Conference Session #A5

Paper #2084

AN OVERVIEW OF DUAL-FUEL, LIQUEFIED-NATURAL-GAS ENGINES IN MARINE USE: A MORE EFFICIENT ROUTE

Shawn Walls (spw19@pitt.edu), Ian Abrahamsen (ida3@pitt.edu)
AbstractThroughout this paper, the application, functioning process, and sustainable advantages of DualFuel engines running on liquefied natural gas (LNG) will be described and evaluated. Specifically, the engineering behind these engines in marine use will be analyzed. The benefits of LNG from societal and ecological standpoints will also be identified. Natural gas as a liquid saves substantial space during transportation and storage. During its liquefaction, the toxic chemicals in natural gas are removed. Although natural gas has been criticized in the past, there are many ecological and societal benefits from using LNG as a fuel. With the acceptance of natural gas as a fuel source, diesel engines can now be modified into Dual-Fuel engines which run primarily on natural gas with reduced amounts of diesel fuel. Dual-Fuel engines differ from diesel engines with the addition of an electronic control unit and a different gas injection system. The electronic control unit regulates the natural gas injected depending on the amount of diesel gas added. Dual-Fuel engines produce clean emissions while maintaining the power of diesel engines. Since Dual-Fuel engines are more beneficial and LNG is transported primarily by ships, mechanical engineers are regularly trying to incorporate these engines in marine transportation. Dual-Fuel engines improve nautical propulsion technology without environmental damage. Although the Dual-Fuel engine was originally only used by LNG cargo ships, this engine has become prominent in the entire boating industry. In addition to LNG carriers, other vessels will be analyzed as examples of marine transportation utilizing the Dual-Fuel, LNG engine. Key WordsDual-Fuel engine, Electronic control unit, Gas injection system, Liquefied natural gas, LNG Carrier, Marine transportation ways to utilize the ocean to improve living conditions, not just for humans, but for the environment as a whole. With this goal in mind, the Dual-Fuel diesel engine was invented. The Dual-Fuel engine is a strong, reliable, and ecofriendly engine that runs on a combination of diesel fuel and natural gas. Although there are many options for the type of natural gas to pair with this engine, one of the best choices is liquefied natural gas (LNG) because of its efficiency and lack of pollutants. The union of the Dual-Fuel engine and LNG is both environmentally and economically beneficial. In regards to sustainability, the Dual-Fuel engine is a sustainable approach to engine design. With the addition of LNG, it becomes even more sustainable and easily balances the three main factors of sustainability: protecting the environment, respecting economic boundaries, and satisfying societal standards. Dual-Fuel engines have tremendous potential to display these advantages when incorporated into marine transportation. Since nautical vessels in the past have damaged the environment with diesel engines, there has been a desire to find a more ecofriendly engine for ships and boats. Because of this need for greener ships, the Dual-Fuel engine has become a popular choice for the marine transportation industry. Through the application of Dual-Fuel engines, private owners and companies in the nautical business can now feel more comfortable knowing that they are making the oceans a cleaner place.

UTILIZING NATURAL GAS AS A LIQUID

Natural gas, as a fossil fuel, is an energy source of limited quantities across the globe. As with coal and petroleum, the combustion of natural gas leads to air pollution. Within these three fossil fuels, natural gas releases the smallest amount of pollutants, yet natural gas still releases unhealthy pollutants that need to be controlled. Since 23.5% of the energy consumed across the world is from natural gas, a main goal of science and engineering professionals has been to try and expand the life cycle while decreasing the environmental concerns associated with natural gas [1]. A prominent method to reach this desired goal is by liquefying the natural gas. As a liquid, natural gas becomes a much more sustainable fuel source, for toxins found in natural gas are not released and it is much easier to store and transport natural gas in its denserliquidform.

