The College of Estate Management 2007 Paper 3564V3-0

Air conditioning

Contents
Learning outcomes 1. Introduction 2. Internal climate 2.1 Human comfort 2.2 Air quality 2.3 Ventilation air 3. The thermal duty of the system 3.1 Thermal balance 4. Sequence of air treatment 5. Air-handling sequence 5.1 Air intake 5.2 Preheat 5.3 Filtration 5.4 Air-cooling and dehumidifying coil 5.5 Dehumidification and humidification 5.6 Reheater 5.7 Fan 6. Fans 6.1 Centrifugal fans 6.2 Axial flow fans 6.3 Mixed flow fans 7. Refrigeration 7.1 Vapour compression cycle 7.2 Absorption refrigeration 8. Air-conditioning methods (Continued)

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9. Air-conditioning systems 9.1 The single duct system 9.2 The multi-zone system 9.3 The dual duct system 9.4 The perimeter induction system 9.5 The variable air volume system (VAV) 9.6 Fan coil units 9.7 Chilled ceilings 10. Air-conditioning systems controls 11. Common tests on air-conditioning systems 11.1 The quality of the atmospheric environment 11.2 The efficiency of the plant and equipment Summary

Learning outcomes
After studying this paper you should be able to: Describe air-conditioning systems. Evaluate the factors in selecting and recommending an air-conditioning system. Explain the air-conditioning process.

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1 Introduction
Air conditioning is defined as: The filtering, heating or cooling, and humidification or dehumidification of air to provide the required condition within a relatively narrow set of conditions throughout the year. Systems that simply cool and filter air such as room chillers and car climate control, are really only comfort cooling systems. Air conditioning provides a desirable internal climate that ensures: comfort for the occupants; elimination or control of airborne micro-organisms and dust; operation of sensitive equipment (e.g. computers); storage of commodities in good condition; carrying out industrial processes without harmful effects; occasionally the well-being of exotic plants and animals. This paper identifies the principles of air conditioning and describes some of the systems and components currently available or in use in modern buildings.

2 Internal climate
2.1 Human comfort
Human beings generate internal heat in order to maintain thermal equilibrium and an internal body temperature of approximately 36.8. The body loses this heat by: convection to the surrounding air; evaporation of perspiration to the surrounding air; radiation to the surrounding surfaces (also by conduction if in contact with surfaces). This heat loss, and thus the feeling of comfort, are influenced by the properties of the surroundings (1 to 4 below) and the effects of occupation (5 and 6): 1. dry bulb temperature of the room air (C) narrow band 16 to 25C acceptable; 2. humidity of the room air (%RH) wide band of 40 to 70% acceptable; 3. mean temperature of the surrounding surfaces (C) narrow band 19 to 26C; 4. velocity of the air across the body (m/s) narrow band 0.1 to 0.25m/s; 5. clothing worn by the occupants (clo) personal choice; 6. physical activity of the occupant (i.e. metabolic rate) mets or W/m2. Note that there is no clear statement about any one of these factors. It is the relationship between them that determines what is acceptable.

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With so many variables, it is difficult enough to define an internal climate that is deemed comfortable, even without taking into account individuals own perceptions of comfort and responses to spatial stimuli. The best that can be achieved is to provide a band of internal conditions that satisfy most of the people, most of the time for the given function of the room/workshop. The internal environment may be classified subjectively as follows: Bedford scale Much too warm Too warm Comfortably warm Comfortable Comfortably cool Too cool Much too cool ISO 7730 Hot Warm Slightly warm Neutral Slightly cool Cool Cold PMV (see below) +3) +2) +1) 0) temp to be defined 1) 2) 3)

A number of comfort indices have been proposed over the years. Most have been some form of temperature classification, such as equivalent temperature, corrected effective temperature, globe temperature, resultant temperature. They combine most (but not all) of the effects of the room variables and ignore the human aspects of clothing and activity. The current evaluation of a comfort index is the operating temperature. This is based on work by Fanger of Denmark and is the subject of ISO (International Standards Organisation) 7730. It includes all six factors in a very complex formula that: determines a predicted mean vote (PMV) index; includes a concept of predicted percentage dssatisfied (PPD) that is, designing for most of the people most of the time! For light sedentary occupations, the following operating temperatures are derived: Winter 22C +/2C with surface temperature between 19 and 126C, air velocity <0.15m/s Summer 24.5C +/1.5C with air velocity <0.25m/s.

