Thesis Laser Clad

LASER CLADDING WITH POWDER
Marcel Schneider
effect of some machining parameters
on clad properties
De pr omot iecommis s ie is a ls volgt s a men ges t eld:
Voorz itter en s ecretaris :
Pr of.dr .ir . H.J . Gr oot en boer (Un iver s it eit Twen t e)
Promotor:
Pr of.dr . L.H.J .F. Beckma n n (Un iver s it eit Twen t e)
As s is tent-promotor:
Dr .ir . J . Meijer (Un iver s it eit Twen t e)
Leden:
Pr of.dr . W. Wei (Un iver s it eit Twen t e)
Pr of.dr .ir . J .-P.G. Kr u t h (KU Leu ven )
Pr of.dr .ir . J .B. J on ker (Un iver s it eit Twen t e)
t it le: La s er cla ddin g
Ph .D. Th es is Un iver s it y of Twen t e, En s ch ede,
Th e Net h er la n ds
Ma r ch 1998
a u t h or : M.F. Sch n eider
ISBN: 90 365 1098 8
s u bject h ea din gs : la s er cla ddin g
pr in t ed by: Pr in t Pa r t n er s Ips ka mp, En s ch ede
LASER CLADDING WITH POWDER
PROEFSCHRIFT
effect of some machining parameters
on clad properties
ter verkrijging van
de graad van doctor aan de Universiteit Twente,
op gezag van de rector magnificus,
prof.dr. F.A. van Vught,
volgens besluit van het College voor Promoties
in het openbaar te verdedigen
op donderdag 19 maart 1998 te 15.00 uur.
door
Marcel Fredrik Schneider
geboren op 19 juli 1968
te Haarlem
Dit proefschrift is goedgekeurd door de promotor:
prof.dr. L.H.J.F. Beckmann
en de assistent-promotor:
dr.ir. J. Meijer
Summary
La s er cla ddin g is per for med t o impr ove t h e s u r fa ce pr oper t ies of met a llic ma -
ch in e pa r t s loca lly. A cla ddin g ma t er ia l wit h t h e des ir ed pr oper t ies is fu s ed on t o
a s u bs t r a t e by mea n s of a la s er bea m. Th e mixin g bet ween t h e t wo ma t er ia ls
mu s t be a s s ma ll a s pos s ible t o u t ilis e t h e pr oper t ies of t h e coa t in g ma t er ia l
mos t effect ively. By impr ovin g a t ech n ica l s u r fa ce loca lly wit h a dedica t ed ma -
t er ia l, on e ca n u s e a n or din a r y ch ea p ba s e ma t er ia l for t h e s u r fa ce t h a t is n ot
bein g expos ed t o h igh loa ds .
La s er cla ddin g is con s ider ed a s a s t r a t egic t ech n iqu e, s in ce it ca n yield s u r fa ce
la yer s t h a t , compa r ed t o ot h er h a r d fa cin g t ech n iqu es , h a ve s u per ior pr oper t ies
in t er ms of pu r en es s , h omogen eit y, h a r dn es s , bon din g a n d micr os t r u ct u r e.
Hen ce, it wa s decided t o in t r odu ce t h is t ech n iqu e in t h e Du t ch in du s t r y.
Th e pr oject con s is t ed of t h r ee pa r t s . On e pa r t cover ed t h e a ch ievemen t a n d en -
h a n cemen t of in s igh t in ph en omen a t h a t occu r in la s er cla ddin g. Th e s econ d
pa r t in volved t h e developmen t of t ools t h a t fa cilit a t e t h e u s e of la s er cla ddin g.
Th e t h ir d pa r t con s is t ed of t h e developmen t of pr a ct ica l a pplica t ion s . Some a s -
pect s of t h is pr oject a r e dis cu s s ed in t h is t h es is .
Th is t h es is is dir ect ed t o la s er cla ddin g wit h powder a n d a CO
2
la s er a s h ea t
s ou r ce. Th e la s er bea m in t en s it y pr ofile t u r n ed ou t t o be a n impor t a n t pa -
6 Summary
r a met er in la s er cla ddin g. A n u mer ica l model wa s developed t h a t a llows t h e
pr edict ion of t h e s u r fa ce t emper a t u r e dis t r ibu t ion t h a t is a t t a in ed wit h a n a r bi-
t r a r ily s h a ped in t en s it y pr ofile. In pu t pa r a met er s for t h is model a r e la s er ma -
ch in in g pa r a met er s a n d pr oper t ies of t h e la s er bea m, a s well a s ma t er ia l pr op-
er t ies a n d t h e a bs or pt ion of la s er en er gy a t t h e s u r fa ce. Th e t h er ma l ma t er ia l
pr oper t ies a n d t h e a bs or pt ivit y wer e der ived fr om exper imen t s .
An a n a lys is t h a t wa s per for med wit h t h is model on s ever a l s t a n da r d la s er
bea m in t en s it y pr ofiles , s h owed t h a t a n oblon g la s er s pot wit h a h omogen eou s
en er gy dis t r ibu t ion in t h e dir ect ion per pen dicu la r t o t h e dir ect ion of mot ion
yield t h e mos t u n ifor m t emper a t u r e dis t r ibu t ion . Th a t pr oper t y is u s efu l for la -
s er cla ddin g, beca u s e s u ch a t emper a t u r e dis t r ibu t ion r es u lt s in u n ifor m ma t e-
r ia l pr oper t ies a lon g t h e t r a ck widt h . Es pecia lly for t h e cla ddin g of la r ger a r ea s ,
t h is is a ver y u s efu l fea t u r e.
An ot h er r ea s on for t h e u s e of in t egr a t or s is t h e a ch ievemen t of a la s er s pot wit h
well defin ed dimen s ion s a n d a n en er gy dis t r ibu t ion t h a t is in depen den t of t h e
a pplied la s er s ou r ce. Th is is es s en t ia l for a n effect ive t r a n s fer of cla ddin g r e-
s u lt s fr om on e la s er s ys t em t o a n ot h er .
Th er efor e, s u ch a lin e in t egr a t or h a s been developed. Th e r equ ir ed h omogen e-
ou s en er gy dis t r ibu t ion wa s a ch ieved.
Exper imen t s per for med on la s er cla ddin g wit h pr epla ced powder pr oved t h a t
t h is met h od is s u it a ble for obt a in in g s in gle cla d t r a cks . Th e powder is mixed
wit h a ch emica l bin der t o for m a pa s t e wh ich is s pr ea d over t h e s u bs t r a t e.
Th e t emper a t u r e on t h e in t er fa ce bet ween coa t in g ma t er ia l a n d s u bs t r a t e is a
ver y impor t a n t pa r a met er in la s er cla ddin g. If t h is in t er fa ce t emper a t u r e r e-
ma in s t oo low, wet t in g of t h e s u bs t r a t e by t h e liqu id cla d ma t er ia l is limit ed. In
t h a t ca s e, ir r egu la r ly s h a ped t r a cks wit h a lot of cr a cks , por os it y a n d a poor
bon din g, a r e pr odu ced. However , if t oo h igh in t er fa ce t emper a t u r es a r e r ea ch ed,
s ever e melt in g of t h e s u bs t r a t e occu r s . Th e h igh degr ee of mixin g bet ween ele-
men t s of t h e cla ddin g ma t er ia l a n d t h e s u bs t r a t e ca n det er ior a t e t h e cla d pr op-
er t ies .
Some melt in g of t h e ba s e ma t er ia l is r equ ir ed t o a t t a in a s t r on g fu s ion bon d. In
t h e a pplied ma t er ia l combin a t ion , a coba lt ba s e powder a pplied on a h ot wor k-
in g s t eel, a r ela t ively la r ge dilu t ion of 15 % pr oved t o be t h e mos t effect ive for
a ch ievin g cla d la yer s wit h a good h a r dn es s a n d a per fect bon din g. It is pos s ible
t o r edu ce t h is dilu t ion , bu t a s a con s equ en ce t h e h a r dn es s is r edu ced a s well.
Th e pr eh ea t in g of t h e s u bs t r a t e t o 100-200 C r edu ces t h e coolin g r a t es . Th is
r edu ces t h e r es idu a l s t r es s a n d en h a n ces t h e wet t in g a n d t h e bon din g. Tem-
per a t u r es of 300 C a n d a bove a r e n ot a pplica ble, beca u s e of eva por a t ion of t h e
Summary 7
ch emica l bin der . Wit h ou t a bin der t h e powder is bein g blown a wa y by t h e
s h ieldin g ga s .
Th e pr epla ced powder met h od is n ot s u it a ble for t h e cla ddin g of la r ger a r ea s by
ma kin g s ever a l a dja cen t pa r t ly over la ppin g t r a cks . Cr a ckin g of t h e cla dded a r -
ea s cou ld n ot be pr even t ed wit h t h e a pplied ma t er ia l combin a t ion . Mor e s er i-
ou s ly is t h e occu r r en ce of a s ever e degr ee of dilu t ion , t h a t is in evit a ble. Sin ce
t h e n ewly pr odu ced t r a ck con t r a ct s du r in g coolin g, t h e ba r e s u bs t r a t e a r ea di-
r ect ly n ext t o it is molt en wh en per for min g t h e n ext la s er s ca n .
La s er cla ddin g wit h powder in ject ion did r es u lt in good qu a lit y cla d a r ea s wit h -
ou t s ever e dilu t ion . Powder pa r t icles a r e in ject ed in t o t h e la s er gen er a t ed melt
pool. Th es e pa r t icles a r e h ea t ed du r in g t h eir fligh t t h r ou gh t h e la s er bea m.
Melt in g occu r s on ly wh en t h ey en t er t h e melt pool. Th e s u pplied ma t er ia l en -
la r ges t h e melt a n d for ms a la yer on t h e s u r fa ce. Compa r ed t o t h e pr epla ced
powder met h od, t h e melt dept h is ea s ier t o con t r ol a n d por os it y is les s likely t o
occu r .
Th e pa r t icles for m a clou d t h a t a t t en u a t es t h e la s er bea m. In t h e a pplied con -
figu r a t ion , t h e mea s u r ed a t t en u a t ion by a clou d con s is t in g of pa r t icles St ellit e 6
wa s les s t h a n 5 %. Th e a t t en u a t ed la s er power h ea t s t h e powder pa r t icles . Th is
h ea t in g wa s des cr ibed in a ph ys ica l a n a lyt ica l model. Mos t impor t a n t pa r a me-
t er s for t h e h ea t in g of a pa r t icle a r e t h e pa r t icle s ize, t h e powder velocit y a n d
t h e la s er power .
If t h e powder is h ea t ed t o s u ch a n ext en t t h a t a met a l va pou r is for med, a
pla s ma ca n be for med. Th is pla s ma effect ively a bs or bs a ll la s er r a dia t ion a n d
s t ops t h e pr oces s . A pla s ma ca n on ly be for med over a cer t a in cr it ica l powder
den s it y level (~ 210
6
W/ cm
2
). In t h e a pplied con figu r a t ion , t h is level is r ea ch ed
in t h e foca l a r ea on ly. Pla s ma for ma t ion cou ld be pr even t ed by exch a n gin g t h e
in it ia lly a pplied len s wit h on e wit h a la r ger foca l len gt h . Th is in cr ea s ed t h e
bea m wa is t in t h e foca l r egion . Hen ce, t h e cr it ica l power den s it y level cou ld wa s
n ot exceeded a n ymor e.
Th e a pplica bilit y of la s er cla ddin g wa s s h own s u cces s fu lly wit h t h e developmen t
of s ever a l in du s t r ia l a pplica t ion s .
Samenvatting
La s er cla dden wor dt t oegepa s t om de opper vla kt e-eigen s ch a ppen va n met a len
ma ch in e-on der delen pla a t s elijk t e ver bet er en . Het cla dma t er ia a l wor dt met be-
h u lp va n een la s er a ls wa r mt ebr on opgela s t op h et ba s is ma t er ia a l. Da a r bij is
h et es s en t ieel de ver men gin g t u s s en h et cla dma t er ia a l en h et ba s is ma t er ia a l
zoveel mogelijk t e ber per ken om zodoen de de eigen s ch a ppen va n h et cla dma t e-
r ia a l opt ima a l t e ben u t t en , t er wijl t och een s t er ke s melt h ech t in g wor dt ver kr e-
gen . Door a lleen t er pla a t s e va n de opt r eden de bela s t in g een cla dla a g a a n t e
br en gen en ver der t e vols t a a n met een een vou dig ba s is ma t er ia a l, ka n een a a n -
zien lijke bes pa r in g op ma t er ia a lkos t en wor den ber eikt .
De eigen s ch a ppen va n la s er gecla dde la gen zijn bijzon der goed in ver gelijkin g
met a n der e t ech n ieken die h a r de dekla gen oplever en : een zeer goede h ech t in g,
een fijn kor r elige micr os t r u ct u u r , een bet er e h omogen it eit , een ger in ger e ma t e
va n por os it eit , een gr ot er e h a r dh eid en de mogelijkh eid om bijzon der e met a s t a -
biele fa s es t e ver kr ijgen . La s er cla dden wor dt da a r om bes ch ou wd a ls een veel-
beloven de t ech n iek, die voor bepa a lde bedr ijfs t a kken va n s t r a t egis ch bela n g
ka n zijn . Da a r om wer d bes lot en h et la s er cla dden ook in de Neder la n ds e in du s -
t r ie t e in t r odu cer en .
10 Samenvatting
Het pr oject da t da a r t oe wer d opgezet bes t on d u it dr ie delen . Het eer s t e deel be-
t r of h et ver kr ijgen en ver meer der en va n pr oces ken n is . Het t weede deel omva t t e
h et on t wikkelen va n h u lpmiddelen en ger eeds ch a ppen die h et t oepa s s en va n
h et la s er cla dden in de pr a kt ijk moet en ver een vou digen . Het la a t s t e gedeelt e be-
s t on d u it h et on t wikkelen va n ech t e t oepa s s in gen . As pect en va n deze dr ie delen
wor den beh a n deld in dit pr oefs ch r ift .
Dit pr oefs ch r ift r ich t zich op h et cla dden met poeder s , wa a r bij een CO
2
la s er
dien t a ls wa r mt ebr on . Het in t en s it eit s pr ofiel va n de la s er bu n del blijkt in be-
la n gr ijke ma t e h et cla dr es u lt a a t t e ben vloeden . Er is een n u mer iek model on t -
wikkeld da t de t emper a t u u r ver delin g a a n h et opper vla k t en gevolge va n een
willekeu r ig gevor mde in t en s it eit s ver delin g ka n ber eken en . Als in voer pa r a met er s
voor h et model fu n ger en ver der ma ch in e- en la s er bu n delpa r a met er s ,
(t h er mis ch e) ma t er ia a lpa r a met er s en de a bs or pt ie. De wa a r den va n de t h er mi-
s ch e ma t er ia a lpa r a met er s en de a bs or pt ie zijn exper imen t eel bepa a ld. Een
a n a lys e va n en kele s t a n da a r d in t en s it eit s pr ofielen met dit model t oon de a a n
da t een zg. lijn br on , da t is een la s er s pot met een la n gwer pige h omogen e en er -
giever delin g in de r ich t in g loodr ech t op de bewegin gs r ich t in g de mees t u n ifor me
t emper a t u u r ver delin g over de br eedt e va n h et cla ds poor geeft . Da a r mee wor den
da n ook de mees t u n ifor me ma t er ia a leigen s ch a ppen ver kr egen . Voor a l voor h et
cla dden va n vla kken , wa t h et a a n br en gen va n meer der e s por en n a a s t elka a r
ver eis t , is dit er g n u t t ig.
Een t weede r eden voor h et gebr u ik va n in t egr a t or en is da t dit r es u lt eer t in een
goed begr en s de s pot op h et wer ks t u k met een gedefin ieer de en er giever delin g die
on a fh a n kelijk is va n de la s er br on . Dit is n oodza kelijk voor een doelt r effen de
over dr a ch t va n cla dr es u lt a t en t u s s en la s er s ys t emen .
Een der gelijke lijn in t egr a t or is da a r om on t wor pen en ger ea lis eer d. De ver wa ch t e
en er giever delin g bleek in der da a d ger ea lis eer d t e wor den .
Een u it gebr eide s er ie exper imen t en t oon de da t h et cla dden met voor a f a a n ge-
br a ch t poeder een ges ch ikt e met h ode is voor h et a a n br en gen va n en kelvou dige
cla dla gen . Het poeder wor dt gemen gd met een bin dmiddel en da a r n a in de vor m
va n een pa s t a a a n gebr a ch t op h et s u bs t r a a t .
De t emper a t u u r op de in t er fa ce t u s s en cla dla a g en s u bs t r a a t is bepa len d voor
h et r es u lt a a t . Een t e la ge t emper a t u u r belemmer t een goede bevoch t igin g va n
h et s u bs t r a a t door h et vloeiba r e cla dma t er ia a l. Da a r door on t s t a a n on r egelma t i-
ge la gen met veel s ch eu r en , por os it eit en een s lech t e h ech t in g. Bij t e h oge t em-
per a t u r en s melt h et ba s is ma t er ia a l t e veel en on t s t a a t t e veel men gin g.
Samenvatting 11
Voor een goede cla dla a g is een ger in ge ma t e va n in s melt in g in h et ba s is ma t er i-
a a l n oodza kelijk voor h et ver kr ijgen va n een s t er ke s melt h ech t in g. Bij de ge-
br u ikt e ma t er ia a lcombin a t ie, een poeder op ba s is va n coba lt met een wa r m-
wer ks t a a l, blijkt een r ela t ief gr ot e ver men gin g va n on geveer 15 % t e r es u lt er en
in de bes t e eigen s ch a ppen : een goede h ech t in g en een h oge h a r dh eid over de
cla dla a g. Het is wel mogelijk min der ver men gin g t e ver kr ijgen , ma a r da n n eemt
de h a r dh eid a f.
Voor ver wa r men va n h et s u bs t r a a t t ot 100 200 C ver min der t de a fkoels n el-
h eden , wa a r door de s pa n n in gen in de cla dla a g a fn emen . Voor ver wa r men be-
vor der t t even s h et u it vloeigedr a g en de h ech t in g. Bij t emper a t u r en va n 300 C
of h oger ver da mpt ech t er h et bin dmiddel en wor dt h et poeder weggebla zen door
h et s ch u t ga s .
Het a a n br en gen va n meer der e s por en n a a s t elka a r t en ein de gr ot e vla kken t e
cla dden bleek n iet s u cces vol met deze met h ode. Sch eu r vor min g wa s met deze
ma t er ia a lcombin a t ie n iet t e voor komen . Boven dien is een t e gr ot e men gin g in -
h er en t a a n h et pr oces , door da t h et s u bs t r a a t dir ekt n a a s t een gevor md s poor
bloot komt t e liggen door con t r a ct ie t ijden s a fkoelin g va n dit s poor en da a r door
door h et la s er lich t wor dt bes ch en en bij h et a a n br en gen va n een volgen d s poor .
Goede r es u lt a t en met h et cla dden va n gr ot er e vla kken zijn wel beh a a ld met be-
h u lp va n cla dden met poeder in ject ie. Da a r bij wor den poeder deelt jes in een door
de la s er gevor md s melt ba d gebla zen . Deze deelt jes wor den voor ver wa r md in de
la s er bu n del, ma a r wor den pa s in h et s melt ba d volledig ges molt en . Het t oege-
voer de ma t er ia a l ver gr oot h et volu me va n h et s melt ba d en vor mt n a a fkoelen
een dekla a g op h et s u bs t r a a t . Door h et a n der e pr oces ver loop bij h et cla dden
met poeder in ject ie is de in s melt in g in h et ba s is ma t er ia a l is een vou diger t e con -
t r oler en da n bij de voor gepla a t s t poeder met h ode, zijn de r es t s pa n n in gen la ger
en ver min der t de a a n wezigh eid va n por os it eit en . Boven dien is h et goed mogelijk
gr ot er e vla kken met cla dla gen t e bedekken .
De opwa r min g va n poeder deelt jes t ijden s h u n vlu ch t door de la s er bu n del is
gemodelleer d. De opwa r min g va n h et poeder bleek s t er k a fh a n kelijk va n de
deelt jes gr oot t e, de poeder s n elh eid en h et la s er ver mogen . In de gebr u ikt e con fi-
gu r a t ie is de gemet en ver zwa kkin g va n h et la s er ver mogen door een s t r oom va n
deelt jes St elliet 6 min der da n 5 %. Het in t en s it eit s pr ofiel va n de la s er bu n del
wor dt der h a lve n a u welijks ben vloed door de poeder wolk.
In dien poeder deelt jes t e s t er k ver h it wor den bij h u n ga n g door de la s er bu n del,
ka n een pla s ma wor den gevor md. Dit pla s ma a bs or beer t de in va llen de s t r a lin g
en s t opt da a r door h et cla dpr oces . Voor de vor min g va n een pla s ma is een be-
pa a lde kr it is ch e ver mogen s dich t h eid va n ca . 210
6
W/ cm
2
n odig. Het blijkt da t
12 Samenvatting
deze in de gebr u ikt e ops t ellin g s lech t s in de bu u r t va n h et br a n dpu n t wor dt ge-
r ea lis eer d. De vor min g va n een pla s ma kon wor den voor komen door een opt iek
met een la n ger e br a n dpu n t s a fs t a n d t e kiezen , wa a r door de bu n deldia met er
r on d h et br a n dpu n t t oen eemt en de kr it is ch e ver mogen s dich t h eid n iet meer
over s ch r eden ka n wor den .
De pr a kt is ch e br u ikba a r h eid va n h et la s er cla dden is s u cces vol a a n get oon d met
de on t wikkelin g va n en kele in du s t r ile t oepa s s in gen .
List of symbols
A
C
c
p
d
c
D
D
pn
E
E
a,c,r,ra,t,0
f
v
g
H
h
h
c
I
k
l
z
L
m
a bs or pt ivit y [-]
den s it y powder clou d [kgm
-3
]
s pecific h ea t [J kg
-1
K
-1
]
cla d dept h [m]
dimen s ion la s er s pot on wor kpiece in t r a ver s e dir ect ion [m]
dia met er powder n ozzle [m]
s pecific en er gy (E=P/ vD) [J m
-2
]
pa r t icle en er gy (a: a bs or bed; c: con vect ive los s ; r: r eflect ive los s ;
ra: r a diat ive los s ; t: t r an s mit t ed; o: in ciden t ) [J ]
volu me fr a ct ion of powder pa r t icles in t h e powder s t r ea m [-]
gr a vit a t ion a l a cceler a t ion [ms
-2
]
s pecific en t h a lpy [J kg
-1
]
gr id s t ep s ize [mm]
cla d h eigh t [m]
bea m power den s it y [Wm
-2
]
t h er ma l con du ct ivit y [Wm
-1
K
-1
]
dis t a n ce fr om t op of powder clou d t o pa r t icle [m]
la t en t h ea t of fu s ion [J kg
-1
]
ma s s [kg]
14 Lis t of s y mbols
m
p
p
P
P
at
q
q
R
r
p
s
t
t
c
t
i
t
in
t
out
T
T
0
T
max
v
v
p
w
c
w
of
x
in
x
out
x,y ,z
powder ma s s flow r a t e [kgs
-1
]
pr es s u r e [Nm
-2
]
las er power [W]
a t t en u a t ion of la s er power [W]
power of poin t s ou r ce [W]
h ea t s ou r ce [Wm
-3
]
r eflect ivit y [-]
r a diu s of powder pa r t icle [m]
dis t a n ce fr om exit powder n ozzle [m]
t ime [s ]
t ot a l cla d h eigh t [m]
in t er a ct ion t ime [s ]
in s t a n t pa r t icle en t er s la s er bea m [s ]
in s t a n t pa r t icle lea ves la s er bea m [s ]
t emper a t u r e [K]
in it ia l t emper a t u r e [K]
ma ximu m t emper a t u r e [K]
feed r a t e wor kpiece [ms
-1
]
velocit y powder pa r t icles [ms
-1
]
clad widt h [m]
wa is t of focu s ed la s er bea m [m]
x-pos it ion wh er e pa r t icle en t er s t h e la s er bea m [m]
x-pos it ion wh er e pa r t icle lea ves t h e la s er bea m [m]
Ca r t es ia n co-or din a t e s ys t em [m]
t
T
x
h ea t exch a n ge coefficien t t o en vir on men t [Wm