THE EVOLUTION OF THE DUAL-FUEL ENGINE

Over the centuries, mankind has always been curious of the mighty and mysterious force known as the ocean. More recently, mankind has sought to capitalize from the oceans advantages to improve societys quality of life. The want to harness the oceans qualities started with ancient civilizations that built fleets of man-powered ships, to the industrial revolution that brought forth ships that ran on steam, to the present day where ships are powered by a number of sources such as electricity, nuclear power, and fossil fuels. Engineers are constantly searching for the best University of Pittsburgh Swanson School of Engineering 1

April 14, 2012

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Ian Abrahamsen Shawn Walls In its liquid state, mass amounts of natural gas can be transported at once. As with the storage, more money can be saved due to the fact that more natural gas can be transported at once. Furthermore, with the capability of shipping more natural gas, areas across the world that previously did not have much access to natural gas can now obtain it as another energy source. This is a major societal advantage, because nations that depend too heavily on a less efficient energy source now have the opportunity to utilize natural gas. On a national scale, the use and abundance of LNG in the United States can help the nations economy significantly. Since the United States has such a high dependency on foreign oil, the increased application of LNG will help weaken the oil dependency. By lowering our dependence on foreign oil, the United States can decrease its national debt while simultaneously supplying the country with a cheaper alternative fuel source to use domestically. At the start of the millennium, oil and natural gas cost about the same price, but as time progressed, oil prices began to skyrocket as natural gas prices remained steady [5]. In fact, over the last three years, the price of natural gas has been decreasing [6]. The price comparison of natural gas to oil is displayed in Figure 1.

Going from a Gas to a Liquid The process of producing LNG requires three primary steps: retrieval, pretreatment, and liquefaction. The retrieval step is plainly the act of obtaining the natural gas from its ground state and transferring it to a natural gas terminal. During the pretreatment process, undesirable chemicals in natural gas are removed. Natural gas is a mixture of mostly methane, ethane, and other compounds which cannot withstand the compression of natural gas into a liquid [1]. Since the hydrocarbons have lower condensation points than the other substituents of the mixture, the cooling and pressurizing of natural gas condenses the excess compounds into liquids before the hydrocarbons. These dense liquids are then filtered out of the natural gas, removing water and pollutants such as carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, and other nitrogen and sulfur compounds [2]. The LNG becomes more methane-pure after filtration, which is a great advantage of LNG. The amount of available methane is directly related to the amount of energy capable of being utilized. Because of the filtration of other byproducts, LNG can be burned with a higher percentage of methane gas reducing pollutants as a result. After the separation of these chemicals, the natural gas is then fed through dehydration units and a series of cooling coils in a cryogenic exchanger [3]. Refrigerants are applied in these units which help liquefy the natural gas. These refrigerants are cooler gases that help condense the natural gas to its low condensation point of about -265o F [3]. These refrigerants have even lower condensation points, which allow the LNG to be extracted from the leftover refrigerant vapors; these vapors can then also be used again as refrigerants for other liquefaction systems [3]. The natural gas is officially a liquid at this stage, and the LNG is fully prepared to be stored and transported to its required destination. The Societal and Economic Benefits of LNG The storage and transportation methods of LNG are the primary causes of LNGs economic and societal benefits. For natural gas to be stored as a liquid, double-insulated containers are required to keep LNG below its -265o F boiling point. At this temperature, natural gas is compressed to 1/615 of its gaseous form in its liquid form [1]. At this denser state, much more natural gas can be stored at once, which saves costs and space tremendously. Also LNG is not stored under pressure, despite the very low temperature needed, which removes the chance of an inadvertent explosion. In addition to this safety procedure, natural gas terminals are equipped with several other precautionary measures to ensure safety and security such as methane detectors, personnel and equipment access control, and site surveillance [4].

