Introduction to Nuclei Physics

1
Wednesday, Mach, 23, 2011
Arif Hidayat
1. Nature of the Nuclear Force
Shape of the Nuclear Potential
Yukawa Potential
Range of Yukawa Potential
2. Nuclear Models
Liquid Drop Model
Fermi Gas Model
Shell Model
A square well nuclear potential provides the basis
of quantum theory with discrete energy levels and
corresponding bound state just like in atoms
Presence of nuclear quantum states have been confirmed
through
Scattering experiments
Studies of the energies emitted in nuclear radiation
Studies of mirror nuclei and the scatterings of
protons and neutrons demonstrate
Without the Coulomb effects, the forces between two
neutrons, two protons or a proton and a neutron are the
same
Nuclear force has nothing to do with electrical charge
Protons and neutrons behave the same under the nuclear force
Inferred as charge independence of nuclear force.
2
Nuclear Potential
Strong nuclear force is independent of the
electric charge carried by nucleons
Concept of strong isotopic-spin symmetry.
proton and neutron are the two different iso-spin state of
the same particle called nucleon
In other words,
If Coulomb effect were turned off, protons and neutrons
would be indistinguishable in their nuclear interactions
Can you give another case just like this???
This is analogues to the indistinguishability of spin up
and down states in the absence of a magnetic field!!
This is called Iso-spin symmetry!!!
3
Nuclear Potential Iso-spin symmetry
EM force can be understood as a result of a
photon exchange
Photon propagation is described by the Maxwells
equation
Photons propagate at the speed of light.
What does this tell you about the mass of the
photon?
Massless
Coulomb potential is

What does this tell you about the range of the
Coulomb force?
Long range. Why?
4
Range of the Nuclear Force
( )
V r
1
r
Massless
particle
exchange
For massive particle exchanges, the potential
takes the form


What is the mass, m, in this expression?
Mass of the particle exchanged in the interaction
The force mediator mass
This form of potential is called Yukawa Potential
Formulated by Hideki Yukawa in 1934
What does Yukawa potential turn to in the limit
m 0?
Coulomb potential
5
Yukawa Potential
( )
V r
mc
r
e

r
From the form of the Yukawa potential



The range of the interaction is given by
some characteristic value of r. What is this?
Compton wavelength of the mediator with
mass, m:
What does this mean?
Once the mass of the mediator is known, range
can be predicted
Once the range is known, the mass can be
predicted
6
Ranges in Yukawa Potential
( )
mc
r
e
V r
r

r
e
r

=
mc
=
Lets put Yukawa potential to work
What is the range of the nuclear force?
About the same as the typical size of a nucleus
1.2x10
-13
cm
thus the mediator mass is


This is close to the mass of a well known t meson
(pion)


Thus, it was thought that t are the mediators of the
nuclear force
7
Ranges in Yukawa Potential
2
mc =
m
t
+
=
c
~
197
164
1.2
MeV fm
MeV
fm

~
2
139.6 / ; MeV c
2
0
135 / m MeV c
t
= m
t

=
Experiments showed very different characteristics
of nuclear forces than other forces
Quantification of nuclear forces and the structure
of nucleus were not straightforward
Fundamentals of nuclear force were not well understood
Several phenomenological models (not theories)
that describe only limited cases of experimental
findings
Most the models assume central potential, just like
Coulomb potential
8
Nuclear Models
An earliest phenomenological success in
describing binding energy of a nucleus
Nucleus is essentially spherical with radius
proportional to A
1/3
.
Densities are independent of the number of nucleons
Led to a model that envisions the nucleus as an
incompressible liquid droplet
In this model, nucleons are equivalent to molecules
Quantum properties of individual nucleons are
ignored
9
Nuclear Models: Liquid Droplet Model
Nucleus is imagined to
consist of
A stable central core of
nucleons where nuclear
force is completely saturated
A surface layer of nucleons
that are not bound tightly
This weaker binding at the
surface decreases the effective
BE per nucleon (B/A)
Provides an attraction of the
surface nucleons towards the
core just as the surface tension
to the liquid
10
Nuclear Models: Liquid Droplet Model
If a constant BE per nucleon is due to the saturation of
the nuclear force, the nuclear BE can be written as:

What do you think each term does?
First term: volume energy for uniform saturated binding
Second term corrects for weaker surface tension
11
Liquid Droplet Model: Binding Energy
BE =
This can explain the low BE/nucleon
behavior of low A nuclei
For low A nuclei, the proportion of the
second term is larger.
Reflects relatively large number of
surface nucleons than the core.
1
a A +
2 3
2
a A
Small decrease of BE for heavy nuclei can be
understood as due to Coulomb repulsion
The electrostatic energies of protons have destabilizing
effect
Reflecting this effect, the empirical formula for BE
takes the correction term

All terms of this formula have classical origin.
This formula does not explain
Lighter nuclei with the equal number of protons and
neutrons are stable or have a stronger binding (larger BE)
Natural abundance of stable even-even nuclei or paucity of
odd-odd nuclei
These could mainly arise from quantum effect of
spins.
12
Liquid Droplet Model: Binding Energy
2 3
1 2
BE a A a A = +
2 1 3
3
a Z A

+
Additional corrections to compensate the
deficiency, give corrections to the empirical
formula (again)


All parameters are assumed to be positive
The forth term reflects N=Z stability
The last term
Positive sign is chosen for odd-odd nuclei, reflecting
instability
Negative sign is chosen for even-even nuclei
For odd-A nuclei, a
5
is chosen to be 0.
13
Liquid Droplet Model: Binding Energy
2 3 2 1 3
1 2 3
BE a A a A a Z A

= + +
( )
2
4
N Z
a
A

+
3 4
5
a A

The parameters are determined by fitting experimentally

observed BE for a wide range of nuclei:


Now we can write an empirical formula for masses of
nuclei



This is Bethe-Weizsacker semi-empirical mass formula
Used to predict stability and masses of unknown nuclei of
arbitrary A and Z
14
Liquid Droplet Model: Binding Energy
1
15.6 a MeV ~
2
16.8 a MeV ~
3
0.72 a MeV ~
4
23.3 a MeV ~
5
34 ; a MeV ~
( ) ( )
2
,
n p
BE
M A Z A Z m Zm
c
= + + = ( )
n p
A Z m Zm +
1
2
a
A
c

2 3
2
2
a
A
c
+
2 1 3
3
2
a
Z A
c

+
( )
2
4
2
N Z
a
A c

+
3 4
5
2
a
A
c

An early attempt to incorporate quantum effects

Assumes nucleus as a gas of free protons and
neutrons confined to the nuclear volume
The nucleons occupy quantized (discrete) energy levels
Nucleons are moving inside a spherically symmetric well
with the range determined by the radius of the nucleus
Depth of the well is adjusted to obtain correct binding
energy
Protons carry electric charge Senses slightly
different potential than neutrons
15
Nuclear Models: Fermi Gas Model
Nucleons are Fermions (spin particles) so
Obey Pauli exclusion principle
Any given energy level can be occupied by at most
two identical nucleons opposite spin projections
For a greater stability, the energy levels fill up
from the bottom to the Fermi level
Fermi level: Highest, fully occupied energy level (E
F
)
Binding energies are given as follows:
BE of the last nucleon= E
F
since no Fermions above
E
F

In other words, the level occupied by Fermion
reflects the BE of the last nucleon
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Nuclear Models: Fermi Gas Model
Experimental observations show BE is charge
independent
If the well depth is the same for p and n, BE for the
last nucleon would be charge dependent for heavy
nuclei (Why?)
Since there are more neutrons than protons, neutrons sit
higher E
F
17
Nuclear Models: Fermi Gas Model
Same Depth Potential Wells
18
Neutron Well
Proton Well
Nuclear |-decay
n
F
E
p
F
E

e
n e p v

+ +
Experimental observations show BE is charge independent
If the well depth is the same for p and n, BE for the last
nucleon would be charge dependent for heavy nuclei
(Why?)
Since there are more neutrons than protons, neutrons sit higher
E
F
But experiments observed otherwise
E
F
must be the same for protons and neutrons. How do
we make this happen?
Make protons move to a shallower potential well
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Nuclear Models: Fermi Gas Model
What happens if this werent the
case?
Nucleus is unstable.
All neutrons at higher energy levels
would undergo a |-decay and
transition to lower proton levels
Fermi momentum:
Volume for momentum space up to Fermi level
Total volume for the states (kinematic phase space)
Proportional to the total number of quantum states in the
system