-2
K
-1
]
t h er ma l expa n s ion coefficien t [K
-1
]
ext in ct ion coefficien t (=
0
f
v
) [m
-1
]
t ime in t er val [s ]
t emper a t u r e differ en ce [K]
dis t a n ce cen t r e la s er bea m a n d cen t r e powder s t r ea m [m]
a n gle powder in ject ion n ozzle r ela t ive t o t h e wor kpiece []
a n gle of pa r t icle movemen t r ela t ive t o t h e wor kpiece []
t h er mal diffu s ivit y [Wm
-2
]
flu id vis cos it y [kgs
-1
m
-1
]
kin ema t ic vis cos it y(=/)[m
2
s
-1
]
ma t er ia l den s it y [kgm
-3
]
t h er ma l t ime con s t a n t [s ]
h a lf a n gle of diver gen ce powder s t r ea m []
Contents
Su mma r y 5
Sa men va t t in g 9
Lis t of s ymbols 13
1 Pr efa ce 17
1.1 In t r odu ct ion 17
1.2 Over view of t h e t h es is 18
2 La s er cla ddin g: s t a t e-of-t h e-a r t 21
2.1 La s er cla ddin g a n d ot h er la s er s u r fa ce t r ea t men t s 21
2.2 Applica bilit y of la s er cla ddin g 24
2.3 La s er cla ddin g ver s u s con ven t ion a l met h ods 26
2.4 La s er cla ddin g met h ods 27
2.5 Cla d la yer pr oper t ies 32
2.6 Ma t er ia l pr oper t ies 35
2.6.1 Powder s on a s t eel s u bs t r a t e 36
2.6.2 Non -fer r ou s s u bs t r a t es 39
2.6.2.1 Nickel ba s e s u bs t r a t es 39
2.6.2.2 Alu min iu m a n d t it a n iu m ba s e s u bs t r a t es 39
2.7 Effect of pr oces s pa r a met er s 40
16 Contents
2.7.1 Exper imen t a l met h ods 40
2.7.2 Ph ys ica l models 45
2.8 Pr oces s con t r ol 50
2.9 Opt ica l s ys t em 52
2.10 Pr eview 55
3 Temper a t u r e pr ofile on a cla d s u r fa ce 57
3.1 Nu mer ica l met h od for ca lcu la t in g t h e t emper a t u r e dis t r ibu t ion 58
3.2 Dis cu s s ion 66
4 Des ign a n d developmen t of a lin e in t egr a t or 67
4.1 Two dimen s ion a l ka leidos cope-t ype bea m in t egr a t or 68
4.2 Opt ica l des ign lin e in t egr a t or 70
5 La s er cla ddin g wit h pr epla ced powder 79
5.1 Exper imen t a l s et -u p 79
5.2 Exper imen t a l r es u lt s 80
6 La s er cla ddin g wit h powder in ject ion 95
6.1 Exper imen t s 95
6.2 Modellin g of pa r t icle h ea t in g in a CO
2
la s er bea m 101
6.3 Ion is a t ion of powder pa r t icles 114
7 Exa mples of a pplica t ion s 119
7.1 Dies el en gin e in let va lve 119
7.2 Ext r u der s cr ew 124
7.3 Wir elin e cylin der h ea d 129
8 Con clu s ion s , r eview a n d r ecommen da t ion s 135
8.1 Con clu s ion s 135
8.2 Review 138
8.3 Recommen da t ion s a n d fu t u r e r es ea r ch 143
Appen dix 1: Ma t er ia l pr oper t ies 145
Appen dix 2: Det er min a t ion of t h e a bs or pt ion of la s er en er gy 147
Appen dix 3: Exper imen t s on la s er cla ddin g wit h pr epla ced powder 151
Appen dix 4: Powder -s u bs t r a t e combin a t ion s r epor t ed in lit er a t u r e 159
Da n kwoor d 165
Refer en ces 167
Chapter 1
Preface
1.1 Introduction
To impr ove t h e s u r fa ce pr oper t ies of met a llic mech a n ica l pa r t s , s u ch a s t h e r e-
s is t a n ce a ga in s t wea r a n d cor r os ion , s ever a l t h er ma l s u r fa ce t r ea t men t s a r e
a va ila ble; for in s t a n ce, fla me s pr a yin g, pla s ma s pr a yin g a n d a r c weldin g a r e
es t a blis h ed t ech n iqu es . Ch a r a ct er is t ic for t h es e t ech n iqu es is t h e a pplica t ion of
a s u r fa ce la yer wit h t h e r equ ir ed pr oper t ies on t op of a ch ea p ma t er ia l wit h ou t
t h os e pr oper t ies . Depen din g on t h e a pplied t ech n iqu e, common pr oblems a r e a
combin a t ion of a poor bon din g of t h e a pplied s u r fa ce la yer t o t h e ba s e ma t er ia l,
t h e occu r r en ce of por os it y, t h e t h er ma l dis t or t ion of t h e wor kpiece, t h e mixin g
of t h e s u r fa ce la yer wit h t h e ba s e ma t er ia l a n d t h e in a bilit y of a ver y loca l
t r ea t men t .
On e of t h e t ech n iqu es t h a t over comes t h es e pr oblems is la s er cla ddin g. La s er
cla ddin g h a s been defin ed a s a pr oces s wh ich is u s ed t o fu s e wit h a la s er bea m
a n ot h er ma t er ia l wh ich h a s differ en t met a llu r gica l pr oper t ies on a s u bs t r a t e,
wh er eby on ly a ver y t h in la yer of t h e s u bs t r a t e h a s t o be melt ed in or der t o
a ch ieve met a llu r gica l bon din g wit h min ima l dilu t ion of a dded ma t er ia l a n d s u b-
s t r a t e in or der t o ma in t a in t h e or igin a l pr oper t ies of t h e coa t in g ma t er ia l
[Komvopou los , 1990].
18 Chapter 1
La s er cla ddin g h a s es t a blis h ed it s elf in pr a ct ice. Well kn own a pplica t ion s in -
clu de t h e impr ovemen t of t h e wea r r es is t a n ce of dies el en gin e exh a u s t va lves ,
t h e en h a n cemen t of t h e cor r os ion r es is t a n ce of ga s t u r bin e bla des a n d t h e r e-
pa ir of dies a n d in s er t s . Th e h igh -qu a lit y s u r fa ce la yer s t h a t ca n be pr odu ced
by la s er cla ddin g on ly, ma ke it a s t r a t egic t ech n iqu e.
Th e impor t a n ce of t h is t ech n iqu e wa s a ls o r ecogn is ed by t h e Du t ch Min is t r y of
Econ omic Affa ir s . As t h e la s er cla ddin g t ech n iqu e wa s vir t u a lly u n kn own in t h e
loca l in du s t r y, t h ey s pon s or ed a pr oject t h a t s h ou ld in t r odu ce t h is t ech n ology
in t o t h e Du t ch in du s t r y. As t h e a va ila ble kn owledge a t t h e s t a r t of t h e pr oject
wa s n egligible, t h e pr oject ed s t a r t ed wit h a n ext en s ive lit er a t u r e r es ea r ch
(ch a pt er 2). Th is wa s followed by s ome s er ies of exper imen t s wh ich con t r ibu t ed
t o a bet t er u n der s t a n din g of t h e pr oces s a n d ga ve in s igh t in t h e mech a n is ms
t h a t r u le la s er cla ddin g. It wa s clea r t h en t h a t a s u cces s fu l in t r odu ct ion of la s er
cla ddin g in t o in du s t r y cou ld on ly be a ch ieved by ma kin g t h e pr oces s les s em-
pir ica l a n d by developin g in du s t r ia l a pplica t ion s t h a t ca n s er ve a s a n exa mple.
Th er efor e, mor e exper imen t s h a d t o be per for med. Some t ools h a d t o be em-
ployed t o en h a n ce t h e pr oces s kn owledge a n d t o s u ppor t t h e developmen t of
n ew in du s t r ia l a pplica t ion s . Th es e t ools in clu ded ma t h ema t ica l t ools t h a t ca n
des cr ibe s ome es s en t ia l pa r t s of t h e pr oces s , a s well a s dedica t ed equ ipmen t
t h a t a llows a n ea s y t r a n s fer of r es u lt s bet ween la bor a t or ies a n d impr oves t h e
cla d qu a lit y. Th is t h es is is a r es u lt of t h is pr oject .
1.2 Overview of the thesis
In ch a pt er 2 a lit er a t u r e r es ea r ch is pr es en t ed. It s h ows t h a t t h e developmen t of
n ew la s er cla ddin g a pplica t ion s is u p t o n ow a n exper ien ce ba s ed pr oces s . Th e
la ck of models con t r ibu t es t o t h e n eces s it y t o per for m expen s ive s er ies of ex-
per imen t s a n d fea s ibilit y t es t s for n ew a pplica t ion s . Never t h eles s , ma n y a s pect s
of la s er cla ddin g a r e a lr ea dy u n der s t ood a n d dedica t ed per iph er a l equ ipmen t
h a s been developed.
La s er cla ddin g con s is t s of t wo es s en t ia l pa r t s :
1. melt pool for ma t ion a n d fu s ion by a movin g la s er bea m;
2. s u pply of cla ddin g ma t er ia l t o t h e s u bs t r a t e.
Ad. 1 Ch a r a ct er is t ic for la s er cla ddin g is t h e con flict bet ween t h e dema n ds of
a ch ievin g a good met a llu r gica l bon din g (a n d t h u s melt in g of t h e s u bs t r a t e) on
t h e on e h a n d a n d a t t a in in g n o mixin g bet ween t h e coa t in g ma t er ia l a n d t h e
Preface 19
s u bs t r a t e on t h e ot h er h a n d. Th is mea n s t h a t t h e h ea t in pu t by t h e la s er
s ou r ce mu s t be well-con t r olled t o a ch ieve a n a ccept a ble degr ee of mixin g.
It a ls o followed fr om t h e lit er a t u r e t h a t t h e pr oper t ies of pr odu ced cla d la yer s
depen d s t r on gly on t h e a pplied t emper a t u r e cycle. Th e fa vou r a ble pr oper t ies of
cla d la yer s a r e n ot on ly t h e r es u lt of t h e pu r en es s of t h e s u r fa ce la yer , bu t a r e
a ls o ca u s ed by t h e h igh coolin g r a t es t h a t occu r . Th is s o-ca lled qu en ch in g r e-
s u lt s in t h e for ma t ion of fa vou r a ble fin e-gr a in ed micr os t r u ct u r es or in met a -
s t a ble ph a s es .
Th es e t wo r ea s on s , i.e. t h e con t r ol of t h e degr ee of mixin g a n d t h e depen den cy
on t h e t emper a t u r e cycle, ma ke it impor t a n t t o con t r ol t h e la s er en er gy dis t r i-
bu t ion a n d t h e r es u lt in g t emper a t u r e dis t r ibu t ion over t h e s u r fa ce. In ch a pt er 3
a n u mer ica l model is des cr ibed wh ich a llows t h e ca lcu la t ion of t h e s u r fa ce t em-
per a t u r e dis t r ibu t ion t h a t is impos ed by a n a r bit r a r ily s h a ped movin g la s er
s pot . An eva lu a t ion of t h e effect of s ever a l common la s er bea m pr ofiles s h owed
t h a t a lin e s h a ped la s er bea m wit h a n u n ifor m power den s it y dis t r ibu t ion is
bes t s u it ed for t h e a ch ievemen t of a mor e or les s u n ifor m t emper a t u r e dis t r ibu -
t ion a n d t h er ewit h con s t a n t cla d pr oper t ies over t h e widt h of t h e t r a ck. Th is
con clu s ion is s u ppor t ed in t h e lit er a t u r e by s ever a l a u t h or s .
In or der t o cover la r ger a r ea s it ca n be n eces s a r y t o a pply s ever a l a dja cen t
t r a cks . Th is en h a n ces t h e n eces s it y t o a pply a la s er bea m wit h a u n ifor m power
den s it y dis t r ibu t ion . However , t h e power den s it y dis t r ibu t ion is a ch a r a ct er is t ic
pr oper t y of a la s er s ys t em. Th er efor e, dedica t ed opt ics mu s t be u s ed t o ch a n ge
t h e or igin a l la s er power den s it y dis t r ibu t ion in t o a u n ifor m on e. A lin e in t egr a -
t or wh ich wa s developed t o per for m t h a t t a s k, is demon s t r a t ed in t h is t h es is in
ch a pt er 4. Th e u s e of in t egr a t or s ma kes cla ddin g r es u lt s in depen den t of t h e
a pplied la s er s ou r ce. Th er efor e, r es u lt s ca n be exch a n ged mor e ea s ily bet ween
differ en t la s er s ys t ems . Th is a s pect a gr ees well wit h t h e in t en ded fa cilit a t ion of
t r a n s fer of cla ddin g r es u lt s t o t h e Du t ch in du s t r y.
Ad. 2 Th e s econ d pa r t of t h e pr oces s is t h e a ddit ion of a cla ddin g ma t er ia l t o
t h e s u bs t r a t e. Va r iou s met h ods a r e a va ila ble, bu t a ccor din g t o t h e lit er a t u r e
t h e mos t common met h od is t h e a pplica t ion of powder . Th is ca n be don e pr ior
t o t h e pr oces s (pr epla ced) or du r in g t h e pr oces s (powder feedin g). Th e effect of
pr oces s pa r a met er s on cla d la yer pr oper t ies wa s in ves t iga t ed for la s er cla ddin g
wit h pr epla ced power a s well a s for la s er cla ddin g wit h powder in ject ion . Th es e
t wo met h ods h a ve a qu it e differ en t pr oces s cou r s e. Wh en cla ddin g wit h pr e-
pla ced powder , t h e melt pool is for med on t op of t h e cla ddin g ma t er ia l a n d pr o-
ceeds down wa r ds t o t h e s u bs t r a t e. On ly wh en t h e s u bs t r a t e h a s been melt ed a
cla d la yer ca n be for med. However , t h e powder in ject ion met h od s t a r t s wit h t h e
20 Chapter 1
for ma t ion of a melt pool in t h e s u bs t r a t e in wh ich cla ddin g powder is bein g fed.
Th u s a cla d la yer is for med a lmos t in s t a n t a n eou s ly. Th e pr epla ced powder r e-
s u lt s a r e pr es en t ed in ch a pt er 5.
In t h e ca s e of la s er cla ddin g wit h powder in ject ion , powder pa r t icles a r e t r a n s -
por t ed by a ga s s t r ea m a n d in ject ed in t o t h e melt pool. Th e powder pa r t icles
a bs or b la s er en er gy on t h eir wa y t h r ou gh t h e la s er bea m. Th er efor e, t h ey a r e
pr eh ea t ed on a r r iva l in t h e melt pool. In t h e melt pool, t h ey exch a n ge h ea t a n d
mix wit h t h e elemen t s a lr ea dy pr es en t . Th e powder pa r t icles migh t a ls o a ffect
t h e la s er power den s it y. If t h is h a ppen s in deed, t h is effect mu s t be in cor por a t ed
in t h e model des cr ibed in ch a pt er 3. Th e in t er a ct ion bet ween powder a n d la s er
bea m is s t u died in ch a pt er 6.
Exper imen t s s h owed t h a t pla s ma for ma t ion ca n occu r in t h e pr oces s a r ea . Th is
is a cr it ica l ph en omen on , beca u s e t h e pla s ma ca n s h ield t h e s u bs t r a t e fr om t h e
la s er bea m a n d t h u s s t op t h e cla ddin g. Th is ph en omen on is dis cu s s ed in
ch a pt er 6 a s well.
As men t ion ed befor e, t h e wor k des cr ibed in t h is t h es is wa s in it ia t ed t o in t r o-
du ce t h e la s er cla ddin g t ech n ology in t h e Du t ch in du s t r y. Emph a s is wa s pu t
on t h e a ch ievemen t of good qu a lit y met a l cla d la yer s on t op of s t eel s u r fa ces .
Ha vin g ga in ed en ou gh in s igh t in t h e pr oces s mech a n is ms , t h e fin a l s t ep wh ich
is n eces s a r y t o con vin ce in du s t r y t o a pply la s er cla ddin g t h ems elves is t h e de-
velopmen t of pr a ct ica l a pplica t ion s . Some exa mples of s u ch a pplica t ion s t h a t
wer e developed in t h e a u t h or 's la bor a t or y a r e s h own in ch a pt er 7.
Chapter 2
Laser cladding: state-of-the-art
2.1 Laser cladding and other laser surface treatments
La s er cla ddin g is on e of t h e la s er s u r fa ce t r ea t men t s . Th e pos it ive effect s of la -
s er s u r fa ce t r ea t men t s a r e ba s ed on a ch a n ge of t h e micr os t r u ct u r e or t h e ma -
t er ia l compos it ion of t h e s u r fa ce la yer du e t o a t h er ma l cycle wh ich is in du ced
by a movin g la s er s ou r ce. Th e pr oces s is s h own s ch ema t ica lly in figu r e 2.1.
Th e t r ea t ed a r ea is h ea t ed by a bs or pt ion of en er gy deliver ed by t h e la s er bea m.
Th e h ea t in pu t du e t o a h igh power la s er bea m is well con fin ed a n d ver y in -
t en s e. Hen ce, h ea t in g r a t es in t h e s u r fa ce la yer a r e h igh . Th e h ea t ed la yer is
s elf-qu en ch ed a ft er pa s s in g of t h e la s er bea m by diffu s ion of h ea t t o t h e cold
bu lk. Th e h igh h ea t in g a n d coolin g r a t es in t h e s u r fa ce la yer r es u lt in gr a in r e-
fin emen t a n d in t h e for ma t ion of met a s t a ble ph a s es a n d/ or a lt er ed micr o-
s t r u ct u r es .
La r ger a r ea s ca n be t r ea t ed by ma kin g s ever a l a dja cen t t r a cks . Some pr oces s es
r equ ir e t h e u s e of a s h ieldin g ga s t o a void cor r os ion of t h e t r ea t ed a r ea .
22 Chapter 2
Fig. 2.1 The w ork piece performs a relative movement to the las er beam. The
area expos ed by the las er beam is treated. Larger areas can be treated by ap-
ply ing s everal adjacent track s .
In ou r r es ea r ch a 2 kW CO
2
la s er wa s u s ed a s h ea t s ou r ce. Th is power level ca n
be s een a s a min imu m r equ ir emen t for la s er s u r fa ce t r ea t men t s . In mos t in -
du s t r ia l a pplica t ion s t h e la s er power is a bove 5 kW. Th is a llows t h e t r ea t men t
of la r ger a r ea s in on e pr oces s s t ep. Th e wa velen gt h of 10.6 m ca u s es s ign ifi-
ca n t r eflect ion los s es . At r oom t emper a t u r e on ly 6-10 % of t h e r a dia t ion is a b-
s or bed in a s olid low a lloy s t eel s u r fa ce [Gr n en wa ld, 1996; St er n , 1990]. Th e
a bs or pt ion ca n be in cr ea s ed by u s in g s pecia l (gr a ph it e) coa t in gs [Da u s in ger ,
1988]. Un der cla ddin g con dit ion s t h e a bs or pt ion of CO
2
r a dia t ion on a mild
s t eel s u r fa ce is con s ider a bly la r ger : a bou t 30 % [Gr n en wa ld, 1996].
Recen t ly, Nd:YAG la s er s h a ve been developed t o la s er power s of s ever a l kWs ,
ma kin g t h em u s efu l for la s er s u r fa ce t r ea t men t s . Th e wa velen gt h of 1.06 m is
mor e efficien t : a bs or pt ion on a s olid s t eel s u r fa ce is a bou t 30 % [St er n , 1990].
Un der cla ddin g con dit ion s t h e a bs or pt ion in cr ea s es t o 60 % [Gr n en wa ld,
1996]. An ot h er a dva n t a ge over t h e CO
2
la s er is t h e pos s ibilit y t o t r a n s por t t h e
la s er bea m t h r ou gh opt ica l fibr es , a llowin g flexible bea m h a n dlin g s ys t ems .
Ta kin g in t o a ccou n t bot h a dva n t a ges , on e ca n t h u s s a y t h a t t h is la s er t ype is
ver y u s efu l for fu t u r e la s er s u r fa ce t r ea t men t s .
Th r ee gr ou ps of la s er s u r fa ce t r ea t men t s a r e dis t in gu is h ed: t h os e wit h ou t
melt in g, t h os e wit h melt in g of t h e s u r fa ce a n d t h os e wit h melt in g of t h e s u r fa ce
a n d a ddit ion a l ma t er ia l.
Th e wor kin g pr in ciple of t h e mos t common la s er s u r fa ce t r ea t men t s is s u mma -
r is ed in figu r e 2.2.
Las er cladding: s tate-of-the-art 23
Th e effect s of la s er r emelt in g a n d la s er t r a n s for ma t ion h a r den in g a r e ba s ed on
a micr os t r u ct u r a l ch a n ge of t h e s u r fa ce la yer . However , it ca n be n eces s a r y or
ch ea per t o a pply a la yer wit h a differ en t compos it ion on t op of t h e ba s e ma t er ia l
if t h e ba s e ma t er ia l it s elf ca n n ot be impr oved s u fficien t ly.
Th r ee la s er t ech n iqu es t h a t ca n en h a n ce s u r fa ce pr oper t ies by ch a n gin g t h e
ma t er ia l compos it ion in t h e s u r fa ce ca n be dis t in gu is h ed: la s er a lloyin g, la s er
dis per s in g a n d la s er cla ddin g. Th es e t ech n iqu es a r e s h own s ch ema t ica lly in
figu r e 2.3.
All t h r ee met h ods in volve t h e for ma t ion of a melt pool t o wh ich ma t er ia l is a p-
plied. Depen din g on t h e a ch ieved degr ee of mixin g bet ween t h e a dded ma t er ia l
a n d t h e ba s e ma t er ia l in t h e s u r fa ce la yer , on e ca n dis t in gu is h la s er a lloyin g
a n d la s er dis per s in g on t h e on e h a n d, a n d la s er cla ddin g on t h e ot h er h a n d.
Th e fir s t cla s s is ch a r a ct er is ed by a complet e mixin g a n d/ or r ea ct ion of t h e
a dded elemen t s wit h t h e ba s e ma t er ia l. In con t r a s t , la s er cla ddin g gen er a t es a
s u r fa ce la yer t h a t h a r dly con t a in s elemen t s of t h e s u bs t r a t e on t op of t h e ba s e
Fig. 2.2 Las er s urface treatments are dis tinguis hed w ith res pect to the s urface
temperature (s olid phas e/ melt pool) and to the addition of material.
24 Chapter 2
ma t er ia l. J u s t en ou gh mixin g is a llowed t o a ch ieve a s t r on g bon din g. Hen ce,
t h e pr oper t ies of t h e pr odu ced cla d la yer depen d en t ir ely on t h e a pplied coa t in g
mat er ial.
2.2 Applicability of laser cladding
La s er cla ddin g is a t ech n iqu e u s ed in or der t o pr odu ce h a r d [Amen de, 1990;
Folkes , 1994; La n g, 1994; Lu gs ch eider , 1990], wea r r es is t a n t [Br en n er , 1996;
Ch oi, 1994; Eih olzer , 1985; Fis ch er , 1996; Ga s s ma n n , 1992; Liu , 1994;
Nowot n y, 1994; Wolf, 1995] a n d/ or cor r os ion r es is t a n t [Br u ck, 1987; Fellowes ,
1990; Fou qu et , 1993; Ga s s er , 1996; Lu gs ch eider , 1994; Sin gh , 1987; Wa n g,
1993] s u r fa ce la yer s . La s er cla ddin g ca n a ls o be a pplied t o pr odu ce t h er ma l
ba r r ier s [Da mbor en ea , 1993; Pei, 1995; Smu r ov, 1992; Va n deHa a r , 1988], t o
a ch ieve la yer s s u it a ble for a pplica t ion in n u clea r power -s t a t ion s [Cor ch ia , 1987;
Li, 1992] or t o obt a in s u r fa ce la yer s t h a t pr even t s t a ckin g [Fr en k, 1991]. Th e
t ech n iqu e is u s ed t o pr odu ce h igh qu a lit y s u r fa ce la yer s on t op of n ew pa r t s , t o
pr odu ce en t ir e pa r t s [Gebh a r dt , 1996; Ha fer ka mp, 1995; Kr eu t z, 1995] a n d, t o
Fig. 2.3 Las er alloy ing, dis pers ing and cladding. The right part of the pic-
ture indicates the dis tribution of the added elements meas ured top-dow n
in the centre of the track .
r efu r bis h a n d impr ove u s ed pa r t s [Flin kfeldt , 1994; Kn ig, 1994; Ria bkin a -
Fis h ma n , 1996].
Ta ble 2.1 gives s ome exa mples of r epor t ed in du s t r ia l a pplica t ion s of la s er cla d-
din g. Cla ddin g is a pplied on mech a n ica l pa r t s t h a t a r e expos ed t o a n a ggr es s ive
en vir on men t : t h er ma l cycles wit h h igh h ea t in g a n d coolin g r a t es , cor r os ive
ga s es , h igh t emper a t u r es , a br a s ive pa r t icles a n d/ or ca vit a t ion er os ion .
Mos t of t h es e pa r t s on ly r equ ir e loca l t r ea t men t t h a t ca n be per for med wit h a
s in gle cla d t r a ck. An exa mple is t h e cla ddin g of a dies el en gin e exh a u s t va lve
wit h a St ellit e 6 cla d la yer t h a t h a s a widt h of a bou t 2.5 mm a n d a t h ickn es s of
1.0 mm. Su ch la yer s ca n be a pplied wit h a 2 kW CO
2
la s er s ys t em.
On t h e ot h er h a n d, t h e cla ddin g of a n ext r u der s cr ew [Sch n eider , 1995; Wolf,
1995] wit h a 10 mm wide, 2 mm t h ick la yer over a len gt h of mor e t h a n 3 m is
a n exa mple of a n on -loca l t r ea t men t wh ich r equ ir es t h e u s e of a 10 kW la s er .
La s er cla ddin g is n ot t h e mos t econ omic a lt er n a t ive for t h e coa t in g of s u ch a