FIGURE 1 PRICE COMPARISON, IN DOLLARS PER BARREL, OF NATURAL GAS (BLUE) TO OIL (BLACK) [5] Natural Gas Becomes Greener as a Liquid As previously stated, upon the liquefaction of natural gas many of the toxic impurities are filtered out to make the natural gas more methane-pure. With the gas now being cleaner, the emissions are much less damaging than those of ordinary natural gas. More specifically, LNG releases 20% fewer emissions than ordinary natural gas and 70% fewer emissions than the use of coal [1]. Also, an LNG spill would not result in much damage. LNG is an inflammable

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Ian Abrahamsen Shawn Walls LNG is, by all means, a great progressive step towards making the natural gas industry more sustainable, and will provide not only a better fuel source to be used in the near future but also more time for subsequent energy resources to be developed. This is a prime example of the sustainability of LNG, for LNG is improving and will continue to improve the quality of life for future generations.

liquid and it is insoluble in water, which means it would quickly evaporate, requiring no clean-up if an accidental spill were to occur [4]. Like other fuels, once LNG becomes a vapor it is flammable, but LNG vapor has a limited flammability range; LNG vapor needs to be at a concentration between 5 and 15% mixed with air in order to ignite [4]. Compared to other fuels, this is a very narrow range. For example, diesel has a flammability range of 1 to 99% when mixed with air [1]. As mentioned earlier, liquefied natural gas is becoming a more prominent fuel source every year. The expected use of LNG has been estimated to increase by 6.6% every year for the next twenty years [7]. LNG is also predicted to make up 50% of the internationally traded gas by 2030, compared to about 20% in 2004 [7]. Across the globe, there currently are 101 import terminals receiving LNG shipments, 24 export terminals sending LNG shipments, and 200 LNG storage facilities to keep LNG until necessary [4]. Universally, this is not exactly a tremendous number, but the amount of LNG facilities and terminals is increasing every year with no signs of stopping. Inferably, the steady increase is due to not only the economic and societal benefits, but the environmental perks as well. To help depict the increase of LNG, Figure 2 shows the recorded and anticipated international LNG trade from 2000 to 2030.

DUAL-FUEL DIESEL ENGINES: THE BASICS

Imagine a strong, efficient, powerful engine that is capable of hauling large loads for extended periods of time. Now, imagine an economical and environmentally friendly engine that produces next-to-zero emissions. The Dual-Fuel Diesel Engine acts as a combination of these two engines, balancing the strength and durability of sturdy engines plus the eco-friendliness of green engines. Many people across all fields of work depend on the reliability, efficiency, and power associated with a typical diesel engine. At the same time, the world has come to the realization that there is an overwhelming need to be less wasteful and more resourceful. With both points of view in mind, the Dual-Fuel Diesel Engine has the ability to please everyone. The DualFuel engine maintains the same power output of a standard diesel engine while simultaneously running on natural gas, creating much less airborne toxins for the environment [9]. Diesel engines can be transformed into Dual-Fuel engines, which allow the user to cut overall costs, produce less waste, and complete any engine-operated task as quickly and efficiently as before. A Dual-Fuel engine can be thought of as a diesel engine with a new eco-friendly twist. How a Dual-Fuel Engine Works In order to adequately describe how a Dual-Fuel engine works, first one must understand how a regular diesel engine operates. Todays diesel engine is very similar to the design that Rudolph Diesel invented over a century ago. It runs on a four-stroke system: injection, compression, ignition, and exhaustion [10]. The fuel comes in, the piston compresses the fuel, the fuel is ignited and forces the piston back down thus powering the engine, and then finally the waste is released through the exhaust [11]. The diesel engine has come a long way from its origin as a two-stroke engine with 4% efficiency, to the Otto engine, to finally becoming the diesel engine used today that powers large ocean liners, tractor trailers, and countless other machines. Following in Ottos and Diesels footsteps, the creation of the Dual-Fuel engine is only another improvement to the engine, making it more sustainable by reducing harmful emissions and costs. To create a Dual-Fuel engine, certain modifications need to be made to a diesel engine to allow it to run properly. Luckily, the natural gas and diesel combination reacts quite similarly in the engine as normal diesel fuel; therefore there

FIGURE 2
PAST AND EXPECTED GROWTH RATE FOR INTERNATIONAL LNG TRADE, YEAR VS. BILLION CUBIC METERS (BCM). [8]

With fewer emissions released, more space saved, and transportation costs reduced, LNG is on its way to becoming a primary energy source during this century. Still, since it is a fossil fuel, LNG cannot be solely depended on for all energy requirements. Yet, when compared to other fossil fuels used today, LNG is a much more efficient fuel, and will be a great addition to other alternate energy sources soon-to-be discovered. The Center for Liquefied Natural Gas welcomes other efficient energy sources to be used in addition to LNG to help reach a more sustainable world.

