Writing in English

Typical challenges when writing academic texts

Rebecca Hincks Unit for Language and Communication hincks@kth.se

A masters thesis should demonstrate:

1. An original investigation or the testing of ideas 2. Competence in independent work or experimentation 3. An understanding of appropriate techniques as well as their limitations 4. An expert knowledge of the published literature on the topic under investigation

A masters thesis should demonstrate:

5. Evidence of the ability to make critical use of published work and source materials 6. An appreciation of the relationship between the research topic and the wider field of knowledge 7. The ability to present the work at an appropriate level of literary quality
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5. Evidence of the ability to make critical use of published work and source materials
Also involves careful choice of expression:
X suggested/proposed/claimed that[5].
Generally for reference to single studies

There have been several investigations into the causes of.[10] [11]
Generally for reference to areas of inquiry

Z concludes that[12]
Generally for reference to state of current knowledge

5. Evidence of the ability to make critical use of published work and source materials

Jones (1997) concluded that Jones (1997) has concluded that Jones (1997) concludes that
In general, such tense move indicates that the research reported is increasingly close to the writer in some way (Swales and Feak, 2004).

6. An appreciation of the relationship between the research topic and the wider field of knowledge
Involves positioning your work and indicating a gap in that of the field: As yet, little has been done to address this. little attention has been paid to/has been neglected/been limited to/suffered from.. Our results compare favorably with those of George and Benson

Indicating a gap cont.

However, previous research in this field has a. b. c. d. e. f. concentrated on disregarded failed to consider ignored been limited to misinterpreted g. neglected to consider h. overestimated i. overlooked j. been restricted to k. suffered from l. underestimated
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Indicating a gap cont.

Nevertheless, these attempts to establish a link between dental fillings and disease are at present a. b. c. d. e. f. g. controversial incomplete inconclusive misguided questionable unconvincing unsatisfactory

7. The ability to present the work at an appropriate level of literary quality

Involves being consistently formal in style and carefully (and continuously editing your text):
According to some biologists, coming up with clear proof of the decreasing number of frogs has been difficult. (less formal) According to some biologists, offering clear proof of the decreasing number of frogs has been difficult. (more formal)

In academic writing, there is a tendency to use single verbs whenever possible (and not phrasal verbs, e.g. come up with).
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7. The ability to present the work at an appropriate level of literary quality

Scientists are looking into innovative ways to combat AIDS. investigating The purpose of this paper is to try to figure out what is lacking determine in our current understanding of corrosion and corrosion protection in concrete. Rice and aquatic products make up a major part of the diet of constitute the people in Vietnam. Although labor unions in the U.S. have been able to keep up maintain their membership numbers...
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7. The ability to present the work at an appropriate level of literary quality

Crash test dummies are really important for/ an integral part of automative crash tests. We got/obtained encouraging results using structural bamboo rather than timber. Similarly, More informal
do not have enough.. do not happen very often

More formal
have insufficient rarely occur

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And what about editing?

Here are a few areas to watch particularly carefully

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Typical challenges when writing in English

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Subject-verb agreement and articles Tense choice Choice of modal verb Word order Sentence structure Punctuation and Capitals Spelling
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1. Subject-verb agreement
*Doubts has been raised about the feasibility of the solution. Doubts have been raised about the feasibility of the solution. Doubts about the feasibility of the solution has/have been raised. ?
3 nouns in subject verb phrase

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Subject-verb agreement: Why is it a problem?

A redundant feature of English Does not exist in many other languages, e.g. Scandinavian languages Requires knowledge of countability in nouns Complex noun phrases compound the problem (where the distance between the subject and the verb is long)
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Subject-verb agreement
Doubts about the feasibility of the solution has/have been raised. ?
Avoid the problem by moving the verb

Doubts have been raised about the feasibility of the solution.

This also makes the sentence less top-heavy (Rule of thumb: max. nine words between the subject and the verb)
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Subject-verb agreement: Determining noun countability Data is or data are?

Both possible, but be consistent

Equipment or equipments?
Equipment is correct, uncountable

Aircraft or aircrafts?
Aircraft is correct, both singular and plural: aircraft is, aircraft are
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Definite and Indefinite Articles the and a/an

Definitions often contain the indefinite article, to introduce the term and the class to which it belongs: A web server is a computer that stores web pages.

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Definite and Indefinite Articles

In some definitions, the term has no article: Encryption is a method of encoding messages to provide privacy over a computer network.

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Definite and Indefinite Articles

(web) server is countable (one server, more servers) encryption is uncountable (used in singular only)

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Definite and Indefinite Articles

Rule 1: Countable nouns must have an article (definite or indefinite) when used in singular form: a method of encoding a computer a computer network

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The indefinite article (a/an)

Rule 2: The indefinite article is used the first time the noun is mentioned, hence in definitions.

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The definite article (the)

Rule 3:
The definite article will be used: 1) from the second mention onwards. Compare these two sentences: On the Internet a protocol usually refers to a set of rules that define an exact format for communication between systems For example, the HTTP protocol defines the format for communication between web browsers and web servers.
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The definite article (the)

2) with post-modifying phrases, especially with of: Computer security is the protection of information assets through the use of technology, processes, and training. 3) with unique reference (when there is only one of something): The Internet is a global network of computers that connects millions of users. 4) with superlatives and the words first and last: The greatest threat to Internet security is malicious software.

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Typical challenges when writing in English

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Subject-verb agreement Tense choice Choice of modal verb Word order Sentence structure Punctuation and Capitals Spelling
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Tense choice: Past, present or future?