r a t h er la r ge a r ea in t er ms of cover a ge r a t e or pr odu ct ion cos t s . However , in t h is
ca s e a ll ot h er t ech n iqu es wou ld fa il t o a ch ieve a s t r on g fu s ion bon d bet ween
coa t in g a n d ba s e ma t er ia l, or wou ld r es u lt in s ever e dis t or t ion of t h e s cr ew.
For t h e cla ddin g of even la r ger a r ea s , ver y h igh power CO
2
la s er s wit h a la s er
power of mor e t h a n 20 kW a r e a va ila ble. Th ey ca n be u s ed t o pr odu ce 44 mm
wide a n d 5.5 mm h igh t r a cks in on e s t ep [Volz, 1994].
Table 2.1 Indus trial applications of las er cladding.
Source Part/industry Material
Rolls Royce [Macintyre, 1983]
Pratt & Whitney [Eboo, 1983]
Combustion Engineering
[Eboo]
Fiat [Eboo, 1983]
GM [Eboo, 1983]
Rockwell [Eboo, 1983]
Westinghouse [Eboo, 1983]
[Bruck, 1987]
[Lubbers, 1994]
[Schneider,1995]
[Wolf, 1995]
[Haferkamp, 1994]
high pressure gas turbine blade
shroud
interlock
turbine blade
parts of off-shore drilling heads
cylinder and valve
automotive parts
aerospace
turbine blade
turbine blade, plough blade
diesel engine valve
extruder screw plastic machinery
(steel 1.4541)
deep drawing tool (cast iron GGG60)
Triballoy on Nimonic
CrC, Cr, Ni on cast iron
on cast iron
Stellite, Triballoy T-800
Stellite, Colmonoy
Stellite 6, Stellite SF
Stellite 6
Stellite 6
LC2.3B (Ni-base)
Al-bronze
Stellite SF6
26 Chapter 2
Source Part/industry Material
[Weerasinghe, 1987]
[Amende, 1990]
[Kpper, 1990]
[Blake, 1985]
[Blake, 1985]
[Amende, 1988]
[VandeHaar, 1988]
[Bruck, 1988]
[Bruck, 1988]
[Bruck, 1988]
[Bruck, 1988]
[Ritter, 1991]
[Wissenbach, 1991]
[Gasser, 1996]
[Gasser, 1996]
[Fischer, 1996]
[Nowotny, 1996]
[Lang, 1994]
[Li, 1992]
[Knig, 1992]
[Amende, 1988]
Pratt&Whitney [Duhamel, 1986]
[Bergmann, 1994]
[Corchia, 1987]
drainage plough blade
leading edge steam turbine blade
valve in combustion engine
(X45CrSi9)
aircraft engine turbine blade Z-notch
leading edge turbine blade in industrial
gas turbine in power plant
deformation tool
gas turbine airfoil thermal barrier
valve seat
stainless steel seal runner
stainless steel gate valve
leading edge steam turbine blade
valves
valve in combustion engine
(X45CrSi9)
(14CrMoV6 9)
moulding die (45NiCr6)
exhaust valves large Diesel engines
(NiCr20AlTi ~ DIN 2.4952)
camshaft
compressor blade (Ti-6Al-4V)
nuclear valve (AISI 304)
blowing mould
jet engine turbine blade notch (PWA
Alloy 1455)
die for production of glass bottles
components of nuclear plants (AISI
304)
Stellite 6
Stellite 6
Triballoy T-800
Stellite 6
Stellite 6
Inconel 625 + CrC
AISI 410
Stellite 6
Stellite; induction heating
Stellite 6,F
Stellite 21
Ni-Cr-Al-Y
Co-Cr-W-C
Ti-6Al-4V + cubic BN
Stellite 6
Ni-Cr alloy
PWA Alloy 694
Stellite
Stellite 6, Colmonoy 5
2.3 Laser cladding versus conventional methods
La s er cla ddin g is on e of t h e coa t in g t ech n iqu es t h a t a r e in u s e for impr ovin g
s u r fa ce pr oper t ies of mech a n ica l pa r t s . Exa mples of ot h er t h er ma l coa t in g
met h ods a r e fla me s pr a yin g, pla s ma s pr a yin g a n d a r c weldin g. Th e coa t in g t h a t
is a pplied on t h e ba s e ma t er ia l mu s t pr ovide t h e r equ ir ed s u r fa ce pr oper t ies ,
s u ch a s r es is t a n ce a ga in s t cor r os ion or wea r . Th e u s e of a dedica t ed ma t er ia l
on t op of a ch ea p ba s e ma t er ia l r es u lt s in con s ider a ble ma t er ia l cos t s a vin gs .
Th e coa t in g ma t er ia l ca n be pr epla ced on t h e s u bs t r a t e t o be cover ed or it ca n
be pr ovided t o it du r in g t h e pr oces s . All pr oces s es a pply a h ea t s ou r ce t o melt
t h e coa t in g ma t er ia l a n d/ or t h e ba s e ma t er ia l. Depen din g on t h e t ech n iqu e, a
fu s ion bon d or a n a dh es ive bon d is a ch ieved bet ween t h e s u r fa ce la yer a n d t h e
ba s e ma t er ia l.
In gen er a l, t h e u s e of a la s er bea m in s u r fa ce t r ea t men t s offer s s ever a l a dva n -
t a ges over con ven t ion a l h ea t s ou r ces [Kn ig, 1989; Molia n , 1990; Ober l n der ,
1992; Webber , 1987]:
- t h e en er gy s u pply ca n be well con t r olled;
- ver y loca l t r ea t men t is pos s ible;
- t h e t ot a l h ea t in pu t is low, r es u lt in g in min ima l dis t or t ion ;
- t h e h ea t in g a n d coolin g r a t es a r e h igh , r es u lt in g in a fin e micr os t r u ct u r e
a n d/ or met a s t a ble ph a s es ;
- t h e t r ea t men t is a n on -con t a ct pr oces s . Th er e is n o t ool wea r , n or a ct me-
ch a n ica l for ces on t h e wor kpiece;
- t h e pr oces s dept h is well defin ed.
At a mer t [1989], Ca i [1990], Li [1994], Mon s on [1990] a n d Ober l n der [1992]
des cr ibe s ome mor e a dva n t a ges of la s er cla ddin g over con ven t ion a l coa t in g
t ech n iqu es . Th e combin a t ion of a con t r olled min ima l dilu t ion of t h e s u bs t r a t e
by t h e coa t in g ma t er ia l a n d n ever t h eles s a ver y s t r on g fu s ion bon d bet ween
t h em, is a u n iqu e fea t u r e of la s er cla ddin g. Por os it y in t h e coa t in g ca n be pr e-
ven t ed en t ir ely a n d a h omogen eou s dis t r ibu t ion of elemen t s ca n be a ch ieved.
2.4 Laser cladding methods
Two ma t er ia l a pplica t ion pr in ciples ca n be dis t in gu is h ed: Th e t wo s t a ge
(pr epla ced) t ech n iqu e a n d t h e on e s t a ge (in -s it u ) t ech n iqu e, wh ich a r e bot h dis -
pla yed in figu r e 2.4. Th es e t wo met h ods a r e bot h u s ed in pr a ct ice. Th e coa t in g
ma t er ia l is pr edomin a n t ly s u pplied in t h e for m of powder pa r t icles .
Two s t a ge p roces s
Sever a l met h ods of la s er cla ddin g wit h pr epla ced ma t er ia l a r e in u s e. Exa mples
a r e t h e melt in g of fla me a n d pla s ma s pr a yed la yer s [Cu et os , 1993; Ga s s er ,
1996; J u ch , 1994; Li, 1992; Lu gs ch eider , 1990; Mor dike, 1994; Reich elt , 1996;
Smu r ov, 1992], t h e melt in g of pr epla ced powder [Ar lt , 1994; Belmon do, 1979;
Br u ck, 1988; Flin kfeldt , 1994; Hir os e, 1995; Lu gs ch eider , 1992; Ma t t h ews ,
28 Chapter 2
1983; Nu r min en , 1985; Sa ka mot o, 1995] a n d t h e melt in g of pr epla ced pla t es or
ch ips [Du h a mel, 1986; Tos t o, 1994].
Tech n ica lly s pea kin g, t h e cla ddin g of fla me a n d pla s ma s pr a yed la yer s is in fa ct
r emelt in g. Th is r emelt in g ma y be n eces s a r y, beca u s e t h e pr oper t ies a n d per -
for ma n ce of con ven t ion a lly a pplied coa t in gs ma y be s er iou s ly degr a ded du e t o
poor in t er -pa r t icle bon din g, con s ider a ble por os it y or ext en s ive ch emica l in h o-
mogen eit y [Li, 1992].
La s er cla ddin g of pla s ma s pr a yed la yer s r equ ir es s ome s pecia l a t t en t ion . Th e
s pr a yed la yer mu s t h a ve en ou gh bon din g t o t h e s u bs t r a t e t o pr even t it fr om
peelin g off t h e s u bs t r a t e du e t o expa n s ion du r in g t h e s econ d s t a ge of t h e pr oc-
es s .
La s er cla ddin g wit h pr epla ced powder is t h e mos t common t wo s t a ge cla ddin g
met h od. Th e a pplied powder s a r e t h e s a me a s t h os e u s ed in fla me a n d pla s ma
s pr a yin g. Th e powder mu s t be mixed wit h a ch emica l bin der t o en s u r e t h a t it
Fig. 2.4 Tw o s tage (preplaced) and one s tage (in-s itu) las er cladding.
will s t ick t o t h e s u bs t r a t e du r in g t h e pr oces s ; It h a s t o be given en ou gh s t r u c-
t u r a l s t r en gt h t o wit h s t a n d for ces impos ed by ga s flows or gr a vit a t ion [Ar lt ,
1994]. Th e ch emica l bin der eva por a t es du r in g t h e pr oces s . Th is ca n r es u lt in
s ome por os it y in t h e cla d la yer .
Th e s econ d s t a ge of t h e pr oces s s t a r t s wit h t h e for ma t ion of a melt pool in t h e
s u r fa ce of t h e coa t in g ma t er ia l. Th e melt pool pr opa ga t es t o t h e in t er fa ce wit h
t h e s u bs t r a t e. Con t in u ed h ea t in g en s u r es t h a t t h e melt pool is ext en ded t o t h e
s u bs t r a t e a n d t h a t a s t r on g fu s ion bon d is a ch ieved. Th e h ea t in pu t mu s t be
well con t r olled t o pr even t deep melt in g of t h e s u bs t r a t e a n d t h e t h er efr om r e-
s u lt in g s ever e dilu t ion on t h e on e h a n d, a n d t o a ch ieve a s t r on g fu s ion bon d on
t h e ot h er h a n d.
Th e t wo s t a ge met h ods a r e pa r t icu la r ly u s efu l for pa r t s t h a t ca n be t r ea t ed in
on e s in gle t r a ck. It is of cou r s e pos s ible t o a pply s ever a l a dja cen t t r a cks , bu t
t h is will r es u lt in a n in cr ea s ed dilu t ion . Th is ca n be illu s t r a t ed wit h figu r e 2.5.
Befor e t h e fir s t cla d t r a ck is pr odu ced, t h e en t ir e a r ea is cover ed by t h e pr e-
pla ced ma t er ia l. A pa r t of t h e coa t in g is molt en by t h e la s er bea m. Aft er pa s s in g
of t h e bea m, t h e molt en ma t er ia l con t r a ct s du e t o s u r fa ce t en s ion . Hen ce, t h e
s u bs t r a t e a r ea dir ect ly n ext t o t h e pr odu ced cla d la yer is n ot cover ed wit h pr e-
pla ced ma t er ia l a n ymor e. Wh en t h e n ext t r a ck is ma de, t h e n on cover ed pa r t of
t h e s u bs t r a t e is dir ect ly ir r a dia t ed by t h e la s er bea m. Deeper melt in g of t h e
s u bs t r a t e will occu r in t h is a r ea .
One s t a ge p roces s
Th e on e s t a ge pr oces s s t a r t s wit h t h e for ma t ion of a melt pool in t h e s u bs t r a t e.
Simu lt a n eou s ly, coa t in g ma t er ia l is fed in t o t h is pool a n d melt s ; a s t r on g fu s ion
bon d bet ween coa t in g ma t er ia l a n d s u bs t r a t e is a ch ieved immedia t ely.
Fig. 2.5 The molten coating contracts during the s olidification. Hence, the
s ubs trate next to the clad lay er is expos ed to the las er beam during the
application of the next track .
30 Chapter 2
Th e on e s t a ge pr oces s h a s s ever a l ot h er a dva n t a ges over t h e t wo s t a ge pr oces s :
- la r ger a r ea s wh ich r equ ir e t h e a pplica t ion of s ever a l a dja cen t t r a cks ca n be
pr odu ced wit h les s dilu t ion . Con t r a ct ion of t h e cla d la yer s on coolin g down
s t ill occu r s , bu t beca u s e ma t er ia l is fed t o t h e s u bs t r a t e n ext t o t h e pr eviou s
t r a ck n o pa r t of t h e s u bs t r a t e is ir r a dia t ed u n n eces s a r ily;
- t h e coa t in g t h ickn es s ca n be va r ied on -lin e by con t r ollin g t h e ma t er ia l feed
r a t e;
- pr odu ct s wit h a complex geomet r y ca n be t r ea t ed, beca u s e ma t er ia l is fed
con t in u ou s ly t o t h e in t er a ct ion zon e. Th er efor e, flowin g ou t of t h e molt en
ma t er ia l by gr a vit a t ion is n ot pr oblema t ic a n ymor e.
Two met h ods of ma t er ia l feedin g a r e a va ila ble: wir e feedin g a n d powder in jec-
t ion .
Wir e feedin g [Bu r ch a r ds , 1990; Dr a u gela t es , 1994; Hen s el, 1992; Hin s e-St er n ,
1992; St een ber gen , 1993] ca n be u s efu l for t h e cla ddin g of r ot a t ion a lly s ymmet -
r ic pr odu ct s t h a t ca n be cla d in on e con t in u ou s t r a ck. Th e pos it ion in g of t h e
wir e t o t h e s u bs t r a t e is a cr it ica l a s pect of t h e pr oces s for t wo r ea s on s :
- t h e wir e is u s u a lly in dir ect con t a ct wit h t h e melt pool in t h e s u bs t r a t e. In
or der n ot t o dis t u r b t h a t melt pool t h e pr oces s r equ ir es t h e u s e of a n a ccu -
r a t e wir e pos it ion in g s ys t em a n d a n a ccu r a t e con t r ol of t h e wir e feedin g r a t e
[Bu r ch a r ds , 1990; St een ber gen , 1993];
- t h e s u bs t r a t e is pa r t ly s h ielded fr om t h e la s er bea m by t h e s olid wir e. To a l-
low a good qu a lit y cla d la yer , i.e. on e wit h a good bon din g t o t h e s u bs t r a t e,
flown ou t a n d a s moot h s u r fa ce, a r a t io bet ween bea m dia met er a n d wir e di-
a met er of a t lea s t a fa ct or t h r ee mu s t be u s ed [Bu r ch a r ds , 1990]. Th e wir e
mu s t be well a lign ed t o t h e cen t r e of t h e la s er s pot t o en s u r e t h e for ma t ion
of a s ymmet r ica l cla d la yer .
Th e wir e feedin g n ozzle mu s t be clos e t o t h e pr oces s in g a r ea t o a llow a n a ccu -
r a t e feedin g of t h e wir e in t h e melt pool. Th er efor e, t h e ma ch in in g of a cu r ved
pr odu ct s , con ca ve s h a pes in pa r t icu la r , is difficu lt .
Th e u s e of r ot a t in g wir e feedin g h ea ds a llow cla ddin g wit h a con s t a n t a n gle
bet ween wir e a n d s u bs t r a t e a s well a s a con s t a n t a n gle bet ween t h e in ject ion
dir ect ion a n d t h e r ela t ive movemen t of t h e s u bs t r a t e.
Th e pr oces s efficien cy ca n be in cr ea s ed by t h e a pplica t ion of a n in du ct ion u n it
t o pr eh ea t t h e wir e [Bu r ch a r ds , 1990; Hin s e-St er n , 1992].
Th e in ject ion of powder in t o a la s er gen er a t ed melt pool is a mu ch mor e com-
mon met h od compa r ed t o wir e cla ddin g [Fr en k, 1993; Gr n en wa ld, 1992; Pel-
let ier , 1993; Volz, 1994; Wolf, 1995]. Th e met h od is mor e flexible [Hen s el,
1992]: it a llows t h e on -lin e va r ia t ion of cla d dimen s ion s a n d cla d compos it ion
a n d, ma n y mor e elemen t s a n d a lloys a r e a va ila ble a s powder t h en a s wir e.
Powder in ject ion cla ddin g is a mor e r obu s t met h od t h a n wir e cla ddin g, beca u s e
t h er e is n o dir ect con t a ct wit h t h e melt pool a n d, t h e la s er bea m ca n pa s s
t h r ou gh t h e s t r ea m of powder pa r t icles in s t ea d of bein g obs t r u ct ed by t h e wir e.
Powder feeder s ca n be ba s ed on va r iou s wor kin g pr in ciples . Two s u ch pr in ci-
ples a r e s h own in figu r e 2.6. Th e left pict u r e s h ows a feeder con s is t in g of a
powder con t a in er fr om wh ich powder flows by gr a vit y in t o a s lot in a r ot a t in g
dis k. Th e powder is t r a n s por t ed t o a s u ct ion u n it fr om wh ich it is t r a n s por t ed
by a ga s s t r ea m t o a powder n ozzle. Th e volu met r ic powder feed r a t e is con -
t r olled by t h e dimen s ion s of t h e s lot a n d t h e s peed of t h e dis k [Ca r va lh o, 1995].
An ot h er met h od for powder dos in g is t h e u s e of a pn eu ma t ic s cr ew feeder
[Weck, 1994; Weer a s in gh e, 1984] (figu r e 2.6 r igh t ). Th e powder is t a ken fr om a
con t a in er t o t h e powder pick-u p a n d t r a n s por t ed t o t h e powder n ozzle. Th e
powder feed r a t e is con t r olled by t h e r ot a t ion a l s peed a n d dimen s ion s of t h e
s cr ew.
A differ en t a ppr oa ch t o powder feedin g is t h e a pplica t ion of a h opper a n d a
combin a t ion of pn eu ma t ic a n d vibr a t ion a l for ces . A s t a n da r d u lt r a -s on ic
clea n in g device is s u it a ble for deliver in g t h e vibr a t ion a l for ces . Th e powder is
t a ken fr om t h e h opper by mea n s of a pr es s u r e differ en ce a n d t r a n s por t ed t o t h e
pr oces s in g zon e [Met zbower , 1986; Ma cin t yr e, 1983].
Th e developmen t of n ew powder feeder s for la s er cla ddin g is dir ect ed t o t h e di-
r ect con t r ol of t h e flow r a t e: con t r ol of ma s s flow in s t ea d of volu met r ic flow a n d
in s t a n t a n eou s flow va r ia t ion s [Ca r va lh o, 1995; Nowot n y, 1996; Sch ier e, 1996;
Weck, 1994].
Th e powder mu s t be t r a n s por t ed fr om t h e feeder t o t h e pr oces s a r ea . Th is ca n
be don e by t h e u s e of a ca r r ier ga s (a r gon , h eliu m, n it r ogen ) or s imply by
gr a vit a t ion . Su bs equ en t ly, it is dir ect ed t o t h e melt pool by a powder n ozzle.
Th e powder n ozzle ca n h a ve s ever a l con figu r a t ion s . Two ba s ic la y-ou t s a r e
s h own in figu r e 2.7. Th e co-a xia l s u pply of powder (figu r e 2.7 left ) [Nowot n y,
1996; Pellet ier , 1994; Tu cker , 1984; Vet t er , 1994] ca n be in t egr a t ed wit h t h e
opt ica l s ys t em. An a dva n t a ge of a co-a xia l powder s u pply is t h e in depen den ce
of t h e powder s u pply of t h e dir ect ion in wh ich t h e wor kpiece moves . An ot h er
a dva n t a ges of t h e co-a xia l powder s u pply a r e t h e con t r olled h ea t in g of t h e pow-
der befor e it en t er s t h e melt pool a n d t h e h igh powder efficien cy [J ou va r d,
1997; Lemoin e, 1994; Li, 1995; Vet t er , 1994]. However , n ot a ll pr odu ct s ca n be
a cces s ed wit h a co-a xia l powder n ozzle.
Th e la t er a l s u pply of powder (figu r e 2.7 r igh t ) a llows t h e t r ea t men t of a ll kin ds
of s h a pes by a pplyin g dedica t ed powder n ozzles . Ba s ica lly, la t er a l powder n oz-
zles a r e ju s t t u bes wit h t h e pr oper len gt h , s h a pe a n d dia met er . Len s ch [1996]
developed a cu r ved t u bu la r n ozzle t o cla d in n er dia met er s of t u bes .
32 Chapter 2
2.5 Clad layer properties
Th e pr oper t ies of cla d la yer s a r e cla s s ified in fou r gr ou ps (t a ble 2.2).
Some of t h os e pr oper t ies ma y be in t er -r ela t ed. Th e wea r r es is t a n ce ca n , for in -
s t a n ce, be a ffect ed by t h e h a r dn es s , t h e micr os t r u ct u r e, t h e n u mber of cr a cks
a n d t h eir dept h a n d dir ect ion , t h e bon din g bet ween ba s e ma t er ia l a n d s u b-
s t r at e, et c.
Fig. 2.6 Tw o pow der dos ing principles .
Fig. 2.7 Co-axial (left) and lateral (right) pow der s upply .
In pr a ct ice, it is difficu lt t o pr odu ce a cla d la yer wh ich meet s a ll r equ ir emen t s .
Us u a lly a ba la n ce mu s t be fou n d bet ween s ever a l pr oper t ies . An exa mple is t h e
r edu ct ion of cr a ck for ma t ion in t h e cla d la yer by pr eh ea t in g t h e s u bs t r a t e. Th e
pr eh ea t in g r edu ces t h e coolin g r a t es a n d t h e r es u lt in g r es idu a l s t r es s . Con s e-
qu en t ly, cr a ck for ma t ion is a voided a n d, t h e h a r dn es s is r edu ced a s well
[Br en n er , 1996; Eigen ma n n , 1995; Ever s , 1993; Fr eit a s , 1993]. Cr a ck pr even -
t ion is impor t a n t , beca u s e cr a cks in it ia t e cor r os ion fr a ct u r e a n d r edu ce fa t igu e
s t r en gt h .
d i l ut i on
La s er cla ddin g r equ ir es t h e a ch ievemen t of a s t r on g fu s ion bon d bet ween t h e
cla ddin g ma t er ia l a n d t h e s u bs t r a t e, wh ich , in it s t u r n , r equ ir es t h e for ma t ion
of a melt pool in t h e s u bs t r a t e. It h a s t o be n ot ed h owever , t h a t t h e dept h of
t h is melt mu s t be a s s ma ll a s pos s ible in or der t o obt a in a pu r e s u r fa ce la yer
wh ich is n ot dilu t ed by t h e ba s e ma t er ia l.
Th e dilu t ion of t h e pr odu ced cla d la yer by elemen t s of t h e s u bs t r a t e is u s ed t o
ch a r a ct er is e t h e cla d qu a lit y. It ca n be mea s u r ed in t wo wa ys [Br u ck, 1987].
Th e fir s t met h od is ba s ed on t h e cla d la yer geomet r y (figu r e 2.8). Th e dilu t ion is
t h en defin ed a s t h e r a t io of t h e cla d dept h (d
c
) in t h e s u bs t r a t e over t h e t ot a l
cla d h eigh t (t
c
). Th is geomet r ica l a ppr oa ch a s s u mes a n h omogen eou s dis t r ibu -
t ion of elemen t s over t h e cla d cr os s -s ect ion .
Th e s econ d met h od is ba s ed on a n a n a lys is of t h e ma t er ia l compos it ion in t h e
cla d la yer (ch emica l or volu met r ic dilu t ion ). A compa r is on is ma de bet ween
t h e ma t er ia l compos it ion of t h e pu r e coa t in g ma t er ia l a n d t h e compos it ion of
t h e s u bs t r a t e is ma de. Th is met h od a llows t h e det er min a t ion of a va r ia t ion of
t h e dilu t ion over t h e cla d dept h a n d is pr efer r ed over t h e geomet r ica l a ppr oa ch .
Tab. 2.2 Properties of clad lay ers .
geometrical
properties
mechanical
properties
metallurgical
properties
qualitative
properties
clad dimensions
dilution
roughness
hardness distribution
residual stress
wear resistance
tensile strength
microstructure
dilution
grain size
homogeneity
corrosion resistance
porosity
cracking
34 Chapter 2
In ch a pt er 5 (la s er cla ddin g wit h pr epla ced powder ) t wo exa mples a r e given t o
illu s t r a t e t h e effect of dilu t ion on s ome coa t in g pr oper t ies . Th e fir s t exa mple
s h ows h ow t h e mea s u r ed geomet r ica l dilu t ion r ela t es t o t h e h a r dn es s dis t r ibu -
t ion . Th e s econ d exa mple s h ows t h a t t h e ch emica l dilu t ion is t h e mos t u s efu l of
t h e t wo, beca u s e n ot a ll cla d la yer s h a ve a u n ifor m dis t r ibu t ion of elemen t s .
p oros i t y
Th e pr es en ce of h oles in t h e cla d la yer is bein g r efer r ed t o a s por os it y. Por os it y
ca n be ca u s ed by s ever a l r ea s on s . Fir s t , it ma y be t h e r es u lt of t h e for ma t ion of
ga s bu bbles t h a t a r e t r a pped in t h e s olidifyin g melt pool. Th is ph en omen on ca n
be decr ea s ed by a vibr a t ion of t h e wor kpiece (fr equ en cy: 25 Hz; a mplit u de: 20
m) [Powell, 1981]. It wa s obs er ved t h a t t h is vibr o la s er cla ddin g a ls o r edu ces
in t er n a l s t r es s es a n d cr a ckin g.
Secon dly, if s olidifica t ion pr oceeds in differ en t dir ect ion s , s ome r egion s in t h e
melt ca n be en clos ed. A con t r a ct ion occu r s u pon s olidifica t ion of t h es e en clos ed
r egion s . Th a t con t r a ct ion ca u s es t en s ile s t r es s in t h e la yer a n d ma y even lea d