2.2 Air quality

Comfort may be affected by: contaminants lack of oxygen dust and micro-organisms. Atmospheric contaminants may take the form of finely divided solids, vapours, gases and micro-organisms. They include: Coarse dirt the largest particles passing through inlet louvres. They may have an abrasive action upon the installation and should be removed by a coarse screen as near to the inlet as possible. Dust small, solid particles less than 8 m, such as fine dirt, soot, mineral or organic particles contained in the atmosphere.

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Fumes solid particles less than 1 mm, formed by the condensation of vapours. Smoke solid particles less than 0.3 m, produced by incomplete combustion. Gases non-particulate substances which do not condense at normal temperatures and pressures (carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide etc.). Bacteria small organisms including toxic moulds (mycotoxins such as Aspergillus). Some of the oxygen content of air is removed by breathing and replaced with carbon dioxide. Oxygen may also be removed by combustion. Atmospheric air normally comprises 21% oxygen, 78% nitrogen, with traces of other gases such as 0.02% carbon dioxide, traces of argon etc. Air-quality sensors often use carbon dioxide as a good measure of occupancy levels and the adequacy of fresh air supply rates. Solids may be removed by filtration, and vapours by cooling and washing, but gases remain in solution in the air. Dilution of air inside with air outside increases the oxygen content and reduces the concentrations of pollutants. A sterilisation facility may be provided for the destruction of bacteria, principally using ultraviolet light sources. Air cleaners must be chosen with care to catch the types of contaminants likely to be present, or revealed by preliminary external air sampling and testing.

2.3 Ventilation air

This is dilution air. The ventilation rate should be based on the number of occupants and the activities undertaken. A typical rate is 8 to 20 litres per second per person.

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3 The thermal duty of the system

Two parameters are used to specify the duty of air-conditioning systems: dry bulb temperature of the air; humidity of the air. The air treatment plant must deal with: asensible heat load heat which causes a temperature change; a latent heat load heat involved in evaporation and condensation. (Latent is Latin for hidden, so it is the hidden heat of moisture in the air.) An air-conditioning system is a ventilation system with a capacity for cooling; therefore the plant must provide both a heating and cooling service. Design values must be determined for: inside and outside the building; summer and winter conditions. Meteorological data record all aspects of weather conditions throughout the year for particular localities. The internal condition is selected for optimum thermal comfort. Examples of design values for the UK are:
Summertime External design state condition: 1500 hours in July:

28C 19.5C 0C 50% 2C 100% 20C 50%

db wb db sat db sat db sat

Wintertime External design state condition: 1330 hours in January:

Room state design condition The design tolerance for these values could be: Internal db temperature 2C Saturation 10%

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3.1 Thermal balance

During summer the cooling load borne by the refrigeration plant must balance the heat gains of the building. These comprise: thermal transmission through the structure; thermal gain by ventilation air; thermal emission by lighting systems; thermal emission by machinery and equipment (computers, photocopiers etc.); thermal emission by people; thermal gain by solar radiation; latent heat of evaporation involved in change of humidity. This is relevant to the cooling of ventilation air and to vapour emission by people. Figure 1 shows the sequence of the items of plant necessary for the control of the supply.
FIGURE 1 Basic requirements of an air-conditioning system

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4 Sequence of air treatment

Detailed analysis is outside the scope of this course. However, note the following: Winter. External air is cold, and although it has a high relative humidity (perception of humidity level), the actual moisture content is relatively low. As air is heated up its relative humidity decreases, and left untreated the air could be uncomfortably dry (a frequent complaint in centrally heated houses). It is therefore necessary to humidify the air. If water at room temperature is used, energy (the latent heat of evaporation) is required to suspend the water in the air. The air temperature falls (giving energy into the water vapour/air mixture), resulting in a possible need to reheat the air. Summer. The external air is often warmer than the required room temperature, so cooling is necessary. However, as the air is cooled its relative humidity increases and more moisture needs to be removed. The air soon reaches its dewpoint temperature. As the temperature falls further, the air can no longer hold the same moisture quantity and so condensation occurs, removing water from the air. This process continues until the correct moisture content is reached. At this point the air temperature is too low, so reheating is required even though it is summertime.