Using Heisenbergs uncertainty principle:
The minimum volume associated with a physical
system becomes
The n
F
that can fill up to E
F
is
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( )
3
2
2
TOT
F
V
n
t
= =
Fermi Gas Model: E
F
vs n
F
2
F F
p mE =
F
p
V =
F
TOT p
V V V = =
x p A A >
( )
3
2
state
V t =
3
0
4
3
r A
t

( )
2
3
0
4
3
F
A r p
t
| |
|
\ .
( )
( )
2
3
0
3
2 4
3
2
F
A r p
t
t
| |
=
|
\ .
3
0
4
9
F
r p
A
t
| |
|
\ .
2
2
F F
E p m =
3
4
3
F
p
t
3
4
3
F
p
t
=
2
Why?
Lets consider a nucleus with N=Z=A/2 and assume
that all states up to Fermi level are filled


What do you see about p
F
above?
Fermi momentum is constant, independent of the number
of nucleons


Using the average BE of -8MeV, the depth of potential
well (V
0
) is ~40MeV
Consistent with other findings
This model is a natural way of accounting for a
4
term in
Bethe-Weizsacker mass formula
21
Fermi Gas Model: E
F
vs n
F
2
A
N Z = = =
1 3
0
9
8
F
p
r
t
| |
=
|
\ .
or
F
E =
3
0
4
9
F
r p
A
t
| |
|
\ .
2
2
F
p
m
=
2
2 3
0
1 9
2 8 m r
t
| |
| |
~
|
|
\ .
\ .
2
2
0
2.32
2
c
r mc
| |
~
|
\ .
2.32 197
33
2 940 1.2
MeV fm
MeV
fm
| |
~
|

\ .
Exploit the success of atomic model
Uses orbital structure of nucleons
Electron energy levels are quantized
Limited number of electrons in each level based on
available spin and angular momentum
configurations
For n
th
energy level, l angular momentum (l<n), one
expects a total of 2(2l+1) possible degenerate states for
electrons
22
Nuclear Models: Shell Model
Orbits and energy levels an electron can occupy are
labeled by
Principle quantum number: n
n can only be integer
For given n, energy degenerate orbital angular momentum: l
The values are given from 0 to n 1 for each n
For any given orbital angular momentum, there are (2l+1) sub-
states: m
l
m
l
=-l, -l+1, , 0, 1, , l l, l
Due to rotational symmetry of the Coulomb potential, all these sub-
states are degenerate in energy
Since electrons are fermions w/ intrinsic spin angular
momentum ,
Each of the sub-states can be occupied by two electrons
So the total number of state is 2(2l+1)
23
Atomic Shell Model Reminder
2
Exploit the success of atomic model
Uses orbital structure of nucleons
Electron energy levels are quantized
Limited number of electrons in each level based on
available spin and angular momentum configurations
For n
th
energy level, l angular momentum (l<n), one expects a
total of 2(2l+1) possible degenerate states for electrons
Quantum numbers of individual nucleons are taken
into account to affect the fine structure of spectra
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Nuclear Models: Shell Model
Nuclei have magic numbers just like inert atoms
Atoms: Z=2, 10, 18, 36, 54
Nuclei: N=2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, and 126 and Z=2, 8,
20, 28, 50, and 82
Magic Nuclei: Nuclei with either N or Z a magic
number Stable
Doubly magic nuclei: Nuclei with both N and Z
magic numbers Particularly stable
Explains well the stability of nucleus
25
Nuclear Models: Shell Model
To solve equation of motion in quantum
mechanics, Schrdinger equation, one must
know the shape of the potential

Details of nuclear potential not well known
A few shapes of potential energies tried out
Infinite square well: Each shell can contain up to
2(2l+1) nucleons
26
Shell Model: Various Potential Shapes
( ) ( ) ( )
2
2
2
0
m
E V r r
| |
V + =
|
\ .
27
Nuclear Models: Shell Model Square
well potential case
N
M
n l=n-1 N
s
=2(2l+1)