t o t h e for ma t ion of h oles . Th es e t wo kin ds of por os it y a r e t o be fou n d in t h e cla d
la yer s .
Two ot h er kin ds of por os it y a r e con fin ed t o t h e s u bs t r a t e-cla d in t er fa ce. Th e
fir s t on e is ca u s ed by t h e pr es en ce of min or fla ws , s u ch a s gr ea s e wh ich in flu -
en ces t h e s u r fa ce t en s ion a n d t h er ewit h t h e bon din g of t h e coa t in g ma t er ia l t o
t h e s u bs t r a t e.
Th e la s t t ype of por os it y a ppea r s wh en over la ppin g t r a cks a r e a pplied a s in di-
ca t ed in figu r e 2.9. Th is s o-ca lled in t er -r u n por os it y ca n occu r wh en t oo mu ch
powder is s u pplied. Th is ca n be a voided wit h a widt h -h eigh t r a t io of mor e t h a n
five [St een , 1987].
Fig. 2.8 Cros s -s ection of a s ingle clad lay er w ith definition of the clad geome-
try : clad height (h
c
), clad depth (d
c
), total clad height (t
c
) and clad w idth (w
c
).
Some exa mples of por os it y wh ich occu r r ed in a ct u a l la s er cla ddin g exper imen t s
a r e given in ch a pt er 7.
2.6 Material properties
La s er cla ddin g is u s ed t o impr ove t h e s u r fa ce pr oper t ies of met a llic ma ch in e
pa r t s . A wide va r iet y of commer cia l met a llic or cer a mic powder s is a va ila ble.
Th os e powder s wer e developed for t h e u s e in pla s ma a n d fla me s pr a yin g. Th ey
a r e a ls o fit for u s e in la s er cla ddin g, beca u s e t h e in t en ded fu n ct ion a l pr oper t ies
a r e t h e s a me. In a ppen dix 4 a n ext en s ive over view is given of combin a t ion s of
powder s a n d ba s e ma t er ia ls a s r epor t ed in t h e lit er a t u r e.
An es s en t ia l a s pect of la s er cla ddin g is t h e a ch ievemen t of a s t r on g fu s ion bon d
over t h e en t ir e in t er fa ce bet ween t h e s u bs t r a t e a n d t h e cla d la yer . A good wet -
t in g bet ween t h e coa t in g ma t er ia l a n d t h e s u bs t r a t e is t h er efor e r equ ir ed. Be-
ca u s e of t h e poor wet t a bilit y of cer a mics t o met a ls , it is ver y difficu lt t o cla d ce-
r a mics on t op of a met a l s u bs t r a t e [de Hos s on , 1995; Lu gs ch eider , 1994; Zh ou ,
1991]. Th e a pplica t ion of s a n dwich la yer s bet ween t h e in t en ded s u r fa ce coa t in g
a n d t h e s u bs t r a t e [Cu et os , 1993; Li, 1992; Liu , 1994; Smu r ov, 1992] or t h e u s e
of bin der s ca n be h elpfu l [La n g, 1994; Lu gs ch eider , 1994; Nowot n y, 1994;
Sin gh , 1987; Zh ou , 1991]. Pr eh ea t in g ma y a ls o h elp t o en h a n ce wet t in g [Ellis ,
1995].
Th e ba s ic r equ ir emen t for a fu s ion weldin g is t h a t t h e t wo cou plin g ma t er ia ls
a r e s olu ble in ea ch ot h er a n d, t h er e is qu es t ion of a ph a s e equ ilibr iu m bet ween
t h em [Li, 1992]. For mos t a lloys t h is r equ ir emen t pos es n o difficu lt y, bu t pu r e
met a ls ca n s omet imes be difficu lt t o cla d on t op of ea ch ot h er . Alu min iu m a n d
coba lt , for in s t a n ce, a r e n ot s olu ble in ea ch ot h er , s o t h er e is n o ph a s e equ ilib-
r iu m. Ph a s e equ ilibr iu ms exis t on ly bet ween a lu min iu m a n d s ome in t er met a l-
lics or bet ween coba lt a n d ot h er in t er met a llics . So, t h e on ly wa y t o bon d t h em
t oget h er is t o s a n dwich t h em wit h in t er met a llics .
Mu lt i-la yer s ca n a ls o be a pplied in met a l-met a l combin a t ion s t o r edu ce r es idu a l
s t r es s du e t o r epea t ed h ea t in pu t [Fr en k, 1993] a n d t o for m a fu n ct ion a lly gr a -
Fig. 2.9 Inter-run poros ity .
36 Chapter 2
dien t la yer wit h a low dilu t ion a n d t h e in t en ded pr oper t ies on t op [J a s im, 1993;
Sepold, 1989].
Con vect ion is t h e s in gle mos t impor t a n t fa ct or in flu en cin g t h e geomet r y of t h e
pool, in clu din g pool s h a pe a n d r ipples . Con vect ion is a ls o t h e ma in mech a n is m
for mixin g a dded ma t er ia l wit h t h e s u bs t r a t e [Ch a n , 1984; Pica s s o, 1994].
Sin ce t h e micr os t r u ct u r e a n d ch emica l compos it ion of t h e cla d s t r on gly depen d
on t h e degr ee of mixin g a n d t h e coolin g r a t es du r in g s olidifica t ion a n d con s e-
qu en t coolin g, t h e pa r a met er s con t r ollin g t h es e mech a n is ms a r e impor t a n t t o
t h e la s er cla ddin g pr oces s [Komvopou los , 1990]. Ma t er ia l pr oper t ies t h a t in flu -
en ce t h es e mech a n is ms a r e, a mon g ot h er s , t h e melt in g poin t a n d t h e t h er ma l
con du ct ivit y.
Th e melt in g poin t of t h e s u bs t r a t e mu s t pr efer a bly be h igh er t h a n t h a t of t h e
coa t in g ma t er ia l. If t h is is n ot t h e ca s e, t h en it is pos s ible t h a t du r in g s olidifica -
t ion a n d s u bs equ en t coolin g of t h e cla d la yer , t h e s u bs t r a t e r egion ju s t u n der -
n ea t h it ca n be h ea t ed t o a t emper a t u r e over t h e melt in g poin t . Th is r egion will
s u bs equ en t ly los e it s s t r en gt h . Un der t h e effect of t h e s t r es s of t h e cla d a bove,
h ot t ea r will occu r a lon g t h is r egion [Li, 1992]. Su ch a s it u a t ion will in a n y ca s e
r es u lt in por os it y a lon g t h e in t er fa ce.
Th e for ma t ion of cr a cks in t h e cla d la yer is ma in ly ca u s ed by t h e t h er ma l s t r es s
cr ea t ed by t h e h igh t h er ma l gr a dien t bu ilt u p du r in g t h e coolin g s t a ge a n d t h e
differ en ce bet ween t h e t h er ma l expa n s ion coefficien t s [Fr en k, 1991, 1993; Li,
1992; Pilloz, 1990; Va s a u s ka s , 1996; Zh a n g, 1994; Zh ou , 1991]. Es pecia lly
la yer s t h a t a r e ch a r a ct er is ed by t h e pr es en ce of h a r d a n d br it t le pa r t icles , s u ch
a s ca r bides , a r e pr on e t o cr a ckin g [Lu ft , 1995]. Cer a mic la yer s a r e a ls o vu ln er -
a ble t o cr a ckin g, beca u s e of t h eir limit ed du ct ilit y combin ed wit h t h e differ en ce
in t h er ma l expa n s ion coefficien t s compa r ed wit h met a ls [Va n deHa a r , 1988].
Res idu a l s t r es s es ca n be r edu ced by a r edu ct ion of t h e coolin g r a t e. Th is ca n be
a ch ieved by pr eh ea t in g [Br en n er , 1996; Ever s , 1993; Glu ma n n , 1994; Sch n ei-
der , 1993].
Th e differ en t ba s e ma t er ia ls ca n be cla s s ified in t o t wo gr ou ps . Th e fir s t gr ou p
con t a in s a ll s t eels . Th e s econ d gr ou p con t a in s n on -fer r ou s ba s e ma t er ia ls , s u ch
a s a lu min iu m a n d t it a n iu m.
2.6.1 Powders on a steel substrate
Cobalt bas e pow ders (Stellites )
Coba lt ba s e s u per a lloys (St ellit es ) a r e ver y popu la r wit h r ega r d t o t h e im-
pr ovemen t of t h e wea r r es is t a n ce of mech a n ica l pa r t s , es pecia lly in h os t ile en vi-
r on men t s [de Hos s on , 1996]. Th os e powder s a r e mixt u r es of coba lt a n d ot h er
elemen t s like n ickel, ch r omiu m, t u n gs t en , ca r bon a n d molybden u m. Ch r omiu m
is a dded t o for m ca r bides a n d t o pr ovide s t r en gt h t o t h e coba lt ma t r ix a s well a s
t o en h a n ce t h e r es is t a n ce a ga in s t cor r os ion a n d oxida t ion . Tu n gs t en a n d mo-
lybden u m h a ve la r ge a t omic s izes a n d give, t h er efor e, a ddit ion a l s t r en gt h t o t h e
ma t r ix. Th ey a ls o for m h a r d br it t le ca r bides . Nickel is a dded t o in cr ea s e t h e
du ct ilit y.
Th e pr edomin a n t ca r bide fou n d in St ellit es is of t h e ch r omiu m r ich M
7
C
3
(M=met a l) t ype. Th es e ca r bides (2200 Hv) a r e r es pon s ible for t h e h a r dn es s of
t h e cla d (~ 550 Hv) a n d for t h e wea r r es is t a n ce. In low-ca r bon a lloys ot h er ca r -
bides s u ch a s M
6
C a n d M
23
C
6
a r e a bu n da n t [de Hos s on , 1996].
If t h e wea r pr oper t ies of a given coba lt -ba s e powder mixt u r e is n ot s u fficien t ,
t h en h a r d pa r t icles , s u ch a s ca r bides , n it r ides a n d bor ides , ca n be a dded di-
r ect ly t o t h is mixt u r e [Ga s s ma n n , 1992; Glu ma n n , 1994; Gr n en wa ld, 1992;
Nowot n y, 1994; Volz, 1994]. Th os e h a r d pa r t icles u s u a lly h a ve a h igh melt in g
t emper a t u r e. Th e flow in t h e melt pool mu s t en s u r e t h a t t h ey a r e u n ifor mly
mixed wit h t h e ot h er elemen t s a n d become embedded in t h e ma t r ix pr ovided by
t h e molt en coba lt -ba s e ma t er ia l.
Ga s s ma n n [1992] des cr ibed t h e a ddit ion of t u n gs t en ca r bide (WC/ W
2
C) t o a
St ellit e powder in or der t o en h a n ce t h e a br a s ive wea r r es is t a n ce. Tu n gs t en ca r -
bide is dis t in gu is h ed by a min ima l pla s t ic defor ma t ion ca pa cit y, a low t h er ma l
expa n s ion a n d a h igh wet t a bilit y by molt en met a ls , es pecia lly coba lt . Du e t o t h e
low fr ee for ma t ion en t h a lpy t u n gs t en ca r bide is dis s olved in t h e s olid s t a t e by
molt en coba lt . Th e dis s olu t ion in cr ea s es wit h t h e t emper a t u r e of t h e melt a n d
t h e in t er a ct ion t ime. Depen din g on t h e ca r bon con cen t r a t ion in t h e melt , dis -
s olved t u n gs t en ca r bide r ecr ys t a llis es eit h er t o WC, or wit h low ca r bon con cen -
t r a t ion s , t o W
2
C or br it t le ph a s es s u ch a s Co
3
W
3
C a n d Co
6
W
6
C. It is t h er efor e
impor t a n t t o keep t h e t emper a t u r e in t h e melt a s low a s pos s ible. Not on ly r e-
s u lt s t h is in a low ca r bide dis s olu t ion , it a ls o en s u r es a den s e coa t in g wit h
lower t en s ile s t r es s es .
By fa r t h e mos t popu la r commer cia l coba lt ba s e powder is St ellit e 6 (t a ble 2.1).
St ellit e 6 ca n be a pplied on e.g. dies , in s er t s , va lves , feeder s cr ews in pla s t ic
ma ch in er y a n d t u r bin e bla des . Th e wor kin g t emper a t u r e is limit ed t o 500 C.
For ma n y of t h e a pplica t ion s in t a ble 2.1 it is pos s ibly n ot t h e bes t a va ila ble
coa t in g. However , it is s elect ed mos t ly beca u s e it s pr oper t ies a n d cla d beh a v-
iou r a r e well kn own a n d beca u s e it h a s es t a blis h ed it s elf in ot h er h a r dfa cin g
t ech n iqu es .
Nick el bas e alloy s
38 Chapter 2
Nickel ba s e a lloys a r e s u it ed for a pplica t ion in pa r t s t h a t a r e expos ed t o a n a g-
gr es s ive a t mos ph er e a t eleva t ed t emper a t u r es . Th ey h a ve a good h igh t em-
per a t u r e cor r os ion a n d oxida t ion r es is t a n ce. Nickel ba s e a lloys ca n a ls o be
u s ed a s a s u bs t it u t e for coba lt . Th is ma y be impor t a n t in t h e fu t u r e, beca u s e
coba lt is a r ela t ively r a r e a n d expa n s ive elemen t , wh er ea s n ickel is widely a va il-
a ble a n d mu ch ch ea per .
An exa mple of a n a pplica t ion is t h e cla ddin g of a h igh pr es s u r e ga s t u r bin e
bla de or t h e impr ovemen t of a feeder s cr ew in pla s t ic ma ch in er y [Amen de,
1988].
Elemen t s t h a t a r e common ly mixed wit h n ickel a r e ch r omiu m, bor on , ca r bon ,
s ilicon a n d a lu min iu m. Th e for ma t ion of h a r d bor ides a n d s ilicon ca r bide im-
pr oves t h e wea r r es is t a n ce a n d h a r dn es s . However , a t oo la r ge pr es en ce of
t h es e h a r d ph a s es ma kes t h e coa t in g ver y br it t le [Ar lt , 1994; Becker , 1991;
Gr n en wa ld, 1992; Lu gs ch eider , 1990]. Ha r d pa r t icles ca n a ls o be mixed wit h
t h e a dded elemen t s [Pellet ier , 1994]. Lu ft [1995] des cr ibes t h e a ddit ion of t u n g-
s t en ca r bides t o a mixt u r e of Ni-B-Si in or der t o a ch ieve a s olidified n ickel r ich
s olid s olu t ion wit h fin ely dis t r ibu t ed Ni
3
B a n d dis s olved t u n gs t en .
Th e a ddit ion of bor on a n d s ilicon impr oves t h e wet t in g beh a viou r . Hen ce, ver y
s moot h s u r fa ces ca n be a ch ieved [Wolf, 1995].
Alu min iu m ca n be a dded t o fu r t h er in cr ea s e t h e h a r dn es s . Th e h a r dn es s in -
cr ea s e is du e t o t h e for ma t ion of in t er met a llic ph a s es (NiAl
3
a n d Ni
2
Al
3
)
[Gr n en wa ld, 1996; Ma r s den , 1990] or a n oxide la yer (Al
2
O
3
).
Iron bas e alloy s
Alt h ou gh t h e s elect ion of a n ir on ba s e a lloy for impr ovin g s u r fa ce pr oper t ies of
a n ir on ba s e s u bs t r a t e ma y n ot be t h e mos t obviou s ch oice, s ome r es ea r ch h a s
been don e t o t h is s u bject .
It h a s been r epor t ed t h a t a mixt u r e of ir on , ch r omiu m, ca r bon a n d ma n ga n e or
t u n gs t en h a s s u per ior wea r pr oper t ies compa r ed t o St ellit e 6 [Ch oi, 1994; Ei-
h olzer , 1985; Komvopou los , 1994]. Th e elemen t s t h a t a r e a dded t o ir on en s u r e
t h e for ma t ion of ca r bides , con t r ibu t e t o t h e oxida t ion a n d cor r os ion r es is t a n ce
a n d pr omot e t h e s olid s olu t ion s t r en gt h en in g. Th e ma in ca r bide t ype fou n d in
t h is kin d of cla d la yer is M
6
C in s t ea d of t h e M
7
C
3
t ype fou n d in St ellit e 6.
Ot h er s h a ve r epor t ed on t h e a pplica t ion of a u s t en it ic cor r os ion r es is t a n t s t eel
la yer s on t op of or din a r y low ca r bon s t eels [Fou qu et , 1994; J a s im, 1989]. Th e
cor r os ion r es is t a n ce of t h os e la yer s ca n be fu r t h er impr oved by in cr ea s in g t h e
molybden u m con t en t in it [Hu a n g, 1995].
2.6.2 Non-ferrous substrates
2 . 6 . 2 . 1 Ni ck el ba s e s ubs t ra t es
Nickel ba s e a lloys r et a in t h eir mech a n ica l pr oper t ies u p t o h igh t emper a t u r es
a n d a r e cor r os ion r es is t a n t . Th er efor e, t h ey a r e es pecia lly u s efu l for a pplica -
t ion s t h a t u n der go h igh t emper a t u r e cor r os ion a n d wea r , s u ch a s exh a u s t
va lves of la r ge Dies el en gin es for s h ip pr opu ls ion or power gen er a t ion [Fis ch er ,
1996] a s well a s for jet en gin e t u r bin e bla des [Du h a mel, 1986]. However , t h e
wea r pr oper t ies of n ickel ba s e a lloys a r e n ot ver y good. Th e r es is t a n ce t o wea r
ca n be impr oved by u s in g coba lt ba s e a lloys wh ich h a ve a bet t er wea r en du r -
a n ce t h a n n ickel [Cooper , 1989; Du h a mel, 1986; Ga s s ma n n , 1992; Ma cin t yr e,
1983], by ma kin g u s e of a pr ot ect ive oxide la yer s u ch a s ch r omiu m oxide
[Fellowes , 1990] a n d zir con iu m oxide [Da mbor en ea , 1993] or by t h e a ddit ion of
h a r d pa r t icles in a bin der a lloy [Ga s s ma n n , 1992; J a s im, 1993; Zh u , 1993].
Oxide la yer s a r e n ot on ly ver y h a r d, t h ey a ls o for m a t h er ma l a n d ch emica l ba r -
r ier bet ween t h e met a l a n d t h e a ggr es s ive en vir on men t [Fellowes , 1990; Sin gh ,
1987; Va n deHa a r , 1988; Va s a u s ka s , 1996]. A pr oblem wit h cer a mic la yer s is
t h a t t h ey oft en h a ve a poor a dh er en ce t o t h e coa t in g. Rea ct ive elemen t s s u ch a s
h a fn iu m a n d yt t r iu m ca n impr ove t h is a dh er en ce [De Da mbor en ea , 1993;
Sin gh , 1987; Sir ca r , 1989].
On e of t h e a pplica t ion s of la s er cla ddin g on a n ickel ba s e s u bs t r a t e t h a t h a s
es t a blis h ed it s elf in pr a ct ice is t h e cla ddin g of n ot ch es of jet en gin e t u r bin e
bla des [Du h a mel, 1986]. A h igh wea r poin t exis t s a t t h e n ot ch bet ween n eigh -
bou r in g bla des for min g t h e ou t er s h r ou d of jet en gin e t u r bin e s t a ges . Th e ma t e-
r ia l in t h e n ot ch r egion exper ien ces r u bbin g con t a ct wit h t h e a dja cen t bla de
du r in g en gin e oper a t ion . Th e wea r r es is t a n ce cou ld be in cr ea s ed by t h e a ppli-
ca t ion of a coba lt ba s ed a lloy (PWA a lloy 694).
2 . 6 . 2 . 2 Al umi ni um a nd t i t a ni um ba s e s ubs t ra t es
Alu min iu m a n d t it a n iu m a lloys (pr edomin a n t ly Ti-6Al-4V) a r e popu la r ma t er i-
a ls for con s t r u ct in g mech a n ica l pa r t s in a er os pa ce a n d a u t omot ive in du s t r y,
beca u s e of t h e combin a t ion of low weigh t a n d h igh s t r en gt h . Un for t u n a t ely, a t
h igh t emper a t u r es t h e mech a n ica l pr oper t ies a n d t h e wea r r es is t a n ce a r e poor .
Th es e pr oper t ies ca n be en h a n ced by a pplyin g a n ickel ba s e la yer [Ka r , 1988;
Liu , 1994; Sa lla ma n d, 1993; Sir ca r , 1989]. Th u s t h e a dva n t a ge of ligh t weigh t
is combin ed wit h a good h igh t emper a t u r e mech a n ica l beh a viou r .
Nickel, t it a n iu m a n d a lu min iu m for m s ever a l br it t le in t er met a llic compou n ds ,
s u ch a s Al
3
Ni, Al
3
Ni
2
a n d AlNi. Th e for ma t ion of t h es e compou n ds on t h e in t er -
40 Chapter 2
fa ce lea ds t o cr a ckin g. Su it a ble s a n dwich la yer s like Ni-Al br on ze ca n pr even t
t h is [Liu , 1994].
Fir mly bon ded a lu min iu m oxide la yer s cou ld be obt a in ed by cla ddin g a n a lu -
min iu m a lloy wit h a mixt u r e of a lu min iu m a n d s ilicon oxide [De Hos s on , 1995].
In t h is r ea ct ion coa t in g t h e followin g r ea ct ion occu r r ed:
2Al+3/ 2SiO
2
=Al
2
O
3
+3/ 2Si.
Th e pr es en ce of s ilicon in t h e pr odu ced oxide la yer s eems t o be fa vou r a ble for
t h e wet t in g by liqu id a lu min iu m.
Th e h a r dn es s of a n a lu min iu m or t it a n iu m a lloy ca n a ls o be in cr ea s ed by t h e
in ject ion of a mixt u r e of h a r d pa r t icles a n d a n a lu min iu m r es pect ively t it a n iu m
a lloy. Es pecia lly s ilicon ca r bide a n d t it a n iu m ca r bide s eem t o be u s efu l h a r d
pa r t icles [Folkes , 1994; Hegge, 1990; Riccia r di, 1990]. La n g [1994] in ves t iga t ed
t h e in ject ion of a ver y h a r d cu bic bor on n it r ide a n d Ti-6Al-4V mixt u r e on a Ti-
6Al-4V compr es s or bla de.
2.7 Effect of process parameters
Th e ph ys ica l a n d pr oces s va r ia bles t h a t a ffect t h e cla d r es u lt s a r e s h own in fig-
u r e 2.10 [Ollier , 1995]. In or der t o be a ble t o pr edict cla ddin g r es u lt s , t h e r ela -
t ion s h ips bet ween t h es e va r ia bles a n d t h e cla d r es u lt s mu s t be kn own a n d
s olved s imu lt a n eou s ly. At t h e momen t n o exa ct s olu t ion s a r e a va ila ble.
2.7.1 Experimental methods
Ma n y a u t h or s h a ve s t u died t h e la s er cla ddin g pr oces s by mea n s of a s imple pa -
r a met er va r ia t ion for a fixed ma t er ia l combin a t ion [Komvopou los , 1990; Kr eu t z,
1995; Nu r min en , 1983]. Th is pa r a met er va r ia t ion ca n h elp t o en h a n ce t h e
pr oces s kn owledge a n d r es u lt s in t a bles s u ch a s t a ble 2.3, wh ich s h ows qu a li-
t a t ively h ow cla d pr oper t ies a r e in flu en ced by t h e pr oces s pa r a met er s .
Pa r a met er va r ia t ion ca n a ls o yield pr oces s dia gr a ms like t h e on e s h own in fig-
u r e 2.11 [Kr eu t z, 1995]. Th is dia gr a m in dica t es t h e cla d h eigh t a s a fu n ct ion of
t h e powder in ject ed per u n it of len gt h for t wo differ en t feed r a t es a n d t wo pow-
der den s it ies . Th e cla d h eigh t in cr ea s es wit h power den s it y a n d powder ma s s .
Th e pr oper t ies of t h e cla d a r e in s u fficien t for low a n d h igh powder feed r a t es
or igin a t in g eit h er fr om dilu t ion or la ck of fu s ion .
Fig. 2.10 Variables in las er cladding w ith pow der injection [Ollier, 1995].
Tab. 2.3 Reported effects of increas e of parameter values on clad lay er proper-
ties (+: increas e; -: reduction).
properties
parameters
clad
height
melt
depth
geometrical
dilution
hardness/
cracking
maximum
clad
thickness
laser power
feed rate
quantity of coating material
laser spot
-
+
+
+
+
-
-
-
+
-
-
-
-
+
+
+
+
-
+
-
42 Chapter 2
Ot h er s [Bla ke, 1985; Ch en , 1989; En gs t r m, 1988; Ka r , 1988, 1989; Komvo-
pou los , 1990; Molia n , 1988; Sin gh , 1985] r ela t e la s er cla ddin g r es u lt s t o t h e
s pecific en er gy E:
wh er e P is t h e la s er power , v is t h e feed r a t e of t h e wor kpiece a n d D is t h e di-
a met er of t h e la s er s pot .
Th e ma ximu m coa t in g t h ickn es s t h a t ca n be a pplied du r in g la s er cla ddin g de-
pen ds on t h e s pecific en er gy [Ch en , 1989; Ma r s den , 1990]. Below a cer t a in level
of t h e s pecific en er gy n o fu s ion bon d ca n be for med, wh er ea s beyon d a n ot h er
level t h e dilu t ion becomes t oo la r ge [Molia n , 1989]. Ka r [1989] a n d Sin gh [1985]
s u gges t t h a t a decr ea s e of t h e s pecific en er gy du e t o a n in cr ea s e of t h e feed r a t e
ca n en h a n ce t h e s olid s olu bilit y of a lloyin g elemen t s .
In t h is t h es is it is s h own t h a t t h e s pecific en er gy a lon e is n ot a s u it a ble pa -
r a met er for expla in in g la s er cla d pr oper t ies : t h e t h er ma l cycle in t h e s u r fa ce
la yer will be differ en t for ea ch s pecific pa r a met er combin a t ion t h a t r es u lt s in a
cer t a in va lu e of t h e s pecific en er gy. Th is opin ion is s h a r ed by Ellis [1995] a n d is
Fig. 2.11 Example of a proces s diagram achieved by parameter variation
[Kreutz , 1995]. 25 k W/ cm
2
: : 350 mm/ min, +: 300 mm/ min; 18 k W/ cm
2
:
o: 350 mm/ min, : 300 mm/ min. Pow der: Stellite 6; Subs trate: C45.
Eq. 2.1
E
P
v D