5 Air-handling sequence
Figure 1 illustrated the basic system requirements for summer and winter air conditioning (temperature climates). The order of the components is determined by the conditioning processes, but the final arrangement will depend on the type of system installed see Air-conditioning methods below.

5.1 Air intake

The ventilation air intake screen must be weathered and provided with a drainage point for any snow or rain that penetrates. It must be placed away from chimneys or other contaminated emissions.

5.2 Preheat
Preheating coils raise the temperature of the incoming air to prepare it for the take-up of water this process is humidification. The coils may also temper the air, that is, prevent very cold or foggy ventilation air from damaging the plant. Figure 8 shows a typical heat exchanger. Low pressure hot water (LPHW) is commonly used. However, direct resistance electric heaters can also be used. If preheaters are required to protect the filters from freezing up or being clogged with small ice particles, they must come before filters in the air-handling process.

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5.3 Filtration (Figure 2)

In the case of very large plants, filters may be placed before the tempering and reheating of coils to protect them from an insulating layer of dirt. They are chosen to stop the solid pollutants which predominate in the ventilation and recirculated air. Filtration may be carried out by different units in sequence. The loss of static head must not impose too much fan head, so the face area must allow for this. Clean air is of paramount importance in hospitals, photographic processes, printing and food preparation. Very high efficiency filters (HEPA) are employed, but they exert considerable resistance to air flow (i.e. loss of fan static head). Clean air also reduces discoloration of decorations and prevents dust entering machinery or other equipment. Types of filters in use include: Dry fabric filters Throw-away type a blanket of synthetic fibre, micro-glass fibre or paper material. When resistance to airflow becomes too great, they are discarded and replaced. Such filters are now used almost universally. Reusable type a blanket of glass fibre, foamed polyurethane or cellular polyurethane. When they offer an intolerable resistance to the airflow they are cleaned and replaced. These filters are no longer widely used. Viscous filters These consist of a perforated container with a metal labyrinth for the passage of the air. To prepare them for duty they are submerged in a liquid which is inodorous, non-flammable and non-evaporative. They are then drained, leaving the filtering medium with a surface to which solid particles will stick. When the static pressure loss reaches an intolerable level, they are immersed in a cleaning fluid, re-immersed in the viscous fluid, then returned to duty. These filters are also little used now, although grease filters used in kitchen hoods are similarly constructed. Electrostatic filters The passing air becomes ionised as it is influenced by the field in high-voltage conductors. Downstream it encounters oppositely charged metal plates to which the ionised particles of dust stick. The plates may be vacuum-cleaned. They may be coated with a viscous liquid but will then need special cleaning. Such filters are useful to remove fine particles such as tobacco smoke.
Odour removal

Some gases may be removed by passing the air through activated carbon filters. Reactivation is achieved by heating before reuse. The filters must be protected from dust, oil and grease. Chemical deodorants may be used, depending upon the particular contaminants.

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FIGURE 2 Filters

(Continued)

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FIGURE 2 (continued)

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FIGURE 3 Size range of air contaminants

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Plate 1

These two plates show air-handling units, with combined supply air and extract air systems. Heat recovery is via a plate heat exchanger for the supply air system and a rotary wheel heat exchanger for the extract system. Courtesy: Roof Units Group

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Plate 3

This plate shows a supply air-handling unit consisting of recirculation/fresh air mixing chamber with volume control dampers; pre-filter; bag filter; heating coil; and supply fan.

Removal of bacteria

Most bacteria can be removed by HEPA filters. Ultraviolet light sterilisers can also be used. Chemicals can also be added to the air in small quantities, but this method is no longer widely used.

5.4 Air-cooling and dehumidifying coil (Figure 4)

As described above, the air stream in summer often needs cooling to reduce its temperature and moisture content. A cooling coil is used for this purpose. Its construction is very similar to that of the heating coil. The refrigeration cycle is utilised to provide a chilled medium, which may be: The refrigerant itself directly passing through the coil. Chilled water which has been cooled by non-contact heat transfer with the refrigerant in an evaporator (heat exchanger). See the section on refrigeration. The coils are usually constructed from copper pipes with aluminium, electro-tinned or, more expensively, copper fins to increase the surface area of contact. Aluminium is not resistant to chemical attack from corrosive environments such as coastal locations. The flanged end plates are usually galvanised sheet steel. Often the manifolding arrangements are quite involved and exchange tubes are interleaved to provide a more even heat exchange.

