectional studies (because one group is not comparable to another) or longitudinal studies (because the group studies is not typical) Conclusions The implications drawn from a study: what the findings tell us about people in the general rather than just about the particular participants in a study. Conclusions are used to construct theories. Confederate An individual in a study who is not a real participant and has been instructed how to behave by the investigator/experimenter. May act as an independent variable (IV). Control condition/group The condition (in a repeated measures design) or group (in an independent groups design) that provides a baseline measure of behaviour without the independent variable (IV), so that the effect of the experimental treatment may be assessed. Correlation coefficient A number between -1 and +1 that tells us how closely the co-variables in a correlation analysis are related. Counterbalancing An experimental technique used to overcome order effects. Counterbalancing ensures that each condition is tested first or second in equal amounts. Covert observations Observing people without their knowledge, e.g. using one way mirrors. Knowing that your behaviour is being observed is likely to alter your behaviour. Critical value

The value that a statistic must reach in order for the null hypothesis to be rejected.

Cross-cultural study A kind of natural experiment in which the independent variable (IV) is different cultural practices and the dependant variable (DV) is behaviour, such as attachment. This enables researchers to investigate the effects of culture/socialisation. Cross-selectional study One group of participants of a young age is compared with another, older group of participants, with a view to investigating the effect of an age on the behaviour in question. Dependant variable (DV) A measureable outcome of the action of the independent variable in an experiment. Demand characteristics A cue that makes participants aware of what the researcher expects to find or how the participants are expected to behave. Double blind Neither the participant nor the experimenter is aware of the research aims and other important details, and thus have not expectations. See single blind. Ethical issues The dilemmas created by the conflict between the needs of researchers and the rights of participants. For example, in order to conduct meaningful research it may be necessary to deceive participants, but this affects their right to giving fully informed consent. Experimental realism The extent to which participants become involved in an experiment and are less influenced by cues about how to behave. Extraneous variables Any variable, other than the independent variable (IV), which may potentially affect the dependent variable (DV)

and thereby confound the findings. Order effects, participant variables and situational variables may act as EVs. Hawthrone effect The tendency for participants to alter their behaviour merely as a result of knowing that they are being observed. Independent variable (IV) An event that is directly manipulated by an experimenter to test its effect on another variable the dependent variable (DV). Intervening variable A variable that comes between two other variables that is used to explain the relationship between those two variables. Investigator effect Anything that the investigator/experimenter does that has an effect on a participants performance in a study other than what was intended. This includes direct effects (as a consequence of the investigator/experimenter) and indirect effects (as a consequence of the investigator designing the study) and investigator/experimenter bias. Investigator/experimenter bias The effect that an investigator/experimenters expectation have on the participants and thus on the results of a research study. Longitudinal study Observational of the same items over a long period time. Such studies usually aim to compare the same individuals at different ages, in which case the independent variable (IV) is age. A longitudinal study might also observe a school or other institution over a long period of time. Meta-analysis A researcher looks at the findings from a number of different studies in order to reach a general conclusion about a particular hypothesis.

Operationalised Providing variables in a form that can easily be tested. Order effects In a repeated measures design, an extraneous variables (EV) arising from the order in which conditions are presented (e.g., participants do better second time because they had practice, called practice effect). Participant effects A general term used to acknowledge the fact that participants react to cues in an experimental situation and that this may affect the validity of any conclusions drawn form the investigation. Participant variables Characteristics of an individual participant (such as age, intelligence etc.) that might influence the outcome of a study. Peer review The practice by academic journals and research assessments of using scientific experts to assess other scientific experts. Pilot study A small-scale trail of a study. Run to test any aspects of the design, with a view to making improvements. Presumptive consent A method of dealing with lack of informed consent or deception, by asking a group of people who are similar to the participants whether they would agree to take part in a study. If this group of people consents to the procedure in the proposed study, it is presumed the real participants would have agreed. Quasi-experiments Studies that ate almost experiments but lack one or more features of a true experiment, such as full experimenter control over the IV and random allocation of participants to conditions. This means that they cannot claim to demonstrate causal relationships. Quantitative data

 Represent how much, how long, or how many, etc. there are of something. Data that are measured in numbers or quantities. Quantitative data analysis Any means of representing trends form numerical data, such as measures of central tendency. Qualitative data Express the quality of things. This includes descriptions, words, meanings, pictures, texts and so on. They cannot be counted or quantified but it can be turned into quantitive data by counting the data in category. Random allocation; Allocating participants to experimental groups using random techniques. Random technique Method of selection that ensures each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. For example, placing all the names in a hat and drawing out the required number, or by assigning each person to a number and using a random number table. Reliability A measure of consistency. Internal reliability; concerns the consistency within a set of scores. External reliability; concerns consistency over time such that it is possible to obtain the same results on the subsequent occasions when the measure used with the same thing.

Role play A controlled observation in which participants are asked how they would behave in certain situations, and then asked to act out the part. This method has the advantage of permitting a study of certain behaviours that might be unethical or difficult to find in the real world. Sampling

 The process of taking a sample. The technique used aims to produce a representative selection of the target population Single blind A type of research design in which the participant is not aware of the aims or of which condition of the experiment they are receiving. See double blind. Situation variables Factors in the environment that could affect the dependent variable (DV), such as noise, time of the day or the behaviour of the investigator. Standardised procedures A set of procedures that are the same for all participants in order to be able to repeat the study. This includes standardised instructions the instructions given to participants to tell them how to perform a task. Structured interview Any interview in which the questions are decided in advance. Structured (systematic) observations An observer uses various systems to organise observations, such as using behavioural categories and sampling procedures. Unstructured observations are when an observer records all relevant behaviour but has no system. This technique may be chosen because the behaviour to be studied is largely unpredictable. Systematic sample A method of obtaining a representative sample by selecting every fifth or tenth person. This can be a random sample if the first person is selected using a random method and then every fifth or tenth person in selected. Target population The group of people that the researcher is interested in. The group of people of whom a sample is drawn. The group of people about whom generalisations can be made.

Validity The extent to which a study and its findings are legitimate and true. Internal validity; concerns whether a study has tested what it set out to test. External validity; concerns the degree to which a research finding can be generalised to, e.g. other settings (ecological validity) or other groups of people (population validity) and over time (historical validity) Any study that has low internal validity must lack generalisability and therefore also has low external validity. Volunteer bias A form of sampling bias occurs because volunteer participants are usually more highly motivated than randomly selected participants. Zero correlation In a correlation co-variables are not linked at all.