s u ppor t ed by t h e exper imen t a l r es u lt s wh ich a r e pr es en t ed in ch a pt er 6. It is
a ls o s u ppor t ed by figu r e 2.12. Th is figu r e wa s compos ed by t a kin g va lu es of t h e
in t er a ct ion t ime a n d power den s it y a s r epor t ed in t h e lit er a t u r e for la s er cla d-
din g of coba lt ba s ed powder s on low a lloy s t eels . Accor din g t o t h is figu r e, a ll ex-
per imen t s a r e in t h e r a n ge of 0.5 - 15 kJ / cm
2
. Aver a ge va lu es for in t er a ct ion
t ime a n d powder den s it y a r e r es pect ively 0.5 s a n d 15 kW/ cm
2
.
Exp eri ment a l d es i gn
Th e fa ct or ia l des ign met h od is on e of t h e met h ods t h a t ca n be u s ed for a s ys -
t ema t ica lly per for med pa r a met er eva lu a t ion . It wa s in t r odu ced by Box [1978]
a n d J oh n s on [1977]. It is a mu lt i pa r a met er a n a lys is met h od wh ich is mos t
u s efu l for a pplica t ion s in wh ich a pr oces s depen ds on n u mer ou s pa r a met er s . In
s u ch a pplica t ion s it is h a r dly pos s ible t o dr a w con clu s ion s fr om gr a ph s a n d t a -
bles t h a t a r e a ch ieved wit h or din a r y on e-a t -a -t ime exper imen t s , es pecia lly wh en
t a kin g in t o a ccou n t t h a t in t er a ct ion s a n d h igh er or der effect s bet ween pa r a me-
t er s ca n exis t .
Th e pa r a met er s , a ls o ca lled fa ct or s , a r e va r ied in a s ys t ema t ica l wa y fr om a low
va lu e t o a h igh level (figu r e 2.13). In t h is exa mple ea ch pa r a met er is eva lu a t ed
Fig. 2.12 Some values of the s pecific energy as reported in the literature for
las er cladding of cobalt bas ed coatings on low alloy s teel. Each dot repre-
s ents a different parameter s etting.
44 Chapter 2
on t h r ee levels . For ea ch pos s ible pa r a met er combin a t ion a n exper imen t is
per for med a n d t h e pr oces s r es pon s e is mea s u r ed.
Th e fa ct or ia l des ign met h od is mor e efficien t t h a n a n or din a r y on e-a t -a -t ime
va r ia t ion of pa r a met er s , beca u s e it r equ ir es les s exper imen t s t o a ch ieve t h e
s a me a ccu r a cy. For exa mple, t h e s imples t pos s ible fa ct or ia l exper imen t is on e
wit h t wo fa ct or s t h a t a r e bot h eva lu a t ed on t wo levels . In a fa ct or ia l des ign ex-
per imen t , t h e s et -u p r equ ir es fou r exper imen t s . A on e-a t -a -t ime va r ia t ion r e-
qu ir es s ix exper imen t s in or der t o obt a in t h e s a me level of a ccu r a cy.
Th e fa ct or ia l a n a lys is gives a s t a t is t ica l s ign ifica n ce t o t h e obs er ved r ela t ion -
s h ips , wh ich n ot on ly a llows t h e wit h dr a wa l of in s ign ifica n t pr oces s pa r a met er s
fr om fu r t h er exper imen t s , bu t a ls o a llows a s en s it ivit y a n a lys is of t h e pr oces s
[Box, 1978].
Th e ca lcu la t ed r ela t ion s h ips bet ween fa ct or s a r e on ly va lid bet ween t h e lower
a n d t h e h igh er level of t h e pa r a met er s . Ma n y pr oces s es in n a t u r e s h ow a n ex-
pon en t ia l cou r s e, wh ich ca n n ot be r evea led by t h is met h od. However , in a
s ma ll in t er va l s u ch a cu r ve ca n be a ppr oxima t ed by a s t r a igh t lin e or a s econ d
degr ee polyn omia l.
Va n Spr a n g [1992] a n d Eih olzer [1985] a pplied t h is met h od t o la s er cla ddin g
wit h pr epla ced powder . Th ey va r ied t h e la s er power den s it y (I), t h e feed r a t e of
t h e wor kpiece (v) a n d t h e coa t in g t h ickn es s (d). Th er eu pon , t h ey s t u died t h e r e-
s pon s e of cla d la yer pr oper t ies t o t h es e va r ia t ion s . Va n Spr a n g eva lu a t ed a ll
t h r ee fa ct or s on t h r ee levels for wh ich h e per for med 27 exper imen t s . Th e
Fig. 2.13 Set-up for a three parameter factorial experiment w ith all pa-
rameters at three levels .
a ch ieved r es u lt s of h is a n a lys is (t a ble 2.4) a r e s h own in t a ble 2.5. Th es e va lu es
ca n be u s ed t o compos e a pr oces s win dow of ma ch in in g pa r a met er s .
As on e ca n s ee in t a ble 2.5, t h e a ver a ge micr o h a r dn es s in t h e cla d la yer is 680
Hv. Th e h a r dn es s is r edu ced by eit h er a n in cr ea s e of t h e power den s it y or a r e-
du ct ion of t h e feed r a t e. Th is a gr ees wit h t h e fin din gs of ot h er s (t a ble 2.3) a n d
ca n be expla in ed by t h e r edu ced coolin g r a t e. Th e feed r a t e h a s a la r ger impa ct
on t h e h a r dn es s t h a n t h e power den s it y.
In t h is ca s e, on ly t h e lin ea r effect s of t h e fa ct or s on t h e h a r dn es s , t h e h ea t a f-
fect ed zon e a n d t h e dilu t ion wer e s ign ifica n t . In t er a ct ion s a n d s econ d or der ef-
fect s a r e impor t a n t for t h e mea s u r ed a bs or pt ion on ly.
2.7.2 Physical models
An a lt er n a t ive t o t h e pr oces s a n a lys is wit h exper imen t a l met h ods is t o develop
models wh ich a r e ba s ed on ph ys ica l la ws . Models t h a t a r e ba s ed on ph ys ica l
la ws con t r ibu t e t o a bet t er in s igh t in t h e pr oces s . Exper imen t s mu s t be per -
for med t o ver ify t h e a s s u mpt ion s on wh ich t h e model is ba s ed a n d t o a da pt t h e
Tab. 2.4 Input parameters for factorial des ign analy s is of las er cladding.
Level power density
[kW/cm
2
]
feed rate [mm/s] coating thickness
[mm]
-1
0
1
18
23
28
2
4
6
0.4
0.6
0.8
Tab. 2.5 Proces s res ponds as achieved w ith a three level factorial experiment for
three factors . All factors s caled betw een -1 and 1. Bas e material: C45; Cladding
material: Metco 18C.
Property parameter function
hardness H [Hv 0.2] H = 680 - 338 I + 452 v 55
heat affected zone HAZ [mm] HAZ = 0.76 + 0.25 I - 0.43 v - 0.30 d 0.05
dilution DIL [%] DIL = 35.8 + 39.0 I - 21.0 v - 76.0 d 4.0
absorption A [%] A = 28.9- 3.2 I + 0.7 v - 0.5 v
2
+ 0.8 d + 0.8 v d + 0.3 d 1.1
46 Chapter 2
pa r a met er s in it . A good model s u ppor t s t h e n eces s a r y exper imen t a l r es ea r ch
for t h e developmen t of n ew a pplica t ion s .
Few models for la s er cla ddin g h a ve been pr opos ed. Th ey ca n be dis t in gu is h ed
in t o t wo gr ou ps . Th e fir s t gr ou p of models is a imed a t pr edict in g t h e a mou n t of
ma t er ia l t h a t ca n be depos it ed, ba s ed on t h e a s s u mpt ion t h a t a per fect cla d
h a s n o dilu t ion wit h t h e s u bs t r a t e, wit h ou t ca lcu la t ion of t h e t emper a t u r e field
in t h e melt [J ou va r d, 1997; Lemoin e, 1993, 1994 (2x), 1995; Li, 1994; Ma r s den ,
1990]. An a lyt ica l s olu t ion s for t h e r es u lt in g cla d geomet r y ca n be obt a in ed be-
ca u s e con vect ion is n ot a ccou n t ed for .
A t ypica l exa mple of s u ch models is t h e wor k of J ou va r d [1997]. As a fir s t s t ep
h e det er min es t h e la s er power wh ich is t r a n s mit t ed t h r ou gh t h e clou d for med
by in ject ed powder pa r t icles (P-P
at
in figu r e 2.16) by a pplica t ion of t h e Beer -
La mber t la w. For det a ils , on e is r efer r ed t o ch a pt er 6.2, wh er e t h is la w is u s ed
t o ca lcu la t e t h e t emper a t u r e r is e of pa r t icles du r in g t h eir fligh t t h r ou gh t h e la -
s er bea m.
Th e s econ d s t ep in volves t h e ca lcu la t ion of t h e power r equ ir ed t o pr odu ce a
melt pool in t h e s u bs t r a t e. Combin ed wit h t h e power a t t en u a t ion fa ct or , t h e
t h er efor e r equ ir ed la s er power ca n be det er min ed (t h r es h old 1 in figu r e 2.14).
If mor e power t h a n t h is fir s t t h r es h old is s u pplied, a cla d la yer ca n be bu ilt u p
on t h e s u bs t r a t e. Du r in g t h e fligh t t h r ou gh t h e la s er bea m t h e pa r t icles a r e
h ea t ed bu t n ot molt en . Melt in g occu r s wh en t h e powder r ea ch es t h e melt pool
t h a t h a s been in it ia t ed on t h e s u bs t r a t e.
Th e ma s s flow t h a t ca n be molt en on ly depen ds on t h e la s er power u n t il t h e
s econ d t h r es h old is r ea ch ed. At t h is t h r es h old, t h e pa r t icles a r e molt en by t h e
la s er bea m befor e t h ey a r r ive in t h e melt pool.
Th e s econ d gr ou p of models is a imed a t des cr ibin g t h e ma in ph en omen a t h a t
occu r du r in g la s er cla ddin g. Models belon gin g t o t h is gr ou p [Hoa dley, 1992; Ol-
lier , 1992, 1995; Pica s s o, 1991, 1994 (3x)] t h er efor e ca lcu la t e t h e t emper a t u r e
a n d velocit y field in t h e melt a n d t h e s olid s u bs t r a t e, t h e s h a pe of t h e ga s -liqu id
in t er fa ce a n d, of cou r s e, t h e cla d geomet r y. Th e t emper a t u r e a n d velocit y fields
in t h e melt a r e impor t a n t , beca u s e t h ey det er min e t h e r edis t r ibu t ion of ele-
men t s a n d t h e coolin g r a t es . Toget h er , t h ey a r e r es pon s ible for t h e a t t a in ed mi-
cr os t r u ct u r e.
On e of t h e fir s t a t t empt s t o expla in t h e s h a pe of a la s er in du ced melt pool wa s
ma de by Clin e a n d An t h on y [1977]. Th ey wer e a ble t o a ch ieve a n a n a lyt ica l s o-
lu t ion for t h e melt pool s h a pe, beca u s e t h ey did n ot on ly t a ke in t o a ccou n t t h e
con vect ion in t h e melt , bu t t h ey a ls o n eglect ed t h e pr es en ce of vis cou s a n d in -
er t ia for ces a n d, a s s u med t h a t t h e ma t er ia l pr oper t ies a r e t emper a t u r e in de-
pen den t .
It h a s been s h own [Pica s s o, 1994] t h a t con vect ion is impor t a n t in expla in in g
t h e t emper a t u r e a n d velocit y field in t h e melt pool. Figu r e 2.15 s h ows a cr os s
s ect ion in t h e lon git u din a l dir ect ion of a t ypica l melt pool wit h ou t con vect ion
(left ) a n d wit h con vect ion . Th e s h a pes a r e qu it e differ en t , in dica t in g t h a t t h e
con vect ion effect s in t h e melt pool ca n n ot be n eglect ed.
Th e s h a pe of t h e melt is gover n ed by con vect ive flows wh ich a r e ma in ly dr iven
by s u r fa ce t en s ion gr a dien t s . Th os e gr a dien t s a r e in du ced by t emper a t u r e dif-
fer en ces on t h e s u r fa ce du e t o a bs or pt ion of en er gy fr om t h e la s er bea m. It is
n ot pos s ible a n ymor e t o a ch ieve a n a lyt ica l s olu t ion s if a ll ph ys ica l a s pect s a r e
Fig. 2.14 Mas s flow as a function of the las er pow er for tw o s ubs trate tempera-
tures [Jouvard, 1997]. Thres hold 1 is the las er pow er required for melting the
s ubs trate. Thres hold 2 is the las er pow er required for particle melting.
Fig. 2.15 Effect of convention on melt pool s hape [Picas s o, 1994] (material:
Stellite 6; feed rate: 1 mm/ s ).
48 Chapter 2
in cor por a t ed in t h e model. Th er efor e, t h e flu id flow a n d t h e t emper a t u r e pr ofile
in t h e melt mu s t be ca lcu la t ed by n u mer ica l s olu t ion .
Th e t emper a t u r e (T) a n d t h e velocit y field in t h e melt a r e gover n ed by t h r ee
lin ked equ a t ion s : t h e en er gy equ a t ion (Eq. 2.2) wh ich des cr ibes t h e t emper a -
t u r e field a n d t h e ph a s e ch a n ge fr om s olid t o liqu id; t h e Na vier -St okes equ a t ion
(Eq. 2.3) wh ich des cr ibes t h e velocit y field in t h e melt ; a n d t h e con t in u it y equ a -
t ion (Eq. 2.4).
wit h t h e flu id vis cos it y , a h ea t s ou r ce q, t h e s pecific en t h a lpy H, t h e gr a vit y
field g, t h e pr es s u r e p, t h e den s it y , t h e t ime t a n d t h e t h er ma l con du ct ivit y k .
Wh en ch oos in g a n a ppr opr ia t e co-or din a t e s ys t em, t h e in flu en ce of t h e fa ct or
g is on ly effect ive in on e dir ect ion . Th e for ce impos ed by t h is fa ct or on t h e flu id
is ca lled t h e bu oya n cy.
It is common pr a ct ice [Ba s u , 1992] t o s implify t h e Na vier -St okes equ a t ion s for
in compr es s ible flu id flow by mea n s of t h e Bou s s in es q-a ppr oxima t ion :
wit h t h e den s it y
m
a t t h e melt in g t emper a t u r e T
m
a n d t h e t h er ma l expa n s ion
coefficien t . Th e Na vier -St okes equ a t ion t h en r edu ces t o:
wh er e is t h e kin ema t ic vis cos it y (/ ). Th e t emper a t u r e a n d t h e s pecific en -
t h a lpy a r e lin ked by t h e h ea t ca pa cit y (c
p
) a n d t h e la t en t h ea t of fu s ion (L
f
):
Eq. 2.2
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