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FIGURE 4 Exploded view of a heating/cooling coil

5.5 Dehumidification and humidification

There are other methods of dehumidification. However, they tend not to be used nowadays because they circulate bodies of water, sometimes stagnant, which can cause micro-organisms to multiply, leading to illnesses such as humidifier fever. These systems are as follows:
1 The spray washer, humidifier and dehumidifier (Figure 5)

A dense cloud of finely divided spray water is injected from a water spray chamber into the air stream by pumping through nozzles. The air first passes through deflector plates or a perforated screen. This ensures a uniform flow over the cross-sectional area of the chamber and prevents any moisture from being blown back into the duct line. The air leaves the washer by passing eliminator plates and scrubber plates to remove excess moisture and dirt that has passed over from the washer. If the water is chilled, the air is dehumidified. If the water is warmed, the air is humidified. The spray water tank should be emptied daily and refilled with fresh water.

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FIGURE 5 Spray washer, humidifer and dehumidifier

FIGURE 6 Capillary washer, humidifer and dehumidifier

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2 The capillary washer, humidifier and dehumidifier (Figure 6)

This consists of a platform of glass fibres contained in separate cells. The air is cleaned efficiently because the cells provide a similar service to the eliminator and scrubber plates. Dehumidification can be varied by varying the temperature of the water. Washers must be long enough to allow full contact between the spray water and the air and to avoid penetration through the downstream eliminator or the upstream smoothing screen. This equipment can be used to humidify (by heating) and dehumidify (by cooling) the spray water.
3 The steam humidifier (Figure 7)

Just as dehumidification is now almost entirely carried out using the cooling coil, so humidification is almost entirely by electrode stream humidifiers. These vessels supply steam by heating elements by direct electrical resistance and discharging the steam via single- or multi-point sparge pipes. Since the moisture is steam, with correct controls all the moisture is taken up by the air with little or no carry-over or condensate. Figure 6 shows the principal parts of such a humidifier. These devices can easily be retrofitted (as only the sparge pipe need be in the air stream). They provide clean, sterile humidification. There is no recirculation of water, as mains water is used via a descaler treatment. The principal disadvantage is the heavy electrical loading required, which can be a problem in retrofit applications. Steam cleaners range from 1 to 100 kg/hour. For this reason, ultrasonic humidifiers were developed. These devices agitate the water at very high frequency (but low amplitude) until the water has sufficient energy to change state and vaporise into the air stream. They consume considerably less electrical energy but depress the air temperature, so reheating may be necessary. They produce reasonably clean water vapour and can be capacity-controlled by changing the frequency of agitation. Most of the vapour is taken up by the air stream, although drip trays are required. The principal disadvantages of the ultrasonic humidifier are: Water must be free of small particles and impurities to allow discharge through very small agitator nozzles. (Reverse osmosis is often used.) The whole agitator appliance must be located in the air-handling plant, which makes this system impractical for small equipment.

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FIGURE 7 Descriptive drawing of a steam electrode humidifier

Courtesy: Spirax Sarco

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5.6 Reheater (Figure 8)

This is similar in construction to the preheater. It may take different forms depending upon the heating medium LTHW, HTHW or steam. Plain tube heaters and gilled tube heaters are used with HTHW and steam. However, most reheater batteries are as shown in Figure 8. The purpose is to heat the air stream to achieve the desired psychrometric condition after cooling the air to remove moisture or humidifying the air by means other than steam injection.
FIGURE 8 Air heater battery

5.7 Fan
Figure 1 showed supply and extract fans. It is not essential to employ two fans, as the supply fan could be sized to achieve the combined performance. However, it is more usual. Also, in an emergency the extract fan could be used to remove smoke under a firemans control. The fan must be sized primarily to move a sufficient volume rate of air while overcoming the resistance to air flow exerted by the other components of the airconditioning system. Of the boxed air-handling units, centrifugal fans are most commonly used. Axial and mixed flow fans are most often employed as stand-alone items within ductwork sections. (See below under Fans.)