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Ian Abrahamsen Shawn Walls carbon-to-hydrogen ratio in the fuel. Nitrous oxides have decreased by 85% due to the lean burn concept, which is when an engine has a high air-to-fuel ratio. Lastly, DualFuel engines using LNG have almost entirely no sulfur emissions, for they were eliminated during the liquefaction process of the natural gas [15], [16]. Ordinarily, natural gas cannot put out the same compression ratio as diesel because at a certain ratio, the ignition step is no longer consistently igniting the gas. However, because Dual-Fuel engines use the diesel fuel as a type of liquid spark plug, there is no difference in efficiency and compression ratio [9]. There are a few different types of natural gas that could be combined with the Dual-Fuel engine, but the most efficient one is liquefied natural gas. The main reason LNG is the best choice is because most of the harmful byproducts that usually go hand-in-hand with natural gas are eradicated, resulting in fewer emissions when the Dual-Fuel engine later burns the natural gas. Within the Dual-Fuel engine, the gas injection system injects specific amounts of natural gas into the engine to replace the diesel fuel normally injected. The electronic control unit regulates the ratio of natural gas to diesel fuel supplied by the gas injection system. Through this regulation, the natural gas and diesel fuel ratio mimics the expected power output of a classic diesel engine by keeping the compression ratio the same. The injection system will reduce the amount of diesel anywhere from 50 to 80%, saving the operator money depending on the percentage [12]. Another benefit of using LNG is that it reacts just like diesel would in the engine. LNG is compressed and ignited; it shoots the piston downward just as a diesel engine would. The only downside to using a Dual-Fuel diesel engine with LNG is that the user would need to keep track of both fuel sources instead of just one because if the diesel runs out, the engine cannot function. Although one would need to be more aware of his or her machinery, the cost of using primarily liquefied natural gas will more than make up for the extra attention needed. The Future of Dual-Fuel Engines

is no added thermal or mechanical stress on the engine. Without any additional thermal or mechanical stress, the cooling system does not need to be changed when transforming the diesel engine to a Dual-Fuel engine [9]. Two integral components of the Dual-Fuel engine that do have to be added are an electronic control unit and a redesigned gas injection system. Both of these components can be augmented as after-market additions. The electronic control unit determines how the Dual-Fuel engines system functions. It controls how much natural gas and diesel fuel should be combined in order to maintain optimal and efficient power. The electronic control unit also informs the engine when to switch from using both fuels to solely diesel if necessary [9]. As with using lower-grade gasoline in engines that require higher-grade, using inadequate natural gas can cause knocking in the engine. Knocking is the result of auto-ignition, which is an explosion of the unbalanced gas-air mixture, which can be heard as a sharp "knocking" sound from the engine [12]. In the electronic control unit, there are sensors that detect knocking, the performance of the engine, and both gas levels in case the engine needs to switch from both fuels to one fuel. This switch may be needed within the engine in order to prevent engine damage or poor operation [9]. Overall, the electronic control units main job is to tell the natural gas injection system how much natural gas to inject in order to get the best performance out of the engine possible. Other than being powered by natural gas, the engine runs on the same four-stroke system as a normal diesel engine, which is depicted in Figure 3.