t
H H k T q + + v
Eq. 2.3 ( ) ( )
( )

t
g p v v v v + +
Eq. 2.4 v 0
Eq. 2.5
( )
[ ]

m m
T T 1
Eq. 2.6 ( )
( )

v
v v v
t
g T T p
m
+ +
1
Eq. 2.7
H c dT L c dT
p
T
T
f p
T
T
m
m
+ +

0
Equ a t ion s 2.3, 2.4 a n d 2.7 mu s t be s olved s imu lt a n eou s ly wit h t h e pr oper
bou n da r y con dit ion s . Th e mos t impor t a n t con dit ion s in volve t h e s h ea r s t r es s
on t h e s u r fa ce of t h e melt pool du e t o t h e s t r ea m of powder pa r t icles in a ga s
flow, t h e h ea t in pu t fr om t h e la s er bea m a n d in ject ed pa r t icles (figu r e 2.16) a s
well a s t h e ma s s con t in u it y la w wh ich is impor t a n t beca u s e pa r t icles a r e a dded
t o t h e melt .
Bot h t h e fin it e elemen t met h od [Ollier , 1995] a n d t h e fin it e volu me met h od
[Pica s s o, 1994] h a ve been a pplied t o s olve t h es e lin ked equ a t ion s for a t wo di-
men s ion a l cla d cr os s -s ect ion . Th e fin it e volu me met h od is r es t r ict ed t o pr ob-
lems in wh ich n on t emper a t u r e depen den t ma t er ia l pr oper t ies a r e r ea s on a ble.
Th e ma t er ia l pr oper t ies on ly differ fr om s olid t o liqu id s t a t e. Th is limit a t ion does
n ot exis t in t h e fin it e elemen t met h od. However , u p t o n ow n o on e h a s imple-
men t ed t h is t emper a t u r e depen den cy for la s er cla ddin g.
On ce a n u mer ica l s olu t ion of t h e pr oces s h a s been a ch ieved, it is pos s ible t o
a t t a in pr oces s dia gr a ms , s u ch a s figu r e 2.17. Th e left pict u r e s h ows t h e
a ch ieved cla d h eigh t a s a fu n ct ion of t h e feed r a t e for good qu a lit y cla d la yer s
wit h a dilu t ion of les s t h a n 5 % for t wo differ en t power den s it ies (t op-h a t la s er
bea m). Th e cla d h eigh t is a lmos t in ver s ely pr opor t ion a l t o t h e feed r a t e of t h e
wor kpiece. Th e r equ ir ed powder ma s s s t r ea m ca n t h en be ca lcu la t ed fr om t h e
ca lcu la t ed cla d dimen s ion s a n d t h e powder efficien cy.
Fig. 2.16 Heat trans fer to the s ubs trate is accomplis hed by both las er en-
ergy and heated particles . The las er pow er trans mitted through the pow der
cloud is res pons ible for the melting of the s ubs trate.
50 Chapter 2
Th e pict u r e on t h e r igh t s h ows t h e dilu t ion a s a fu n ct ion of t h e powder ma s s
s t r ea m. Th e dilu t ion decr ea s es wh en mor e powder is in ject ed in t h e melt pool,
s in ce mor e en er gy is r equ ir ed for melt in g t h e powder . As ca n be s een , t h e dilu -
t ion is a lmos t a lin ea r fu n ct ion of t h e powder ma s s s t r ea m.
Models a llow a fa s t eva lu a t ion of pa r a met er va r ia t ion s . In t h e exa mple s h own in
figu r e 2.18, t h e dia met er of t h e powder s t r ea m h a s been va r ied. Th e s a me
a mou n t of powder is in ject ed, bu t t h e pa r t icle s t r ea m is mu ch mor e con fin ed
(dot t ed lin e) t h a n in t h e pr efer r ed s it u a t ion (con t in u ou s lin e). In t h e pr efer r ed
pa r a met er s et t in g t h e en t ir e melt pool s u r fa ce h a s a t emper a t u r e well over t h e
melt in g poin t . However , in t h e ot h er s it u a t ion t h e s u r fa ce t emper a t u r e ca n lo-
ca lly dr op below t h e melt in g t emper a t u r e.
2.8 Process control
In or der t o en s u r e a con s t a n t a n d r epr odu cible cla d qu a lit y, pr oces s con t r ol is
n eces s a r y. Pa r a met er s s u ch a s s u bs t r a t e t emper a t u r e, s u bs t r a t e s u r fa ce con -
dit ion or s u bs t r a t e t h ickn es s ma y va r y du r in g oper a t ion . Th er efor e, pr e-s et
fixed oper a t in g pa r a met er s a r e n ot a ppr opr ia t e.
Lit t le wor k on pr oces s dia gn os is a n d con t r ol du r in g la s er cla ddin g h a s been r e-
por t ed [Ba ckes , 1994; Gr n en wa ld, 1993; Li, 1988, 1989, 1990 (2x); Nowot n y,
1994; Vet t er , 1994; Weck, 1991].
Th e ma in poin t of in t er es t in pr oces s dia gn os is of la s er cla ddin g is t h e mea s -
u r emen t of r a dia t ion emit t ed fr om t h e melt pool. For t h is t a s k, s ever a l t ypes of
s en s or s , s u ch a s ph ot odiodes a n d pyr omet er s a r e a va ila ble. Th e r a dia t ion ca n
Fig. 2.17 Proces s diagrams of las er cladding w ith Stellite 6 achieved w ith a
numerical model [Ollier, 1995].
be mea s u r ed in t egr a lly over t h e en t ir e melt a s well a s ver y loca lly. Th es e mea s -
u r emen t s r evea l cor r ela t ion s bet ween t h e mea s u r ed s ign a ls a n d pr oces s pa -
r a met er s s u ch a s powder in ject ion pa r a met er s , la s er power , feed r a t e a n d s u r -
fa ce pr oper t ies . Ba ckes [1992] s h owed t h a t a n in t egr a l mea s u r emen t of r a dia -
t ion emit t ed fr om t h e melt pool is bes t s u it ed for la s er cla ddin g.
Figu r e 2.19 s h ows a t emper a t u r e ba s ed PID con t r ol-loop wh ich is t ypica l for la -
s er cla ddin g [Gr n en wa ld, 1993; Nowot n y, 1996; Tn s h off, 1995; Weck, 1994].
Th e r a dia t ion emit t ed by t h e melt pool, a n d h en ce t h e t emper a t u r e, is kept a t a
con s t a n t va lu e by a r ea l-t ime va r ia t ion of t h e la s er power . Nowot n y [1996]
s h owed t h a t it is pos s ible t o a t t a in wit h s u ch a PID con t r oller a cla d la yer wit h a
con s t a n t t h ickn es s a n d compos it ion . It wa s a ls o pos s ible t o limit t h e dilu t ion t o
on ly 3 %, a lt h ou gh t h e s u bs t r a t e t emper a t u r e in cr ea s ed fr om 300 t o 760 C.
Fig. 2.18 Surface temperature along the melt pool contour s for tw o pow der in-
jection s ettings [Ollier, 1995].
Fig. 2.19 Temperature bas ed PID control of las er cladding.
52 Chapter 2
Li [1989] developed s ever a l ot h er s en s or s u s a ble in t h e pr oces s con t r ol of la s er
cla ddin g. Th e s en s or s ign a ls cou ld be u s ed t o det ect t h e cla d t h ickn es s , t h e
level of dilu t ion , t h e s u r fa ce r ou gh n es s a n d t h e cla d pr ofile, a s well a s t h e ex-
t en t of s u r fa ce oxida t ion . However , n o a pplica t ion s h a ve been r epor t ed in wh ich
t h es e s en s or s a r e r ea lly a pplied.
A va r ia t ion of t h e cla d qu a lit y ca n a ls o be ca u s ed by flu ct u a t in g ma ch in in g pa -
r a met er s , s u ch a s powder feed r a t e, bea m pos it ion a n d dia met er , a n d ou t pu t
power . At t empt s a r e bein g ma de t o pr even t flu ct u a t ion s of s u ch pa r a met er s .
For in s t a n ce, on -lin e con t r ol of powder feed r a t e [Ca r va lh o, 1995; Nowot n y,
1996; Weck, 1994] is becomin g a n in du s t r ia l r ea lit y a n d Bia n co [1994] devel-
oped a device t o con t r ol t h e a lign men t of t h e la s er bea m wit h r es pect t o t h e
powder n ozzle.
2.9 Optical system
Th e la s er bea m, a s pr odu ced in t h e r es on a t or of a la s er s ys t em, mu s t be t r a n s -
por t ed a n d ma n ipu la t ed by a n opt ica l s ys t em. Th e la s er bea m mu s t be focu s ed
in t o a s pot wit h t h e r equ ir ed s h a pe a n d power den s it y on t h e wor kpiece. Bot h
len s es a n d mir r or s ca n be u t ilis ed t o focu s CO
2
la s er bea ms for la s er power s
u n der 3 kW. High er la s er power s r equ ir e t h e exclu s ive u s e of mir r or s , beca u s e
len s es ca n n ot be cooled s u fficien t ly.
In mos t la s er cla ddin g a pplica t ion s , t h e in t en s it y pr ofile a s pr odu ced in t h e la -
s er s ys t em, is a pplied. Th r ee exa mples of common in t en s it y pr ofiles a r e s h own
in figu r e 2.20. Th e pr oces s in g r egion is u s u a lly pos it ion ed below t h e foca l poin t .
Th is lea ves a la r ger dis t a n ce bet ween t h e opt ica l s ys t em a n d t h e wor kpiece,
wh ich fa cilit a t es t h e pr ot ect ion of t h e opt ica l s ys t em. La r ge foca l dis t a n ces a r e
pr efer r ed, s in ce it r edu ces t h e s en s it ivit y of t h e s pot dimen s ion s t o ch a n gin g
bea m pr oper t ies a n d a ls o r edu ces t h e mea n power den s it y in t h e foca l poin t ,
wh ich ca n lea d t o pla s ma for ma t ion [Beyer , 1985; Fis ch er , 1996; Vet t er , 1994].
Alt h ou gh a cir cu la r la s er s pot is s u it a ble for mos t la s er cla ddin g a pplica t ion s ,
t h er e a r e ca s es in wh ich a n ot h er s h a pe is pr efer r ed. For in s t a n ce, a lin e s h a pe
is u s efu l for t r ea t in g feeder s cr ews in pla s t ic ma ch in er y in on e s in gle t r a ck.
Su ch a lin e s h a pe ca n be ma de by a pplyin g t wo cylin dr ica l mir r or s or a s eg-
men t ed mir r or (figu r e 2.21) [Br u ck, 1988; Fu x, 1992; Ga s s er , 1996; Wis s en -
ba ch , 1991].
Th e cylin dr ica l mir r or s on ly ch a n ge t h e dimen s ion s of t h e la s er s pot , bu t t h e
s egmen t ed mir r or a ls o a ffect s t h e s pa t ia l dis t r ibu t ion of t h e power den s it y. As a
ma t t er of fa ct , a s egmen t ed mir r or is a on e dimen s ion a l bea m in t egr a t or . Th e
in ciden t la s er bea m is s epa r a t ed in s ever a l bea mlet s wh ich a r e r ecombin ed for
pr oper over la p in t h e foca l pla n e.
A (la t er a lly) h omogen eou s in t en s it y dis t r ibu t ion is a ch ieved (figu r e 2.22). Th is
ca n be fa vou r a ble, a s wa s in dica t ed by Beckma n n [1995] a n d Kn ig [1994]. An
u n ifor m t emper a t u r e dis t r ibu t ion over t h e s ca n n ed widt h is t h u s a t t a in ed. Th is
r es u lt s in u n ifor m cla d pr oper t ies over t h e widt h of t h e t r a ck.
Fig. 2.20 Three examples of common circular intens ity profiles .
Fig. 2.21 Tw o pos s ible methods for achieving a line s hape on the w ork piece.
54 Chapter 2
In la s er cla ddin g, it is a ls o pos s ible t o u s e a r ect a n gu la r s pot wit h a u n ifor m
power den s it y [Beckma n n , 1990; Bia n co, 1994; Kn ig, 1994]. Su ch a s pot ca n
be a t t a in ed by mea n s of a t wo dimen s ion a l bea m in t egr a t or . Fa cet ed mir r or s or
len s es , a s well a s ka leidos cope t ype in t egr a t or s a r e u s ed (figu r e 2.23).
An a lt er n a t ive t o t h e u s e of in t egr a t in g opt ics for a ch ievin g a u n ifor m t emper a -
t u r e pr ofile over t h e widt h of t h e t r a ck is t h e u s e of s ca n n in g opt ics . Sca n n in g
opt ics [Bloeh s , 1993; Br u ck, 1988; Dickma n n , 1995; Fu x, 1992; Ma t t h ews ,
1983; Nowot n y, 1996; Ru dla ff, 1990] a dd a n ext r a degr ee of fr eedom t o t h e
pr oces s , beca u s e t h ey a llow a flexible a da pt a t ion of t h e s pot dimen s ion s a n d
in t en s it y dis t r ibu t ion du r in g t h e pr oces s . Accor din g t o Nowot n y [1996], t h e
s ca n n in g fr equ en cy mu s t be a t lea s t 60 Hz in or der t o a t t a in a con t in u ou s
h ea t in pu t in t h e ma t er ia l. Ga lva n omet er s ca n n er s a r e u s ed. Th eir s ca n n in g
fr equ en cy (ma ximu m 300 Hz) is a dju s t a ble a n d t h e a mplit u de ca n be con t r olled
on -lin e. Now, piezo cr ys t a ls a r e comin g in t o pr a ct ice a s a ct u a t or for s ca n n in g
mir r or s [Rmer , 1997]. Th e os cilla t in g fr equ en cy of t h es e cr ys t a ls ca n be con -
t r olled. Fr equ en cies of mor e t h a n 1 kHz ca n be r ea ch ed.
Fig. 2.22 Laterally uniform intens ity profile achieved w ith a one dimens ional
beam integrator by trans forming a circular mixed mode las er beam.
2.10 Preview
As beca me clea r fr om t h e pr es en t ed lit er a t u r e r es ea r ch , ma n y a s pect s of la s er
cla ddin g h a ve been in ves t iga t ed. Never t h eles s , t h er e a r e s ever a l a s pect s t h a t
r equ ir e fu t u r e a t t en t ion in or der t o ma ke la s er cla ddin g a ma t u r e t ech n iqu e.
Cu r r en t r es ea r ch is dir ect ed t o t h e followin g fields :
Fig. 2.23 Tw o pos s ible methods for achieving a rectangular las er s pot w ith a
uniform energy dis tribution on the w ork piece.
Fig. 2.24 Uniform pow er dens ity dis tribution achieved by integrating a
circular mixed mode in the k aleidos cope-ty pe integrator.
56 Chapter 2
- developmen t of dedica t ed opt ica l s ys t ems a n d ma t er ia l feeder s ;
- pr oces s modellin g for opt imis a t ion of pr oces s pa r a met er s a n d r edu ct ion of
developmen t t imes ;
- (con t r ol of) met a llu r gica l a s pect s of la s er cla ddin g;
- developmen t of on -lin e pr oces s con t r ol s ys t ems for complex s h a pes a n d de-
velopmen t of dedica t ed la s er cla ddin g ma ch in es ;
- developmen t of 3-D a pplica t ion s by la s er r a pid pr ot ot ypin g (h igh a ccu r a cy,
low s u r fa ce r ou gh n es s , r edu ct ion of s t r es s es , in t egr a t ion in CAD/ DAM s ys -
t ems );
- t r a n s fer of la bor a t or y r es u lt s t o in du s t r y.
In t h is t h es is a n emph a s is is la id on t h e t r a n s fer of la bor a t or y r es u lt s t o in du s -
t r y. Th e lit er a t u r e s ea r ch s h owed t h a t , a mon g ot h er t h in gs , la s er cla ddin g r e-
s u lt s depen d s t r on gly on t h e a pplied la s er bea m in t en s it y pr ofile. Th er efor e, t h e
effect of t h a t pa r a met er is s t u died mor e det a iled.
A wa y t o elimin a t e t h e effect of t h e la s er bea m pr oper t ies on t h e cla ddin g r e-
s u lt s is t h e a pplica t ion of dedica t ed opt ica l s ys t ems t h a t yield a la s er s pot on
t h e wor kpiece s u r fa ce t h a t h a s a well defin ed s h a pe a n d a u n ifor m en er gy dis -
t r ibu t ion wh ich is in depen den t of t h e a pplied la s er s ou r ce.
Apa r t fr om t h e la s er bea m pr oper t ies , ot h er ma ch in in g pa r a met er s h a ve t h eir
effect a s well. By s t u dyin g t h es e effect s , on e ca n en h a n ce t h e in s igh t in t h e la -
s er cla ddin g t ech n iqu e. Ext en s ive s er ies of exper imen t s t h a t wer e per for med in
t h is r es pect wer e r es t r ict ed t o pr epla ced powder a n d t h e powder in ject ion
met h ods . Accor din g t o t h e lit er a t u r e t h os e a r e t h e on ly t wo r ea lis t ic opt ion s .
Th e r es u lt s of t h es e s t u dies a r e pr es en t ed in t h e followin g ch a pt er s .
Chapter 3
Temperature profile on a clad surface
Th e for ma t ion of a s h a llow melt pool in t h e s u bs t r a t e is t h e fir s t s t a ge in t h e la -
s er cla ddin g wit h powder in ject ion pr oces s . In ject ed powder pa r t icles a r e
t r a pped in t h is melt pool a n d t h e for ma t ion of a cla d la yer on t h e s u bs t r a t e
s u r fa ce s t a r t s .
Th e melt pool is for med du e t o a bs or pt ion of la s er power . Not a ll la s er en er gy
ca n r ea ch t h e s u r fa ce du e t o a t t en u a t ion by t h e powder clou d. Th e a t t en u a t ed
en er gy is r es pon s ible for t h e h ea t in g of t h e pa r t icles in t h e powder clou d. De-
pen din g on t h eir t emper a t u r e on a r r iva l in t h e melt pool, t h ey eit h er ext r a ct or
a dd en er gy t o t h e melt pool.
Th e for ma t ion of a melt pool in t h e s u bs t r a t e is n ot on ly a ffect ed by t h e t ot a l
power a bs or bed in t h e s u r fa ce, bu t a ls o by t h e in t en s it y pr ofile of t h e la s er
bea m.
In t h is ch a pt er a met h od is pr es en t ed t o ca lcu la t e t h e t emper a t u r e in du ced on
t h e s u r fa ce of a s emi-in fin it e s olid by a n a r bit r a r ily s h a ped la s er s ou r ce. In gen -
er a l, n o a n a lyt ica l s olu t ion s for t h is pr oblem ca n be fou n d. Th er efor e, t h e
equ a t ion s des cr ibin g t h is pr oblem mu s t be dis cr et is is ed a n d s olved n u mer i-
cally.
58 Chapter 3
3.1 Numerical method for calculating the surface temperature
distribution
Th e fir s t s t a ge of a ll la s er t r ea t men t s is t h e a bs or pt ion of la s er r a dia t ion in t h e
s u bs t r a t e (s ee figu r e 2.2). Abs or pt ion occu r s in a ver y t h in s u r fa ce la yer , wh er e
t h e opt ica l la s er en er gy is con ver t ed in t o h ea t . Th e a bs or bed h ea t diffu s es in t o
t h e s u r r ou n din g bu lk ma t er ia l by con du ct ion .
Th e diffu s ion equ a t ion for a lin ea r h ea t flow in a h omogen eou s is ot r opic me-
diu m is :
Th e la s er bea m ca n be con s ider ed a s a movin g h ea t s ou r ce wit h a cer t a in power
den s it y dis t r ibu t ion t h a t impos es a bou n da r y con dit ion on t h e s u bs t r a t e s u r -
fa ce.
Th e cla s s ica l a ppr oa ch t o modellin g t h e h ea t flow in du ced by a dis t r ibu t ed h ea t
s ou r ce movin g over t h e s u r fa ce of a s emi-in fin it e s olid, s t a r t s wit h t h e s olu t ion
of t h e h ea t diffu s ion equ a t ion for a poin t s ou r ce [Ca r s la w, 1959; Els h of, 1994].
Th e t emper a t u r e field is con n ect ed t o a Ca r t es ia n co-or din a t e s ys t em movin g
wit h a velocit y v a lon g t h e x-a xis . For t ime t -> a s t ea dy s t a t e s olu t ion is ob-
t a in ed for a s emi-in fin it e body, wh ich is va lid for a poin t s ou r ce comin g fr om -:
wit h t h e t emper a t u r e in depen den t t h er ma l diffu s ivit y, q(x,y ) t h e power in t h e
poin t s ou r ce, z t h e dept h , y t h e co-or din a t e a lon g t h e s u r fa ce per pen dicu la r t o
t h e dir ect ion of movemen t a n d, T
0
t h e in it ia l t emper a t u r e.
Th e s olu t ion of t h e h ea t diffu s ion equ a t ion for t h e movin g poin t s ou r ce is in t e-
gr a t ed over t h e en t ir e la s er s pot t o obt a in a s olu t ion for a n a r bit r a r ily s h a ped
s ou r ce. Th e t emper a t u r e, a s a r es u lt of t h e la s er s pot wit h bou n da r ies x
s
, x
e
; y
s
,
y
e
; z
s
, z
e
, is :
Eq. 3.1
c
T
t
k T t
p
> ( ) 0
Eq. 3.2
( )
T x y z
q x y
k x y z
e T
v x y z x
( , , )
( , )
+ +
+
+ +
2
2 2 2
2
0
2 2 2
Temperature profile on a clad s urface 59