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6 Fans
The criteria for selecting fans are: space requirement; adaptability for duct connection; use of power (efficiency); noise level; quality of the air handled, i.e. temperature and contaminants; speed and volume of air movement. The three common types used in air conditioning are: 1. centrifugal fans 2. axial flow fans 3. mixed flow fans.

6.1 Centrifugal fans (Figure 9)

These are sometimes termed radial flow fans because the air enters at a central point in the casing and is moved to the edge of the volute-shaped casing by centrifugal force, from where it is delivered. Performance is affected by the shape of the blades and the shape of the casing.
FIGURE 9 Shape of a centrifugal fan

Shape of the fan casing

Fans have a variety of angles of air delivery. Duct connection is made by flanges at inlet and delivery points.
Fan drives and motors

Motors are usually AC but may also be DC powered. AC uses mains power without rectifying, but may be noisy owing to the periodic nature of the supply, and special facilities for speed variation may be needed. However, with advances in microprocessors, speed variation and harmonies are easier and cheaper to control. DC motors are quieter and speed control is easy, but the rectification gear makes the motors expensive.

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Fan drive may be by: shaft with a flexible coupling to accommodate slight bedding inaccuracies; V-belt connecting to pulleys of different diameters, allowing speed alteration at the commissioning stage by varying the pulley sizes.

6.2 Axial flow fans (Figure 10)

These consist of a streamlined, tubular casing in which is set a large hub with aerofoil section blades arranged at an angle forming a helix. The motor may be contained in the hub or mounted outside the casing, driving the fan by V-belt. It is the arrangement of the blades and guide vanes which earned the name screw fan. The turbulent air is guided to assume as near a streamlined flow condition as possible. These fans are efficient in power. The volume/pressure characteristics are similar to those of a centrifugal fan with forward curved blades. However, forward curved blade centrifugal fans usually develop higher pressures than axial fans. The high running speed favours the use of small motors. The latest types of blade are quiet in operation.
FIGURE 10 Shape of axial flow (screw) fan (Figure 11)

6.3 Mixed flow fans

These fans are increasing in popularity. They combine many of the advantages of centrifugal and axial fans. As the air flows over the rotor it is given both radial and axial velocity components. In particular, mixed flow fans provide higher pressures and are quieter than axial fans, even when fitted with guide vanes.
FIGURE 11 Sketch of rotor

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7 Refrigeration
Cooling used for air-conditioning systems is usually provided by a refrigeration system. Cooling by refrigeration is achieved by causing a change of state of a refrigerant between gaseous and liquid phases. Currently chemicals are used which are gases at normal atmospheric temperatures and pressures, boiling at low temperature and high pressure. There are two principal refrigeration systems in use: the vapour compression cycle the absorption cycle. The vapour compression cycle uses an electrically driven compressor, shown in Figure 12. This system uses chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) refrigerant gases and electricity, which now cause environmental concern from ozone depletion and greenhouse effect emissions. The absorption cycle does not use either of these products. However, care must be taken with the use of ammonia (used on small systems), as it is very dangerous to maintenance operatives. In future the absorption or similar method, perhaps including a photovoltaic method, may be used for solar-powered air-conditioning active cooling systems as concern over the environment increases and fuel reserves decrease.

7.1 Vapour compression cycle

In essence, the vapour compression cycle is simple. It utilises the fact that a compound will boil and condense at different temperatures when subjected to different pressures. It therefore employs two devices, one compressing the gas, the other allowing it to expand, plus heat transfer matrices, one to suck heat in (on evaporation), the other to reject it (condenser). Figure 12 illustrates the basic cycle.
FIGURE 12 Basic vapour compression cycle

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7.2 Absorption refrigeration

The absorption cycle utilises the property of certain liquids to absorb gases/vapours and uses heat energy to separate the refrigerant from its carrier fluid. Heat rejection is via a condenser. The cooling effect is via an evaporator where the refrigerant is vaporised. The compressor of the vapour compression cycle is replaced with a refrigerant generator, where the two fluids are separated, and an absorber, where the refrigerant is absorbed by the carrier liquid (see Figure 13). The heat energy may be wasted heat such as flue gases or high temperature hot water, steam, or direct fired by gas. Commercial plant combines the generator and condenser into one large cylinder (they both operate at the same vapour pressure) and the absorber and evaporator into another cylinder to produce a packaged plant. Typical refrigeration/carrier fluid combinations available are: ammonia and water water and lithium bromide water and lithium chloride.
FIGURE 13 Basic absorption refrigeration cycle