FIGURE 3
DIAGRAM OF THE FOUR STROKE CYCLE [13]

With an Improved Fuel, Comes an Improved Engine As already stated, Dual-Fuel engines produce nearly zero emissions compared to its predecessor, the diesel engine; this is because of the fuel that it is being used to power it. What makes the Dual-Fuel engine so special is that, in comparison to a standard diesel engine, it produces less carbon emissions, nitrogen oxides, and sulfur dioxides while remaining equally as powerful [14]. The combination of LNG and the Dual-Fuel engine has significantly reduced carbon emissions by roughly 15-30% by having a low

As with the introduction of any new idea, the Dual-Fuel engine has had its reliability, availability, and longevity called into question. With the perfection of the Dual-Fuel engine, all of these areas of possible concern have been resolved since it was first developed. The reliability of the Dual-Fuel engine has been proven by successful demonstrations in different modes of transportation. This reliability is proven by the Dual-Fuel engine manufacturing company, Wrtsil. Their engines have performed over three million hours of operation in 470 land and marine vessels [15]. Clean Air Powers Dual-Fuel engines have proven themselves as well; their engines have covered over 500 million kilometers in 1,700 vehicles [12]. Its use and

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Ian Abrahamsen Shawn Walls to their unique designs and are not expected to cause a tragic accident in the future. Currently, there are two main types of LNG carriers transporting the fuel across the seas. These two designs include spherical-storage tank, and membrane-type carriers. The LNG-storing spherical tanksalso known as KvaernerMoss Systemsconsist of a steel tank cover, insulation, an aluminum tank shell, an equatorial ring or skirt, a water ballast tank, and a distribution pipe [17]. The insulation is inserted between the steel cover and aluminum shell which helps keep the LNG at its necessary cool temperature and gives enough strength to promise no misshaping of the spherical tank. Due to their spherical shapes, the tanks have the most mechanical and thermal pressure at the equator; an equatorial ring or skirt is applied here to support the pressure of the equator, keeping the tanks sturdy and trustworthy. To keep the tanks stable with the unsteady flow of the ocean, water ballasts are employed. Lastly, the distribution pipe connects the series of tanks on the LNG carrier to help maintain consistent temperatures between all of the tanks. The distribution pipe nearest the engine is connected to the Dual-Fuel engine itself where it is regasified to supply the carrier with its required fuel. Figure 4 provides an illustration of a spherical storage tank.

popularity will only grow from here, thus leading to more research to improve the Dual-Fuel engine even more. Because the use of Dual-Fuel engines has increased, the availability of natural gas has also increased to meet the growing popularity of natural gas. Natural gas can be obtained from installing pumps that tap into the pipeline grid [12]. Dual-Fuels longevity is preserved in its plethora of uses from transportation to generating power. There is already evidence in this section pointing to the increase of Dual-Fuel use in marine and land transportation, but DualFuel is also used in many other areas. These areas range from residential purposes to energy-generating power plants, which help contribute to the successful growth of Dual-Fuel usage [14]. Of all Dual-Fuel functions, its use as an engine in marine transportation has become one of the most prominent applications used today.

GETTING OUR FEET WET

Marine vessels running on pure diesel have been continuously criticized for the amount of pollution their engines emit into the air. There have also been disasters where diesel spills have caused explosions and/or polluted Earths oceans devastatingly. Fortunately, with the introduction of Dual-Fuel engines, marine vessels can avoid these risks and make our oceans and atmosphere much cleaner. As stated earlier, Dual-Fuel engines have much fewer emissions than diesel-only engines, and once LNG is integrated instead of ordinary natural gas, the engine only gets greener. Because of the several advantages that result from the combination of LNG and the Dual-Fuel engine, it is becoming a sustainable and an increasingly popular enginefuel partnership in marine transportation. Dual-Fuel: The Prime Choice for LNG Carriers The first ships to utilize Dual-Fuel engines with LNG were LNG cargo ships. The main reason LNG carriers did this first is simply because they were constantly travelling between LNG import and export terminals. LNG carriers are quite similar to LNG tanks. They consist of double hulls with insulation to ensure minimum likelihood of a spill. In contrast to LNG carriers, most diesel cargo vessels are only single-hulled, which is an extreme risk, especially with the dangers associated with diesel spills. In addition to the double-hulled safety measure, LNG cargo vessels are equipped with sophisticated leak detection technologies, emergency shutdown systems, and, as with all modern oil tankers, radar and positioning systems [4]. In the past 50 years, since the first LNG carriers maiden voyage, there has never been a major incident involved with LNG carriers [1]. Safety is always a primary concern with any technology or advancement. LNG carriers have proven to be very safe due