Past tense refers to a completed action: was *A research report has been published in 2001. was *Originally, the machine has been used in only a few cases. A definite point in time in the past: Past tense.
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Tense choice: Past, present or future?

Since and for require present perfect: *Since the 1990s, many western companies are investing in the former Soviet Union. Since the 1990s, many western companies have invested in the former Soviet Union. For the last fifteen years, many western companies have been investing in the former Soviet Union.
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Present tense has two forms (aspects):

Simple form (Used for processes, established fact): The valve opens, allowing the water to flow down the slope. (This is what happens every time the valve opens) Progressive form (used for ongoing, time-limited activity) The valve is opening, and as you see the water is flowing down the slope. (Happening at the moment of speaking)
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Tense choice: simple or progressive present?

Which is correct: 1, 2, both, or neither? 1. When the user calls from a moving car, the call is being handed over to a new base station. 2. New mobile systems are being developed to meet user requirements. (now or around now)

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Typical challenges when writing in English

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Subject-verb agreement Tense choice Choice of modal verb Word order Sentence structure Punctuation and Capitals Spelling
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Modal verbs: Degree of certainty

100% (no doubt about the future) will 70% 50% 40% 30% should will may might might could should could may

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Typical challenges when writing in English

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Subject-verb agreement Tense choice Choice of modal verb Word order Sentence structure Punctuation and Capitals Spelling
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Word order
Subject and verb not reversed when sentence starts with connectors, prepositional phrases or clauses:
(A problem for speakers of some Western Germanic and Scandinavian languages) *Thus have we determined the importance of this factor. *Then must the problem of emissions be addressed. *In the first section is the theory given.
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Word order
Thus we have determined the importance of this factor. Then the problem of emissions must be addressed. In the first section the theory is given.

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Word order
*Jones has, in a joint project with three
European universities, reported interesting results In a joint project with three European universities, Jones has reported interesting results

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Typical challenges when writing in English

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Subject-verb agreement Tense choice Choice of modal verb Word order Sentence structure Punctuation and Capitals Spelling
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Sentence structure: Parallelism

*By changing the structure and let it be based on the XY model, we can investigate....
parallel

By changing the structure and letting it be based on the XY model, we can investigate....

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Sentence structure: Wrong non-finite form

*To lift the rig by the bridle will exert less force. *To test applications is the only way to verify..... Here we expect: To test applications we need special equipment. (a clause of purpose) Lifting the rig by the bridle will exert less force. Testing applications is the only way to verify.....
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Sentence structure: Which or that?

ABC have developed a household robot, known as Nigel. The robot, which is designed to do simple fetching, carrying and cleaning, will enable many elderly people to remain in their own homes longer.

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Sentence structure: Which or that?

ABC have developed a household robot, ABC have developed a household robot, known as Nigel. The robot, known as Nigel. The robot which is designed to do simple fetching, carrying and cleaning, will enable many elderly people to remain in will enable many elderly people to remain in their own homes longer. their own homes longer.

The commas indicate that this clause includes additional/extra information. So, it can be lifted out, and the rest of the sentence would still make sense.
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Sentence structure: Which or that?

Compare with:

Many teams entered robots for this years competition. However, the robot that was designed by the KTH team won the championship.
Removing the marked clause produces the following:

Many teams entered robots for this years competition. However, the robot won the championship. (Which robot? Designed by whom? We need to define the robot)
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Sentence structure: Which or that?

Extra information (removable): use which and commas. Defining information (non-removable): use either, but preferably that. No commas. Your computer grammar-check cannot tell the difference!
Was intended to mainly find spelling and basic grammar errors Doesnt offer stylistic advice for academic writers

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Typical challenges when writing in English

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Subject-verb agreement Tense choice Choice of modal verb Word order Sentence structure Punctuation and Capitals Spelling
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Punctuation: Comma splice

Two independent clauses

* At equilibrium the neurons will change state , thus each update requires long simulation time to compute the averages. At equilibrium the neurons will change state ; thus , each update requires long simulation time to compute the averages. At equilibrium the neurons will change state . Thus , each update requires long simulation time to compute the averages.

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Punctuation: Inappropriate use of semicolon

*One of its important characteristics is the temperature dependence; a dependence the procedure uses to control the search...

One of its important characteristics is the temperature dependence, a dependence the procedure uses to control the search...

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Punctuation: Comma instead of colon

*The learning phase operates in two phases, a training phase to learn the external world, and a free running phase to adjust the weights. The learning phase operates in two phases: a training phase to learn the external world, and a free running phase to adjust the weights.

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Punctuation: More on commas

*Before shooting the cameraman checks the light conditions.

Before shooting, the cameraman checks the light conditions.

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Compound nouns: Separate, join or hyphenate?

Three-dimensional images were used? Three dimensional images were used? DVD-player or DVD player? Signal-to-noise ratio? Signal to noise ratio?

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Compound nouns: Separate, join or hyphenate?

First- and second-degree equations
Correct

Engine- and component design

Should be: Engine and component design

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Capitals: All main words

...in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Electrical Engineering Masters Thesis in Computer Science Computer Support for Learners of Spoken English (title)

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Typical challenges when writing in English

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Subject-verb agreement Tense choice Choice of modal verb Word order Sentence structure Punctuation and Capitals Spelling
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Words that slip through the net:

Its - its Its raining. (informal but correct)

*The laser has found its way into many applications.

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More information
Swales, J. M. and C. B. Feak. (2004). Academic Writing for Graduate Students: Essential Tasks and Skills. The University of Michigan Press.

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