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8 Air-conditioning methods
What type of system is used in a building depends largely on the function of the building. Air-conditioning systems may be classified under three headings: All air systems in which the air is fully treated in a central plant and ducted to the various rooms. This method requires large spaces in ceiling voids and shafts for the ducts, but very little space is taken up in the rooms. Manipulation of the central plant gives thermal control of conditioned spaces. There may be significant differences between the conditions experienced in different locations. This is likely to be more of a problem if long duct runs are involved. Air/water (or air/refrigerant) systems in which the air is treated in a central plant but most of the cooling and heating of the air takes place in the conditioned space by distributed hot and cold water. This method requires less central plant and less ductwork, but more space is required for the room air-cooling and heating plant. Control of local conditions is easier, allowing fairly wide variations between individual conditioned spaces. Self-contained units which are sited in the space to be conditioned, and in which the whole air-conditioning process takes place. Quite a lot of space is taken up in the rooms, but central plant and ductwork may not be necessary. This method allows full control over the conditions in any conditioned space.

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9 Air-conditioning systems
The following systems are widely used: 1 single duct system central zone (all air, low velocity) 2 multi-zone system central plant (all air, low velocity) 3 dual duct system central plant (all air, high velocity) 4 induction system (air/water, high velocity) 5 variable air volume (VAV) system (all air, high velocity) 6 use of fan coil units (air/water, low velocity) 7 chilled ceilings 8 use of terminal water-loop heat pump units 9 variable refrigerant volume systems. Systems 15 are true air-conditioning systems in which the humidity of the air as well as its temperature are controlled. Systems 69 are more correctly called comfort cooling systems, but in practice are almost exclusively referred to for convenience as air conditioning and it sounds better when trying to lease out a building! The effects of increased air velocity in the systems are: heat economy; more care must be taken to ensure a sealed system; increase in fan head and so fan power; increase in noise level. However, duct lines may be smaller and fit into the building structure more easily. Static gain may be achieved by duct enlargement and velocity increased by duct reduction. Room terminal units used

9.1 The single duct system (Figure 14)

The ventilation fresh air component of the supply airflow is usually too small to carry the thermal load demanded by the building without intolerable temperature extremes, so some exhaust air must be recirculated. Even when the ventilation air requirement is adequate for this purpose, some consider that some air could be recirculated, but this depends upon the degree of vitiation of the spaces. With only a single air condition off the central plant, the system is suitable for: single-cell buildings; buildings in which all spaces have an equal thermal requirement; parts of a building (other parts of the same building with different requirements being served by another system). Perimeter heating is often required to offset cold downdraughts from glazing. Single duct systems are the most common because they are cheap to install.

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9.2 The multi-zone system (Figure 15)

The building is divided into a number of zones with varying thermal loads. Each zone is served by its own supply duct with supply air at a condition to match the zones requirements. The cooling coil and after-heater are controlled by each zone thermostat. This system requires considerable space to accommodate the zone ducts.
FIGURE 14 Basic components of single duct system

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FIGURE 15 Basic components of multi-zone duct system

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9.3 The dual duct system (Figure 17)

Air is conditioned for a calculated minimum psychrometric state in a central unit, but final heating or cooling is carried out in two separate ducts. Terminal units are served by both hot and cold air ducts. Mixing is automatic, so that the induction air to the space is in a desired condition and air is discharged into the space at a constant rate. The volume control in the terminal unit (mixing box) also serves to balance the availability of air to other parts of the system (Figure 17). The mixing boxes are controlled from local thermostats. This method ensures that the ventilation air is always adequate. Mixing boxes (Figure 16) fitted above false ceilings may serve more than one discharge terminal in zones, or may be in the form of single units, normally fitted below window sills. The mixing hoses reduce the pressure of the incoming air and serve as noise attenuators. The system has the advantage of free cooling when the outside air temperature is low enough (approximately 10C in the UK) when the refrigeration plant is off. The system is high in capital and running costs and requires large amounts of duct space. The constant volume regulator in the mixing box is set to meet the cold air flow, which, in turn, must match the heat gains to the space. The warm air volume flow rate for space heating is always less than that for space cooling because the warm air may be delivered with a much greater temperature gradient between it and the room air. The system is suitable for buildings in which the spaces have different condition requirements.
FIGURE 16 Principle of mixing box