FIGURE 4
SPHERICAL-STORAGE TANK LNG CARRIER HULL DESIGN [18]

The other main type of LNG carrier, the membrane-type carrier, has three main components: the membrane, the insulation, and the ships hull. One of the most distinctive parts of this design would be the thin flexible membrane which is in direct contact with the LNG cargo [17]. This membrane typically is about one millimeter thick and is sandwiched between the contained LNG and the insulation used to maintain the cold temperature. The cargo presses upon the membrane as the hull presses the insulation upon the membrane, reaching a stability point to keep the LNG properly stored. Although this is the basic design of a

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Ian Abrahamsen Shawn Walls The Expansion of Dual-Fuel and LNG to Other Marine Vessels As previously mentioned, one of the best options to explore the maximum potential of Dual-Fuel diesel engines is by incorporating them into the marine transportation industry. Many companies have already made the move to Dual-Fuel. Such examples include TWB, who has designed a Dual-Fuel natural gas ferry that runs out of Brazil called the Ivete Sangalo, Kawasaki Heavy Industries, who has developed a new LNG cargo carrier to transport much more contained cargo than the average carrier, and Viking Line, who is in the middle of constructing a cruise liner that will use DualFuel engines powered by LNG called the M/S Viking Grace [20], [21], [22]. These are just a few specific examples of the countless ships that are employing the technology of Dual-Fuel engines and liquefied natural gas. There are countless benefits to using this technology such as reduced costs because of the current price of LNG, reduced weight of the ship because, when liquefied, LNG has a much higher rate of energy density, and a lower risk of an oil spill if an accident would occur, since LNG breaks up so quickly into the atmosphere when released [23]. The Ivete Sangalo takes advantage of the abundance of LNG around the El Salvador region and combines it with 4 converted Dual-Fuel diesel engines to run with 70% natural gas and 30% diesel. The ship contains 20 fuel cylinders that are able to refuel through natural gas bundles supplied by the company CDGN under the commission of BahiaGas, the local natural gas distributer. The TWB had such success with Ivete Sangalo that they have commissioned a second ship to be built [8]. Kawasaki has designed a new LNG cargo transport ship to maximize space for carrying the most amount of LNG possible. Not only is the ship significant because of its physical design but also because it has a new technology called the Kawasaki Panel System. These panels reduce the rate of LNG evaporation by strengthening the insulation, thus keeping the temperature inside the containers lower [21]. Finally, the newest addition to the line of LNG Dual-Fuel ships is Vikings largest cruise liner, the NB 1376 which was recently renamed the M/S Viking Grace. It travels from Stockholm, Sweden to the Aland Islands and Turku, Finland all on LNG fuel. The design of the M/S Viking Grace is centered on the use of LNG; they have strategically placed the fuel tanks outdoors on the stern of the ship in the case there would be a leak. Even if this were to occur, the gas would just rise up and evaporate because the gas is lighter than air. Also while the gas is super cooled, the pipes are kept at a very low pressure and double-sealed in case there is a leak; therefore no gas will escape [22]. The creation of the M/S Viking Grace is part of a much bigger plan organized by an association known as the Baltic Sea Action Group. The BSAG is working to clean up the Baltic Sea by

membrane-type LNG carrier, there are many different types of membrane styles modified with slight variations. One of the common styles used today uses a double-membrane, double-insulation design. A cross-section of this type of tank is presented in Figure 5 for added clarification.