Th e s u r fa ce (z =0) t emper a t u r e of a s emi-in fin it e body movin g pa s t a n a r bit r a r ily
s h a ped h ea t s ou r ce is t h u s given by:
An a lyt ica l s olu t ion s of t h e t ype of in t egr a l in equ a t ion 3.4 a r e on ly kn own for
s ome s pecia l ca s es [Els h of, 1994]. In gen er a l, n u mer ica l met h ods a r e n eeded t o
s olve t h is t ype of in t egr a ls .
Th e in t egr a l wa s s olved n u mer ica lly by Bos [1993]. Fir s t , it wa s t r a n s for med t o
a s er ies expa n s ion on a gr id wit h s t ep s ize h. Th e t emper a t u r e on a gr id poin t
(x
i
,y
j
)=(x
0
+ih,y
0
+jh) ca n be wr it t en a s :
wit h :
An a n a lyt ica l expr es s ion does n ot exis t for t h is s u r fa ce in t egr a l a n d n u mer ica l
ca lcu la t ion is ver y t ime con s u min g. For t u n a t ely, Bos [1993] wa s a ble t o a pply
a n exa ct r edu ct ion of t h is s u r fa ce in t egr a l t o a lin e in t egr a l, wh ich , a pa r t fr om
expon en t ia l in t egr a ls , con s is t s of fin it e in t egr a ls on ly. Polyn omia l a s well a s r a -
t ion a l a ppr oxima t ion s exis t for t h e expon en t ia l in t egr a l. Th is in t egr a l r edu ct ion
r es u lt s in t h e followin g expr es s ion :
Eq. 3.3
( )
T x y z
k
q x y e
x x y y z
dx dy dz T
v x x y y z x x
x
x
y
y
z
z
s
e
s
e
s
e
( , , )
( ' , ' )
( ' ) ( ' )
' ' '
( ') ( ') ( ')
+ +
+
+ +

1
2
2 2 2
2
2 2 2
0
Eq. 3.4
( )
T x y
k
q x y e
x x y y
dx dy T
v x x y y x x
x
x
y
y
s
e
s
e
( , , )
( ' , ' )
( ' ) ( ' )
' '
( ') ( ') ( ')
0
1
2
2 2
2
2 2
0
+
+
+

Eq. 3.5
T x y
k
K q T
i j ijkl
hhhh
l
n
k
n
kl
y
x
( , ) +

1
2
0 0
0
Eq. 3.6
( )
K
d y y d x x
x x y y
e
ijkl
hhhh
y
y
x
x
v x x y y x x
m
p
m
p

+

+
( ' ) ( ' )
( ' ) ( ' )
( ') ( ') ( ')
2 2
2
2 2
60 Chapter 3
wh er e E
1
is a n expon en t ia l in t egr a l of t h e for m:
Compa r ed wit h a differ en t ia l equ a t ion , a n in t egr a l equ a t ion n eeds a gr ea t
a mou n t of ca lcu la t ion t ime. An in t egr a t ion over t h e en t ir e doma in is r equ ir ed t o
ca lcu la t e on e s in gle poin t . Br a n dt [1984], Lu br ech t [1989] a n d Ven n er [1991]
developed a n a lgor it h m (mu lt i-level mu lt i-in t egr a t ion ) for fa s t eva lu a t ion of a n
in t egr a l. Th ey s h owed t h a t if t h e ker n el K h a s cer t a in s moot h in g pr oper t ies , t h e
complexit y of t h e eva lu a t ion of a n in t egr a l ca n be r edu ced wit h ou t los s of a ccu -
r a cy. Th is a lgor it h m wa s s u bs equ en t ly a pplied t o s olve equ a t ion 3.5.
Th e n u mer ica l s olu t ion wa s ch ecked by compa r in g it t o t h e a n a lyt ica l s olu t ion
of Rea dy [1971] wh ich r equ ir es a n on -movin g cir cu la r la s er bea m wit h a u n i-
for m power den s it y dis t r ibu t ion a s in pu t t o ca lcu la t e t h e t emper a t u r e in t h e
bea m cen t r e:
wh er e A is t h e a bs or pt ivit y. A pr ocedu r e t o det er min e t h e va lu e of t h is a bs or p-
t ivit y is pr es en t ed in a ppen dix 2.
In or der t o per for m t h is compa r is on , t h e n u mer ica l s olu t ion wa s flipped t o yield
a s olu t ion in t h e pla n e ch a r a ct er is ed by y =0. For bot h t h e n u mer ica l a n d t h e
a n a lyt ica l s olu t ion , t h e dept h t o wh ich a cer t a in t emper a t u r e is r ea ch ed wa s
ca lcu la t ed. Th e a u s t en it e t emper a t u r e of ca r bon s t eel C45 wa s t a ken for t h is
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
K y E v x y x E v x y x
y E v x y x E v x y x
e
x x x
e
x x x
ijkl
hhhh
m m m m p m p
p m p m p p p
vx v x
m m m
vx v x
p p p
m m
p p
+ +
1
]
1
+ +
1
]
1
+ + +
_
,

+ + +
_
+
+
1
2 2
1
2 2
1
2 2
1
2 2
2
2 2 2 2
2
2 2 2 2
2 2
2 2
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
_
,
y
y
m
p
d
Eq. 3.7
Eq. 3.8
( )
E x
e
t
dt x
t
x
1
0 >
( )
Eq. 3.9
T z t
AP
k D
t ierfc
z
t
ierfc
z
D
t
( , )
+
_
,
_
,
4
4
4
2
4
2
2
2
2