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FIGURE 17 Basic components of dual duct system

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FIGURE 18 Principle of induction unit

9.4 The perimeter induction system (Figure 19)

The dehumidifying function is separated from the sensible cooling function. Dehumidifying is usually carried out at the central plant, and so humidity control is very loose. A plenum chamber is formed in the thermal unit (Figure 18) and highvelocity primary air is delivered to it at a constant rate through a damper. The ejector nozzles attached to the plenum chamber inject primary air into the space supply air grille and, at the same time, take in a large quantity of room air. The room air flows over heating or cooling coils which are automatically controlled by a room air sensor. The continuous discarding of primary air through windows etc. would prove very expensive, so they are either permanently or properly sealed and an exhaust air duct provided to achieve a measure of recirculation. If recirculation is not desired, a relief air duct may be provided without an extract fan. The motive force for the exhaust air is provided by the inducted primary air. A hollow ceiling over a corridor may comprise a plenum chamber for this purpose.

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FIGURE 19 Basic components of induction system

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The distribution of hot and cold water may be arranged as follows: Two-pipe system one supply, one return. The supply can be only hot or cold and therefore limits the controllability of various rooms. It is the cheapest to install but not really worth the trouble. Three-pipe system one hot supply, one cold supply, and common return. Although this provides for independent heating or cooling, the mixed return adds to the refrigeration and boiler plant loads. Four-pipe system one hot supply with its own return plus one cooling supply with its return. Full control is achieved by separate system, but clearly it is the most expensive to install.

9.5 The variable air volume system (VAV) (Figure 20)

In the single duct system, thermostatic control of the space thermal environment by throttling the supply air also throttles the ventilation air. The VAV system, on the other hand, supplies the ventilation air requirement at a constant condition i.e. db temperature 10C and 50% saturation. This gives the system a capacity for summertime cooling when the sensible heat gain to the spaces is at a maximum. When the outside air cools and the sensible heat gain is reduced, thermal comfort in the internal spaces is maintained by increasing the tempered ventilation airflow rate. As the volume decreases throughout the building, the fan responds with a reduced output. The VAV system can only deal with reductions in sensible heat gain to the spaces. When these heat gains fall to a value at which the constant volume of supply air does not maintain thermal comfort that is, the spaces are too cold then further heat energy must be provided. There are three common options for satisfying this demand: a system of heat emitters placed around the perimeter of the spaces, or a separate warm air heating system; reheaters at the VAV terminals; a hot air duct which blows into mixing boxes when the cold airflow has been reduced to its ventilation airflow rate minimum. The VAV system can deal with different thermal demands in different parts of a building. For example, it can be used for the interior zones of deep-plan buildings, whilst the peripheral zones are conditioned by a constant air volume system with a heating capacity, such as the perimeter induction system. Heating elements may be installed in the void above ventilating ceilings to meet the extraneous requirement. The terminal units may be mounted beneath windows to project an air stream upward, or above a suspended ceiling to blow air across it. The dropped ceilings over corridors may contain units to supply sidewall grilles. An arrangement for ceiling diffusers is shown in Figure 21(a). A single diffuser is shown in Figure 21(b). An automatic linear ceiling diffuser arrangement is shown in Figure 21(c). Fan-assisted terminals for VAV systems are now available.

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FIGURE 20 Basic components of VAV duct system

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FIGURE 21 Terminal units for VAV system