FIGURE 5
MEMBRANE-TYPE LNG CARRIER CROSS-SECTION

[19]

Over the past fifteen years, spherical-storage tanks have been more popular for LNG carriers, yet the number of membrane LNG carriers is steadily increasing. Sphericalstorage carriers are largely used in Japanese shipyards, making this vessel method very popular. Japan is one of the most active nations in LNG, facilitating 40 of the 101 import terminals across the globe [4]. Still, due to the flexibility of membrane-type carriers and the growing interest in LNG, the number of LNG carriers with membrane systems is increasing every year. Although they are so heavily insulated, there is a very small percentage of LNG that boils into vapor within the storage of LNG carriers. This is known as Boil-Off Gas (BOG) and generally ranges between .1 and .15% of the cargo per day for LNG cargo vessels [17]. With the application of a Dual-Fuel engine, LNG carriers are able to use some of this BOG for its own energy needs. The capability to use BOG is a great advantage of LNG carriers using Dual-Fuel engines, because it allows the vessel to consume gas that would otherwise be wasted. Therefore, along with the other environmental benefits of LNG, DualFuel engines are able to help reduce natural gas waste for LNG carriers, making them an even more sustainable innovation.

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Ian Abrahamsen Shawn Walls

http://www.petrostrategies.org/Graphs/gas_and_residual_fuel_comparison.h tm [7] A. Slaughter. (2007). NPC Study on Global Oil and Gas Supply: LNG. National Petroleum Council. [Online: Article] Available: http://www.npc.org/Study_Topic_Papers/13-STG-LiquefiedNaturalGas.pdf [8] J. Seisler. (2009). L-NGV Growth Anticipated to Follow Dramatic LNG Market Expansion in Asia and Europe. Natural Gas Vehicle Industry. [Online: Web Site] Available: http://www.ngvglobal.com/lngv-growth-anticipated-to-follow-dramatic-lng-market-expansion-in-asiaand-europe-1019 [9] (2010). How Dual-Fuel works. Clean Air Power. [Online: Web Site] Available: http://www.cleanairpower.com/duel-work.php [10] M. Brain. (2012). Internal Combustion. How Stuff Work. [Online: Web Site] Available: http://www.howstuffworks.com/engine1.htm [11] T. Benson. (July 11, 2008) 4 Stroke Internal Engine National Aeronautics and Space Administration [Online: Web Site] Available: http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/engopt.html [12] (2010). Dual-Fuel FAQs. Clean Air Power. [Online: Web Site] Available: http://www.cleanairpower.com/duel-faq.php [13] (2006) The Aircraft Powerplant. US Government Material. [Online: Web Site] Available: http://www.free-online-private-pilot-groundschool.com/aircraft-powerplant.html [14] (2011). Natural Gas and Technology. NaturalGas.org. [Online: Web Site] Available: http://www.naturalgas.org/environment/technology.asp [15] (September 20, 2011). Wrtsil Dual-Fuel Engines Exceed 3 Million Running Hours. Wrtsil. [Online: Web Site] Available: http://www.wartsila.com/en/press-releases/wartsila-Dual-Fuel-enginesexceed-3-million-running-hours [16] A. Eykerman. (June 12, 2009) Fuel Flexible Solution Efficient Shipping. [Online: Web Site] Aviable: http://www.cimac.com/cimac_cms/uploads/explorer/other_events_2009/pre sentation_wartsila.pdf [17] A. Sacchi. (2012). Types of LNG Carriers. Pormorsko. [Online: Web Site] Available: http://www.pomorskodobro.com/en/types-of-lngcarriers.html [18] A. Finn. (2010). New FPSO design produce LNG from offshore sources. PennWell Corporation. [Online: Web Site] Available: http://www.ogj.com/articles/print/volume-100/issue-34/processing/newfpso-design-produces-lng-from-offshore-sources.html [19] (2006). LNG Carriers: Additional Analysis. Environmental Protection Department. [Online: Web Site] Available: http://www.epd.gov.hk/eia/register/report/eiareport/eia_1252006/html/eiare port/MQRA/MQRA%20EIA%20Report%20Appendix%20III.htm [20] (August 13, 2008). Dual-Fuel Natural Gas Ferry for Bahia, Brazil. NGV Global News [Online: Web Site] Available: http://www.ngvglobal.com/dual-fuel-natural-gas-ferry-for-bahia-brazil-081 [21] (2011) Large LNG-fuelled Container Ship Granted Approval in Principle. Det Norske Veritas. [Online: Web Site] Available: http://www.dnv.com/press_area/press_releases/2012/largelngfuelledcontain ershipgrantedapprovalinprinciple.asp [22] (2011) Viking Lines new passenger vessel NB 1376. Wrtsil. [Online: Web Site] Available: http://wartsila.com/en/references/VikingLine [23] (2010). LNG Future. CLNG. [Online: Web Site] Available: http://www.lngfacts.org/LNG-Future/default.asp