N
T
2 1 0 2 2
8 2 0,1 2+6 8
20 3 0,1,2 2+6+10 18
28 4 0,1,2,3 2+6+10+14 32
50 5 0,1,2,3,4 2+6+10+14+18 50
82 6 0,1,2,3,4,5 2+6+10+14+18+22 72
To solve equation of motion in quantum
mechanics, Schrdinger equation, one must
know the shape of the potential

Details of nuclear potential not well known
A few models of potential tried out
Infinite square well: Each shell can contain up to
2(2l+1) nucleons
Can predict 2, 8 and 50 but no other magic numbers
Three dimensional harmonic oscillator:
Predicts 2, 8, 20, 40 and 70 Some magic numbers
predicted
28
Shell Model: Various Potential Shapes
( )
V r =
2 2
1
2
m r =
( ) ( ) ( )
2
2
2
0
m
E V r r
| |
V + =
|
\ .
Central potential could not
reproduce all magic numbers
In 1940, Mayer and Jesen
proposed a central potential
+ strong spin-orbit
interaction w/


f(r) is an arbitrary empirical
function of radial coordinates
and chosen to fit the data
The spin-orbit interaction
with the properly chosen f(r),
a finite square well can split
Reproduces all the desired
magic numbers
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Shell Model: Spin-Orbit Potential
TOT
V =
Spectroscopic notation: n L j
Orbit number
Orbital angular
momentum Projection of
total momentum
( )
V r ( )
f r L S
Spin-Parity of large number of odd-A nuclei
predicted well
Nucleons are Fermions so the obey Pauli exclusion
principle
Fill up ground state energy levels in pairs
Ground state of all even-even nuclei have zero total
angular momentum
The shell model cannot predict stable odd-odd
nuclei spins
No prescription for how to combine the unpaired
proton and neutron spins
30
Predictions of the Shell Model
Magnetic Moment of neutron and proton are

Intrinsic magnetic moment of unpaired nucleons
contribute to total magnetic moment of nuclei
What does a deuteron consist of?

Measured value is
For Boron (
10
B
5
) , the 5 neutrons and 5 protons have the same
level structure: (1S
1/2
)
2
(1P
3/2
)
3
, leaving one of each unpaired
proton and neutron in angular momentum l=1 state

Measured value is
Does not work well with heavy nuclei
31
Predictions of the Shell Model
D
=
2.79
p N
~ 1.91
n N
~
D
=
B
=
1.80
B N
=
=
2.79 1.91
N N N
+ =
p
+ 2.79
N
1.91
N
= 0.88
N

n
=
0.86
N

2
N
e
l
m c
= N

1
2
N
e
m c
=
p n
+ +
orbit
=
1.88
N

For heavy nuclei, shell model predictions do not

agree with experimental measurements
Especially in magnetic dipole moments
Measured values of quadrupole moments for
closed shells differ significantly with experiments
Some nucleis large quadrupole moments suggests
significant nonspherical shapes
The assumption of rotational symmetry in shell model
does not seem quite right
These deficiencies are somewhat covered through
the reconciliation of liquid drop model with Shell
model
Bohr, Mottelson and Rainwaters collective model,
1953
32
Collective Model
Assumption
Nucleus consists of hard core of nucleons in filled shells
Outer valence nucleons behave like the surface molecules in a
liquid drop
Non-sphericity of the central core caused by the surface motion of
the valence nucleon
Thus, in collective model, the potential is a shell model with
a spherically asymmetric potential
Aspherical nuclei can produce additional energy levels upon
rotation while spherical ones cannot
Important predictions of collective model:
Existence of rotational and vibrational energy levels in nuclei
Accommodate decrease of spacing between first excite state and
the ground level for even-even nuclei as A increases, since
moment of inertia increases with A
Spacing is largest for closed shell nuclei, since they tend to be
spherical
33
Collective Model
Nuclei tend to have relatively small intrinsic spins
Particularly stable nuclei predicted for A between 150
and 190 with spheroidal character
Semi-major axis about a factor of 2 larger than semi-minor
Heavy ion collisions in late 1980s produced super-
deformed nuclei with angular momentum of
The energy level spacings of these observed through
photon radiation seem to be fixed
Different nuclei seem to have identical emissions as they
spin down
Problem with collective model and understanding of
strong pairing of nucleon binding energy
Understanding nuclear structure still in progress
34
Super-deformed Nuclei
60