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9.6 Fan coil units

Fan coil units consist of pressed steel cabinets (Figures 22 and 23) with inlet and delivery grilles. They contain one or more centrifugal fans which induce air to flow from the room and deliver it back to the room through cooling/heating coils. Ventilation air provides humidity control. Exhaust air escapes through natural ventilation channels or, if a central unit is installed for tempering, some is recycled through a return air duct. Heating and cooling at the fan coil units are best done by a four-pipe system comprising a separate chilled water circuit with separate coils within the terminal unit. Two-pipe systems with a common coil within the unit operate satisfactorily with heating or cooling alone. However, when they are used for the single coil changeover, the removal of contained water causes an energy loss. Ventilation air may be ducted to the units. It may also be inducted through an air aperture in an external wall behind the cabinet, but in this case there is no humidity control. Each unit is fitted with automatic damper control. Fan speed control can be applied. Existing heating pipework can be used, but cooling capacity must be installed. The large heating coil surface allows the use of LTHW. Units may be switched off when not in use or operated by time clock. Air-handling units are separate, so fire compartmentation is facilitated. The fresh air requirement of each floor may be measured to suit the occupancy. The space may be preheated by operating the fan coil unit fans without ventilation air. Extraction through light fittings reduces the sensible heat load. Special areas may be air-conditioned using existing hot and cold pipework. Only a single ventilation air duct is required, which can be low velocity with low noise and low fan power. The system occupies minimal void space. However, the units take up floor space, which can be avoided by using remote fan coils with ducted supply and return air. In lightweight buildings thermal response is fast, and individual room temperature control is easily achieved. The system diagram for a ducted fresh air supply fan coil system is identical to that shown in Figure 19, the induction system. The principal difference is the use of lowvelocity air.

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FIGURE 22 Arrangement for fan coil units (exhaust system not shown)

FIGURE 23 The function of a four-pipe fan coil unit

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9.7 Chilled ceilings

The cooling load of a space may be met by the thermal activation of the ceiling in the following ways: By embedding coils in the soffit of a concrete floor and using the ceiling as a low-temperature surface to receive radiation from the higher-temperature surfaces in the space. To a lesser degree, the ceiling also receives heat by conduction from the contacting air, which leads to cool air movement by convection. The thermal response of this arrangement is sluggish, owing to the large mass of concrete, but the buried pipelines may be set at an optimum distance apart to provide the thermal duty. There is no obtrusive equipment. By using proprietary metal pans fixed to the pipelines and suspended from the concrete ceiling. Thermal response is quicker, but the choice of distance between pipes is restricted by the size of the pans. By using ventilated ceilings. Cold air is blown into the ceiling void, which acts as a plenum chamber. A plenum chamber can also be considered as an extremely large increase in the cross-sectional area of a duct line, so that when branches are taken from it, each will have virtually equal pressure available. There is very little friction loss between these points of connection. Some ceiling tiles are perforated but some are dummy to create better thermal diffusion within the space. When the required air change rate in the space is very high, the whole ceiling may be perforated, but air extract facilities must be provided to match.

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10 Air-conditioning systems controls

With so many variations in air-conditioning systems, plant arrangements and weather profiles, it is not possible in this paper to cover the myriad of control modes. Control systems are required to maintain comfort or working conditions, as determined by room temperature, humidity and fresh air content, by varying the performance of the central plant and any terminal units. The air dampers, preheater, humidifier, cooling coils, reheaters and fans are all controlled in varying sequence through valves etc. to meet changing load demands and hopefully but not always provide the most economical running of the systems. Ultimately the controls switch off various items of plant when there is zero demand, even during the occupied period. Automatic controls may be part of a computerised building management system (BMS), sometimes known as building energy management systems (BEMS). However, they do not need to be. Whether to add BMS to a control system depends on the complexity of the building, how it is to be operated, and whether there is really a need for the extra monitoring intelligence and recording that comes with BMS.

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11 Common tests on air-conditioning systems

11.1 The quality of the atmospheric environment
Thermal quality: dry bulb temperature of the air; humidity of the air; mean radiant temperature of perimeter surfaces; spatial air velocity; level of thermal comfort conditions; rate of the recovery of thermal comfort conditions. Non-thermal quality: rate of provision of ventilation air; concentrations of inorganic and organic solid pollutants, gaseous and vaporous pollutants, and subjective tests for levels of vitiation.

11.2 The efficiency of the plant and equipment

Fan testing duct line air velocity testing determination of airflow at grilles filter tests airtightness of the ductwork noise level tests thermal efficiency of the heating plant thermal efficiency of the refrigeration plant electrical tests.

Summary
As buildings become more sophisticated and the processes carried out in the buildings become more high-tech, so the demand for accurate control of the internal environment will increase. This paper has discussed many aspects of modern air conditioning. However, the technology is changing very rapidly. You are quite likely to encounter more modest systems that are just as effective as those described. Fortunately, the principles will always remain the same!