conjoining all levels of society to work for a greener future. The use of LNG in ships all over the world is reducing the carbon, nitrous, and sulfur wastes in the atmosphere by drastic amounts. Viking Line, Kawasaki Heavy Industries, and TWB are all examples of companies that are leading the way in salvaging and preserving the future of the world, by employing LNG to their respective ships.

SAILING INTO A BETTER TOMORROW

With the damaging side effects associated with purely diesel-operated vessels, the marine transportation industry practically requires that a safer engine method is utilized. Fortunately, with the introduction of the Dual-Fuel engine, many nautical vessels have been able to divorce from diesel engines and use a more eco-friendly engine. The relatively uncomplicated design of Dual-Fuel engines makes the DualFuel engine both ecological and practical. The number of ships using Dual-Fuel engines is steadily increasing every year, which is, without question, due to the sustainable aspects linked to the leaner engine. In the past, LNG carriers have been the most common ships to employ Dual-Fuel engines, but more and more ships are converting to this engine as well. Also, not only are more boats switching to Dual-Fuel engines, but many of them are applying LNG fuel instead of regular natural gas. Because of the transformation process of natural gas to LNG, LNG is able to be burned with fewer emissions than any other fossil-fuel source. LNG also allows natural gas to be stored and transported in larger quantities, which saves money by saving more space. Since more natural gas can now be shipped as a liquid, natural gas is becoming more universal. The advantages of LNG are tremendous additions to the Dual-Fuel engine. Through the combination of Dual-Fuel engines and the fuel, LNG, the oceans will become a much cleaner place, providing a much more promising environment for Earths tomorrow.

REFERENCES
[1] (2009). LNG Facts. Ochre Energy. [Online: Web Site] Available: http://www.ochreenergy.com.au/lng-facts.htm [2] Y. Afon and D. Ervin. (March, 2008). An Assessment of Air Emissions from Liquefied Natural Gas Ships Using Different Power Systems and Different Fuels. Journal of the Air and Waste Association. V 58, n 3, p 404-411, March 2008 [3] Norrie. (2010). Refrigeration-CryogenicsLNG Production. Compressionjobs.com. [Online: Article] Available: http://articles.compressionjobs.com/articles/oilfield-101/1855-refrigerationcryogenics-liquefied-natural-gas-lng-gas-treatment-unit?start=6 [4] (2011). Liquefied Natural Gas. Chevron Corporation. [Online: Web Site] Available: http://www.chevron.com/deliveringenergy/naturalgas/liquefiednaturalgas/ [5] (2009). J. D. Hamilton. Natural Gas and Oil Prices Comparison. Wall Street Pit. [Online: Web Site] Available: http://wallstreetpit.com/8582natural-gas-and-oil-prices-comparison [6] (2012) U.S. Natural Gas and Residual Fuel Oil Price Comparison. PetroStrategies, Inc. [Online: Web Site] Available:

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We would like to thank our co-chair, Luby Choi, for providing us with advice and assistance for our freshman conference paper. Also, we would like to thank our writing instructor, Hans Mattingly, for giving us constructive feedback for our paper.