pu r pos e, beca u s e t h e dept h t o wh ich t h is t emper a t u r e is r ea ch ed, is ma r ked
clea r ly by t h e t r a n s it ion fr om a u s t en it e t o ma r t en s it e.
As ca n be s een fr om figu r e 3.1 t h e n u mer ica l s olu t ion a gr ees ver y well wit h t h e
a n a lyt ica l s olu t ion .
As in pu t , models r equ ir e r elia ble ma t er ia l pr oper t ies t o yield a ccu r a t e r es u lt s .
Exa mples of s u ch ma t er ia l pa r a met er s a r e t h e t h er ma l con du ct ivit y a n d t h e
h ea t ca pa cit y. Th es e pa r a met er s a r e t emper a t u r e depen den t . Sin ce t h e model
does n ot r ecogn is e t h is fa ct , a n effect ive va lu e wa s u s ed. Ba s ed on a s er ies of
la s er t r a n s for ma t ion h a r den in g exper imen t s t h e effect ive t h er ma l con du ct ivit y
a n d h ea t ca pa cit y wa s det er min ed for s ever a l ma t er ia ls . Th e a ccu r a cy of t h is
pr ocedu r e wa s ver ified by ma kin g a compa r is on bet ween t h e mea s u r ed h a r d-
en ed dept h in n ew exper imen t s a n d t h e wit h t h e ca lcu la t ed va lu es pr edict ed
h a r den ed dept h (for det a ils on e is r efer r ed t o [va n Wijn ga a r den , 1994]. Th e de-
t er min ed va lu es a r e s h own in t a ble 3.1. It is clea r t h a t t h es e va lu es differ fr om
t h e va lu es given in h a n dbooks .
Th e pr es en t ed n u mer ica l met h od ca n be u s ed t o compos e a pr oces s dia gr a m
t h a t pr edict s t h e for ma t ion of a melt pool for s ever a l s pot s izes . It a ls o gives on e
t h e oppor t u n it y t o s t u dy t h e effect of t h e la s er bea m power den s it y dis t r ibu t ion
or t h e effect of t h e s u bs t r a t e t h er ma l pr oper t ies on t h e melt pool for ma t ion . Ex-
a mples of t h es e ca s es a r e pr es en t ed in t h e figu r es 3.2-3.4.
Fig. 3.1 The calculated depth at w hich a trans ition from martens ite to aus tenite
occurs is identical for the analy tical and the numerical s olution. Material: C45;
Las er beam: circular w ith uniform pow er dens ity .
62 Chapter 3
Tab. 3.1 Thermal conductivity and s pecific heat for four s teel s ubs trates . The ef-
fective values w ere determined by means of experiments on las er trans formation
hardening. The other values w ere tak en from handbook s .
Thermal conductivity [W/mK] specific heat [J/kg/K]
20 C average effective 20 C average effective
C45 48 35 40 460 670 615
100Cr6 35 32 36 470 670 615
X210CrW12 20 24 26 460 650 610
42CrMo4 42 34 37 460 670 615
Fig. 3.2 Proces s diagram for formation of a melt pool w ith s everal beam diame-
ters in a C45 w ork piece achieved w ith a circular las er beam w ith a uniform
pow er dens ity . The lines repres ent the combinations of feed rate and abs orbed
las er pow er that res ult in the melting temperature.
Th e effect of t h e bea m s h a pe on t h e ma ximu m s u r fa ce t emper a t u r e ca n be n o-
t iced clea r ly fr om figu r e 3.4. Th e developed n u mer ica l met h od a llows a mor e
det a iled a n a lys is of t h e t emper a t u r e dis t r ibu t ion over t h e s u r fa ce. In figu r e 3.5
Fig. 3.3 Proces s diagram for formation of a melt pool in s everal s teel s ubs trates
achieved w ith a circular las er beam w ith a uniform pow er dens ity and a diame-
ter of 6.0 mm. The lines repres ent combinations of feed rate and abs orbed las er
pow er that res ult in the melting temperature.
Fig. 3.4 Proces s diagram for formation of a melt pool in a s teel C45 s ubs trates
achieved w ith s everal las er beams w ith a s pot area of 28.3 mm
2
(s pot diameter:
6.0 mm for top-hat and Gaus s ian beam). The lines repres ent the combinations of
feed rate and abs orbed las er pow er that res ult in the melting temperature.
64 Chapter 3
a n d 3.6 s ome exa mples a r e s h own . In a ll fou r ca s es t h e s a me a bs or bed la s er
power h a s been a pplied a n d t h e s pot a r ea h a s been kept con s t a n t : 7.07 mm
2
.
For t h e cir cu la r s pot s h a pes t h is a r ea cor r es pon ds t o a s pot dia met er of 3.0
mm. It ca n be n ot iced t h a t t h e h igh es t s u r fa ce t emper a t u r e in t h is con figu r a -
t ion is r ea ch ed wit h t h e lin e s ou r ce. Th is pa r t icu la r lin e s ou r ce h a s a la t er a lly
h omogen eou s in t en s it y dis t r ibu t ion a n d a Ga u s s ia n dis t r ibu t ion in t h e ot h er
dir ect ion . In fr on t view, t h e t emper a t u r e pr ofile is mor e u n ifor m t h a n t h e pr o-
files obt a in ed wit h t h e ot h er bea m pr ofiles . Th is n ot ion a gr ees wit h t h e cla ims
ma de by Beckma n n [1995] a n d Kn ig [1994].
Fig. 3.5 Surface temperature dis tribution achieved w ith four intens ity profiles .
Material: s teel C45. Las er s pot area: 7.07 mm
2
. Feed rate: 5 mm/ s . Abs orbed
las er pow er: 300 W.
Fig. 3.6 Surface temperature profile along direction of movement and in lateral
direction for four different intens ity profiles . Material: s teel C45. Las er s pot area:
7.07 mm
2
. Feed rate: 5 mm/ s . Abs orbed las er pow er: 300 W.
66 Chapter 3
3.2 Discussion
Th e model pr es en t ed in t h e pr eviou s s ect ion ca n pr edict t h e effect of a n a r bi-
t r a r ily s h a ped la s er bea m on t h e s u r fa ce t emper a t u r e, u n der t h e a s s u mpt ion
t h a t t h e over -a ll a bs or pt ivit y a n d t h e ma t er ia l pr oper t ies r ema in con s t a n t over
t h e effect ive t emper a t u r e r a n ge. Th e model wa s in it ia lly in t en ded for u s e in la -
s er t r a n s for ma t ion h a r den in g of s t eel. For t h is t ech n iqu e, it cou ld a ccu r a t ely
pr edict t h e r es u lt in g h a r den in g dept h .
Alt h ou gh u n der la s er cla ddin g con dit ion s ph a s e t r a n s for ma t ion s a n d flu id flow
will occu r , wh ich bot h a r e n ot a ccou n t ed for in t h e model, t h e model pr oved t o
be u s efu l for la s er cla ddin g a s well. Du e t o t h os e t wo men t ion ed fa ct or s , t h e
model will s ligh t ly over es t ima t e t h e s u r fa ce t emper a t u r e.
Th e u s efu ln es s of t h e model ca n on ce mor e be illu s t r a t ed wit h t h e followin g ex-
a mple: In ch a pt er 5 it will be con clu ded t h a t good qu a lit y s in gle t r a ck cla d la y-
er s ca n be a ch ieved wit h a mor e or les s Ga u s s ia n la s er bea m if t h e la s er power
is a bou t 1300 W (a bs or bed la s er power : ~ 400 W, a ppen dix 2), t h e feed r a t e is 5
mm/ s a n d t h e la s er s pot dia met er is 3 mm. In figu r e 3.6 t h e r es u lt in g s u r fa ce
t emper a t u r e is s h own for a la s er power of 300 W. Compa r ed t o t h is power level,
t h e power level of 400 W in cr ea s es t h e s u r fa ce t emper a t u r e wit h a bou t 30 % t o
a ma ximu m of 2100 C, wh ich is a ver y r ea s on a ble va lu e.
Per h a ps mor e in t er es t in g is t h e oppor t u n it y t o compa r e s ever a l ba s ic la s er
bea m s h a pes t o ea ch ot h er . Su ch a compa r is on s h owed t h a t a lin e in t egr a t or
yields t h e mos t u n ifor m t emper a t u r e dis t r ibu t ion over t h e t r a ck widt h . Th is
fin din g a gr ees wit h t h e lit er a t u r e.
Th e a ch ievemen t of a u n ifor m t emper a t u r e dis t r ibu t ion in on e dir ect ion , com-
bin ed wit h t h e well defin ed s pot dimen s ion s a n d, t h e in depen den cy of t h e a p-
plied la s er s ys t em, expla in s t h e developmen t of s u ch a lin e in t egr a t or . Th a t
s u bject is dis cu s s ed in t h e followin g ch a pt er .
Chapter 4
Design and development of a line
integrator
Th e u s e of bea m in t egr a t or s t h a t t r a n s for m t h e in it ia l la s er in t en s it y dis t r ibu -
t ion in a h omogen eou s dis t r ibu t ion in eit h er on e or t wo dir ect ion s , offer s t wo
a dva n t a ges compa r ed t o con ven t ion a l opt ics t h a t on ly focu s t h e la s er bea m.
Fir s t , a well defin ed s pot s ize on t h e s u r fa ce of t h e wor kpiece is a t t a in ed. Th is
s pot is in depen den t of t h e in it ia l la s er bea m in t en s it y dis t r ibu t ion . Hen ce, bea m
in t egr a t or s a llow a r elia ble exch a n ge of cla ddin g r es u lt s bet ween differ en t la s er
s ys t ems .
Secon dly, a mor e u n ifor m t emper a t u r e dis t r ibu t ion over t h e widt h of a la s er
s ca n n ed t r a ck is a t t a in ed, a s wa s s h own in t h e pr eviou s ch a pt er . Th is is fa -
vou r a ble for a ch ievin g u n ifor m cla d pr oper t ies over t h e widt h of t h e cla d a n d
fa cilit a t es t h e t r ea t men t of la r ger a r ea s by t h e a pplica t ion of s ever a l a dja cen t
t r a cks .
Bea m in t egr a t ion ca n be a ch ieved in s ever a l wa ys (s ee s ect ion 2.9). However , a ll
met h ods a r e ba s ed on t h e s a me pr in ciple. Th e la s er bea m is s plit in a n u mber
of s ma ller bea mlet s wh ich a r e r ecombin ed for pr oper over la p in t h e foca l pla n e.
In t h e a u t h or s la bor a t or y t wo bea m in t egr a t or s a r e a va ila ble. Th e fir s t on e is a
t wo dimen s ion a l bea m in t egr a t or wh ich yields a r ect a n gu la r la s er s pot . It is
s u it a ble for a pplica t ion a t la s er power s below 3 kW, beca u s e it con t a in s Zn Se
68 Chapter 4
len s es . Th e s econ d on e on ly per for ms a n in t egr a t ion in t h e la t er a l dir ect ion .
Th is in t egr a t or yields a lin e s h a pe (~ 0.7 x 8.2 mm
2
). It is a pplica ble for ver y
h igh la s er power s , beca u s e on ly r eflect ive mir r or s h a ve been a pplied t o fu lfil t h e
opt ica l fu n ct ion s .
Bot h in t egr a t or s a r e dis cu s s ed in t h e followin g s ect ion s .
4.1 Two dimensional kaleidoscope-type beam integrator
Th e ka leidos cope t ype in t egr a t or , wh ich h a s been or igin a lly developed for u s e in
la s er t r a n s for ma t ion h a r den in g of s t eel, con s is t s of a n a xicon , a n oblon g box
wit h a h igh ly r eflect ive in t er ior a n d a r ect a n gu la r cr os s -s ect ion in wh ich t h e
r ea l in t egr a t ion is a ch ieved, a s well a s a t h r ee len s s ys t em t o ima ge t h e a t t a in ed
h omogen eou s en er gy dis t r ibu t ion on t h e wor kpiece (figu r e 4.1).
A la s er bea m wit h a n on h omogen eou s in t en s it y dis t r ibu t ion , t h a t t r a vels in a n
en clos ed oblon g ch a mber wit h r eflect ive s ide wa lls , h a s a ft er s ever a l r eflect ion s
a h omogen eou s dis t r ibu t ion . Th e n u mber of r eflect ion s mu s t be kept a t a
min imu m. At ea ch r eflect ion a pa r t of t h e en er gy is los t du e t o a bs or pt ion a t t h e
r eflect ive s u r fa ce. Too ma n y r eflect ion s wou ld n ot on ly r edu ce t h e la s er power
on t h e exit of t h e in t egr a t or , bu t a ls o in cr ea s e t h e t h er ma l loa d of t h e s ys t em.
Th e in t egr a t in g box con s is t s of fou r gold coa t ed copper pla t es t h a t t oget h er
for m a pyr a mid. Th e la r ger t h e t a per in g of t h e pyr a mid, t h e mor e in t er n a l r e-
flect ion s ca n be a ch ieved per u n it of len gt h . Th e s h a pe of t h e box on t h e exit
s ide ca n be ch a n ged by a dju s t in g t h e t a per in g of t h e pla t es .
Th e la s er r a dia t ion is cou pled in t o t h e in t egr a t in g pyr a mid by mea n s of a n a xi-
con . An a xicon is a len s -like opt ica l elemen t wit h a con e s h a pe on on e s ide.
Th is elemen t r edu ces t h e bea m dia met er a n d, mor e impor t a n t , dis t u r bs t h e
Fig. 4.1 Kaleidos cope-ty pe tw o dimens ional beam integrator.
Des ign and realis ation of a line integrator 69
qu a lit y of t h e opt ica l ima gin g. Th is det er ior a t ion of t h e opt ica l ima gin g is n eces -
s a r y t o a ch ieve a h omogen eou s in t en s it y dis t r ibu t ion wit h a min ima l n u mber of
r eflect ion s . In t h e developed in t egr a t or a n a ver a ge of 2.5-3.5 r eflect ion s is s u ffi-
cien t . Th e len gt h of t h e pyr a mid is 170 mm.
Th e ima gin g len s s ys t em is n eces s a r y t o t r a n s pos e t h e en er gy dis t r ibu t ion fr om
t h e exit of t h e in t egr a t in g pyr a mid t o t h e wor kpiece. Th e flexibilit y of t h e s ys t em
is in cr ea s ed by a pplyin g a t h r ee len s s ys t em, wh ich a llows t h r ee fixed ma gn ifi-
ca t ion s : 0.7, 1.0 a n d 1.5.
An exa mple of t h e h omogen eou s in t en s it y dis t r ibu t ion t h a t is a ch ieved is s h own
in figu r e 4.2.
Th e developed ka leidos cope-t ype in t egr a t or h a s been u s ed s u cces s fu lly in la s er
t r a n s for ma t ion h a r den in g of s t eel. For la s er cla ddin g it ca n n ot be u s ed. Fir s t ,
du r in g h a r den in g wit h a h igh ly a bs or pt ive coa t in g, on ly 20-30 % of t h e in ciden t
en er gy is r eflect ed fr om t h e wor kpiece s u r fa ce, wh er ea s , in ca s e of la s er cla d-
din g, t h is is a bou t 70 %. Th e in t egr a t or ca n n ot wit h s t a n d t h is a mou n t of en -
er gy.
Secon dly, t h e dis t a n ce bet ween t h e in t egr a t or a n d t h e wor kpiece is on ly a few
cen t imet r es . Th is complica t es t h e pos it ion in g of t h e powder n ozzle a n d t h e
pr ot ect ion of t h e Zn Se len s s ys t em t o s pa t t er in g powder .
It wa s t h er efor e decided t o develop a n ot h er bea m in t egr a t or wit h a la r ger dis -
t a n ce t o t h e wor kpiece. Th is a ls o gives t h e oppor t u n it y t o a llow t h e u s e of CO
2
la s er s ou r ces wit h mor e t h a n 3 kW.
Fig. 4.2 Meas ured energy dis tribution in the s pot on the w ork piece.
70 Chapter 4
4.2 Optical design line integrator
On e of t h e r ea s on s t o a pply bea m in t egr a t or s for la s er cla ddin g, is t o a t t a in a
mor e h omogen eou s t emper a t u r e dis t r ibu t ion over t h e widt h of t h e t r a cks . It is
s u fficien t t o h omogen is e t h e la s er bea m in t h e la t er a l dir ect ion on ly.
Th e developed lin e in t egr a t or , wh ich is s h own s ch ema t ica lly in figu r e 4.3, con -
s is t s of t h r ee pa r t s . All will be dis cu s s ed in t h e or der in wh ich t h e la s er r a dia -
t ion t r a vels t h r ou gh t h e s ys t em.
1. Teles copic s ys t em con s is t in g of t wo s ph er ica l mir r or s
Th e la s er bea m mu s t be pa r a llel wh en a r r ivin g a t t h e fa cet ed mir r or .
Th is is a ch ieved by u s in g a s ph er ica l con vex mir r or a n d a s ph er ica l
con ca ve mir r or r es pect ively. Th e s ys t em ca n be a dju s t ed t o CO
2
la s er
s ou r ces wit h a differ en t bea m diver gen ce by ch a n gin g t h e dis t a n ce be-
t ween t h es e t wo mir r or s .
Th e s econ d fu n ct ion of t h e t eles copic s ys t em is t h e en la r gemen t of t h e
bea m dia met er . Fir s t ly, h igh er la s er power s ca n be u t ilis ed, beca u s e t h is
r edu ces t h e power den s it y on t h e mir r or s . Secon dly, t h e s egmen t ed mir -
Fig. 4.3 Schematic lay -out of the line integrator.
r or is filled by a la r ger bea m. Hen ce, mor e s ma ll bea mlet s ca n be ma de
wh ich r es u lt s in a bet t er h omogen eit y in t h e lin e s h a pe.
2. Cylin dr ica l mir r or
Th e pa r a llel bea m is focu s ed in t h e mer idion a l pla n e by mea n s of a cy-
lin dr ica l mir r or . Th e cu r va t u r e of t h is mir r or a n d t h e dis t a n ce t o t h e
wor kpiece det er min e t h e s pot len gt h in t h e t r a ver s e dir ect ion .
3. Segmen t ed mir r or
Th e fin a l fu n ct ion , i.e. in t egr a t ion in t h e s a git a l pla n e is a ch ieved by
mea n s of a s egmen t ed mir r or . Th is mir r or con s is t s of eigh t s egmen t s
pos it ion ed in mu t u a lly differ en t a n gles . Th e la s er bea m is s plit in t o s ev-
er a l bea mlet s by t h is mir r or a n d r ecombin ed by over la p in t h e foca l
pla n e. A pr oper ch oice of t h e a n gles u n der wh ich t h e s egmen t s a r e po-
s it ion ed, a s s u r es t h a t a s pot wit h a la t er a lly h omogen eou s en er gy dis -
t r ibu t ion is a t t a in ed. Th e pr in ciple of bea m in t egr a t ion by mea n s of a
s egmen t ed mir r or is illu s t r a t ed in figu r e 4.4.
Th e opt ica l s ys t em wa s des ign ed wit h t h e compu t er pr ogr a mme OPDESIGN.
Th is s oft wa r e a llows t h e a n a lys is of opt ica l s ys t ems a n d wa s developed by
Beckma n n [1991]. Ba s ed on t h e con figu r a t ion of a n opt ica l s ys t em (cu r va t u r e
of opt ica l elemen t s , dis t a n ce bet ween elemen t s , a n gle of in ciden ce, wa velen gt h
of r a dia t ion , et c.) t h e pr ogr a mme ca lcu la t es t h e pa t h of a n u mber of r a ys
t h r ou gh t h e en t ir e s ys t em. Th e bea m s h a pe a t t h e exit of t h e opt ica l s ys t em ca n
be s t u died in t h e des ir ed pla n e of r efer en ce.
Th e cylin dr ica l mir r or a n d t h e s egmen t ed mir r or ma n ipu la t e t h e bea m in differ -
en t pla n es . Hen ce, t h e s pot len gt h a n d widt h a r e decou pled. Th e goa l of t h e op-
t imis a t ion of t h e opt ica l s ys t em wit h OPDESIGN is t h e a ch ievemen t of a lin e fo-
cu s in t h e s a git a l pla n e wh ich pos it ion a gr ees wit h t h e foca l poin t in t h e mer idi-
on a l pla n e. Th e lin e focu s h a s t h e des ir ed s h a pe, if t h e a ber r a t ion s in t h e s a gi-
Fig. 4.4 Principle of beam integration by means of a s egmented
mirror. The parallel las er beam is s plit into beamlets by the s eg-
ments and recombined in the focal plane.
72 Chapter 4
t a l pla n e for m a lin e wit h t h e cen t r e on t h e opt ica l a xis . Th e len gt h of t h e lin e
a ppr oxima t es t h e s egmen t widt h . Th e a n a lys is wit h OPDESIGN h a s r es u lt ed in
t h e opt ica l s ys t em wh ich is s h own in t a ble 4.1, figu r e 4.5 a n d 4.6.
Tab. 4.1 Parameters of the developed line integrator (s urface 1: convex s pherical
mirror; s urface 2: concave s pherical mirror; s urface 3: concave cy lindrical mirror;
s urface 4: s egmented mirror w ith 8 s egments ).
Surface radius
[dm]
distance to next surface
[dm]
tan(tilt of surface)
1 1.86209 -2.16388 -0.22170
2 6.16595 2.00000 0.18534
3 -12.5000 -> toric surface meridional curvature and radius -0.24008
3 infinite -> toric surface sagittal curvature and radius
3 -2.30000
4 - x - 3.65016 0.27732
segment no. lower height [dm] tangent of segment angle
0
1
2
3
0.00000
0.07500
0.14999
0.22497
0.00556
0.01669
0.02781
0.03892
Fig. 4.5 Dimens ions [mm] of the line integrator in the meridional plane.
Th e s h a pe of t h e ma n ipu la t ed la s er bea m in t h e foca l r egion ca n be s een in fig-
u r e 4.7 a n d t a ble 4.2. Th e bea m con ver ges in fr on t of t h e foca l poin t for bot h
t h e mer idion a l a n d t h e s a git a l dir ect ion s . Th e foca l poin t for t h e s a git a l dir ec-
t ion is pos it ion ed 10 mm in fr on t of t h e foca l poin t of t h e mer idion a l pla n e.
Th e dimen s ion s of t h e lin e s pot a r e s en s it ive t o a va r ia t ion in dis t a n ce t o t h e
wor kpiece (figu r e 4.8 a n d t a ble 4.2). Hen ce, it is pos s ible t o a dju s t t h e power
den s it y in t h e lin e s pot . Th e s ma lles t lin e s pot h a s a n a r ea of 0.3 x 9.1 mm
2
,
wh er ea s t h e a r ea a t a dis t a n ce of 10 mm fr om t h e mer idion a l foca l poin t
a mou n t s t o 1.1 x 7.8 mm
2
.
Fig. 4.6 Path of the ray s in the line integrator.
Fig. 4.7 Shape of the line s ource around the focal point.
74 Chapter 4
Th e r es u lt s pr es en t ed s o fa r pr oceed fr om ca lcu la t ion s ba s ed on r a y t r a cin g.
Appa r en t ly, t h e en er gy dis t r ibu t ion over t h e lin e widt h s h ou ld be h omogen eou s .
Th is s u gges t ion h a s been ver ified by ca lcu la t in g t h e en er gy dis t r ibu t ion in t h e
foca l pla n e (figu r e 4.9). Th e ca lcu la t ion s wer e per for med u n der t h e a s s u mpt ion
of a Ga u s s ia n la s er bea m. Th a t in t en s it y pr ofile is a wor s t ca s e s it u a t ion . Figu r e
4.9 s h ows t h a t t h e a t t a in ed en er gy dis t r ibu t ion is r a t h er u n ifor m in deed be-
t ween t h e s a git a l foca l poin t a n d a bou t 10 mm beh in d it . In t h e foca l poin t t h e
Tab. 4.2 Dimens ions of the line in the focal region. The focal plane off-s et is rela-
tive to the focal point in the meridional plane.
focal plane
off-set [mm]
meridional
dimensions [mm]
sagital
dimensions [mm]
-14
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
6
1.5
1.1
0.9
0.7
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.7
8.3
7.8
8.2
8.8
9.1
9.4
10.0
Fig. 4.8 Cours e of the length of the line s hape in the travers e direction
around the focal point in the meridional plane.
t wo pea ks in t h e en er gy dis t r ibu t ion a r e les s t h a n 10% h igh er t h a n t h e a ver a ge
va lu e. At la r ger dis t a n ces fr om t h e foca l poin t t h e edge of t h e lin e s ou r ce be-
comes les s well defin ed.
Th e ca lcu la t ed la t er a lly h omogen eou s en er gy dis t r ibu t ion cou ld be con fir med
by mea s u r emen t s . Th e mea s u r ed dis t r ibu t ion is s h own in figu r e 4.10. Th e
pea ks t h a t ca n be n ot iced a r e in t er fer en ce pa t t er n s . Th e occu r r en ce of t h es e
pea ks ca n be pr even t ed by t h e in t en t ion a l in t r odu ct ion of s ma ll er r or s in t h e
s egmen t ed mir r or . Es pecia lly s ma ll ch a n ges of t h e a n gles u n der wh ich t h e
s egmen t s a r e pos it ion ed, a r e effect ive [Beckma n n , 1995].
Th e t emper a t u r e dis t r ibu t ion t h a t is a ch ieved wit h t h e obt a in ed lin e s pot is
s h own in figu r e 4.11. Th es e t emper a t u r e dis t r ibu t ion s wer e ca lcu la t ed wit h t h e
Fig. 4.9 Energy dis tribution along the line s ource in the s agital plane
around in the focal point in the s agital plane (figures on different s cale!).
Fig. 4.10 Meas ured energy dis tribution in the line s pot.
76 Chapter 4
n u mer ica l met h od des cr ibed in ch a pt er 3. Th e ca lcu la t ion s wer e per for med for
t h r ee differ en t lin e dimen s ion s t h a t a ll h a ve a h omogen eou s en er gy dis t r ibu t ion
in t h e la t er a l dir ect ion : 0.3 x 9.1 mm
2
(s ma lles t a r ea ), 0.6 x 8.3 mm
2
(a ver a ge)
a n d 1.1 x 7.8 mm
2
(la r ges t a r ea ). Th e dis t r ibu t ion in t h e ot h er dir ect ion wa s a s -
s u med t o be Ga u s s ia n . As ca n be s een , t h e a t t a in ed t emper a t u r e dis t r ibu t ion
over t h e lin e widt h is qu it e con s t a n t for a ll t h r ee lin e s h a pes . Th e t emper a t u r e
on t h e s u r fa ce ca n be va r ied wit h a fa ct or t wo by on ly ch a n gin g t h e dis t a n ce
bet ween in t egr a t or a n d wor kpiece.
Th e ma ximu m t emper a t u r es t h a t a r e a t t a in ed a ccor din g t o figu r e 4.11 a r e qu it e
low. Depen din g on t h e a pplied lin e con figu r a t ion t h ey va r y bet ween 1148 a n d
2421 C. Th is is du e t o t h e low a bs or pt ion of la s er en er gy in t h e ba s e ma t er ia l
wit h t h is lin e in t egr a t or . Wh en a pplyin g t h e la s er s ys t ems ma ximu m ou t pu t
power of 1800 W, s u r pr is in gly on ly 8 % of t h e s u pplied la s er en er gy is effec-
t ively cou pled in t o t h e ir r a dia t ed ma t er ia l. Du e t o t h is low en er gy efficien cy n o
melt pool cou ld be for med. Th er efor e, t h is lin e in t egr a t or cou ld n ot be u s ed for
la s er cla ddin g in t h e a u t h or s la bor a t or y. Th e exper imen t s on la s er cla ddin g
wit h pr epla ced powder a n d powder in ject ion t h a t a r e dis cu s s ed in t h e followin g
ch a pt er s a r e t h er efor e per for med wit h or din a r y opt ics .
Fig. 4.11 Temperature dis tributions for three different line s hapes . Left: tem-
perature contours on s urface; Right: temperature dis tribution along line w idth;
Material: C45; Abs orbed las er pow er: 150 W; Feed rate: 5 mm/ s .
Chapter 5
Laser cladding with preplaced powder
5.1 Experimental set-up
Th e lit er a t u r e r es ea r ch (ch a pt er 2) s h owed t h a t la s er cla ddin g is pr edomin a n t ly
per for med for a ch ievin g wea r a n d cor r os ion r es is t a n t la yer s on t op of s t eel s u b-
s t r a t es t h a t a r e expos ed t o t emper a t u r es over 200 C. Exa mples a r e ga s t u r bin e
bla des , va lve s ea t s a n d h ot wor kin g t ools s u ch a s dies a n d in s er t s .
Su it a ble coa t in g ma t er ia ls a r e mixt u r es ba s ed on coba lt , ch r omiu m a n d n ickel.
Followin g t h is t en den cy, a coba lt ba s e a lloy, Met co 18C, h a s been a pplied in t h e
exper imen t s pr es en t ed in t h is ch a pt er . Th is ma t er ia l (a ppen dix 1) is a coba lt
ba s ed a lloy wh ich h a s a good h a r dn es s a s well a s a n en h a n ced wea r a n d cor r o-
s ion r es is t a n ce a t eleva t ed t emper a t u r es . Exa mples of a pplica t ion s a s men -
t ion ed by t h e s u pplier of t h e powder a r e va lves a n d va lve s ea t s in combu s t ion
en gin es , ga s t u r bin es bla des a n d in s er t s . Th e ma ximu m oper a t in g t emper a t u r e
ca n be qu it e h igh : 800 C.
Th e s elect ed ba s e ma t er ia l, X32Cr MoV3 3 (a ppen dix 1), is a h ot wor kin g t ool
s t eel. It is r es is t a n t t o a la r ge va r ia t ion in t emper a t u r e a n d s u it a ble for a pplica -
t ion s s u ch a s dies a n d in s er t s .
Slot s wit h a dept h of 0.4 mm wer e ma de in s a mples wit h a t h ickn es s of 10 mm.
Su bs equ en t ly, t h e s u r fa ce wa s degr ea s ed wit h et h a n ol. Th e pr epla ced powder
80 Chapter 5
wa s a pplied a s a pa s t e. Th a t pa s t e con s is t ed of a ch emica l bin der (Nicr obr a z
t ype II), et h a n ol a n d Met co 18C. Aft er let t in g t h e et h a n ol eva por a t e for 24
h ou r s , a dr y powder la yer is a t t a in ed t h a t a dh er es t o t h e ba s e ma t er ia l. Th e u s e
of a ch emica l bin der pr even t s t h e powder fr om bein g blown a wa y by t h e
s h ieldin g ga s du r in g pr oces s in g.
Th e goa l of t h e exper imen t s wa s t o a ch ieve good qu a lit y cla d la yer s . In t h is
con t ext , a good qu a lit y cla d la yer mea n s n o cr a cks , n o por os it y, a good bon din g
t o t h e s u bs t r a t e a n d a low dilu t ion of coa t in g ma t er ia l by t h e s u bs t r a t e.
Sin gle t r a ck cla d la yer s wer e pr odu ced. La r ger a r ea s wer e t r ea t ed a s well by
a pplyin g s ever a l a dja cen t t r a cks . Sever a l ma ch in in g pa r a met er s wer e va r ied.
Th os e pa r a met er s in clu de t h e feed r a t e, t h e la s er power a n d t h e in it ia l wor k-
piece t emper a t u r e.
Ar gon wa s s u pplied t o t h e pr oces s in g a r ea t o pr even t t h e cla d la yer s fr om oxi-
da t ion a n d t o pr ot ect t h e opt ica l s ys t em. Th e exper imen t a l s et -u p is s h own in
figu r e 5.1.
Th e la s er bea m dia met er wa s mea s u r ed by mea n s of a Pr omet ec UFF 100 la s er
bea m a n a lys er . Th e pr oces s in g a r ea wa s pos it ion ed below t h e foca l poin t of t h e
a pplied 95 mm Zn Se len s . Th e s pot dia met er wa s 3.0 mm. En er gy los s du e t o
a bs or pt ion of la s er en er gy in opt ica l elemen t s (deflect in g mir r or a n d Zn Se len s )
wa s a ccou n t ed for . Hen ce, a ll den ot ed power s a r e n et power s on t h e wor kpiece.
Th e la s er power s u pplied by t h e Rofin Sin a r 1700RF CO
2
la s er wa s mea s u r ed
wit h a n a ccu r a cy of 5%.
5.2 Experimental results
Th e per for med exper imen t s a n d t h eir r es u lt s a r e den ot ed in a ppen dix 3. In t h is
s ect ion s ome gen er a l fin din gs a r e pr es en t ed.
Si ngl e t ra ck s
A va r ia t ion of t h e la s er power fr om 600 W t o 1350 W in s t eps of 50 W
(exper imen t s 1-15 a ppen dix 3) s h owed t h a t a min imu m power of 1150 W is r e-
qu ir ed t o a ch ieve a s moot h s in gle t r a ck t h a t is flown ou t over t h e s u bs t r a t e.
Lower power levels r es u lt in t h e for ma t ion of cla d la yer s t h a t a r e n ot s moot h ,
n a r r ow or even win din g. Th os e poor cla ds ca n be h igh er t h a n t h e t h ickn es s of
t h e a pplied coa t in g a n d do n ot h a ve a fu s ion bon d t o t h e s u bs t r a t e. Figu r e 5.2
s h ows t h a t t h e cla d h eigh t decr ea s es wit h t h e la s er power .
Las er cladding w ith preplaced pow der 81
Fig. 5.1 Experimental s et-up las er cladding w ith preplaced pow der.
Fig. 5.2 Clad dimens ions as function of the las er pow er.
82 Chapter 5
Th e cla d widt h is limit ed t o a bou t 2.5 mm, wh er ea s t h e a pplied la s er s pot di-
a met er wa s 3.0 mm. It in cr ea s es wit h a n in cr ea s e of t h e la s er power . So do t h e
cla d dept h a n d t h e dilu t ion . Th e min ima l dilu t ion t h a t mu s t be a llowed t o
a ch ieve s moot h cla d la yer s is a bou t 11 %.
Th e effect of t h e feed r a t e on t h e s in gle t r a ck cla d dimen s ion s is s h own in figu r e
5.3. Th e cla d h eigh t in cr ea s es wit h t h e feed r a t e, wh er ea s t h e cla d widt h , dept h
a n d dilu t ion decr ea s e (exper imen t s 16-21, a ppen dix 3).
Th e cla ds a t t a in ed a t 12 a n d 24 mm/ s a r e n ot s a t is fa ct or y. As wa s t h e ca s e
wit h t oo low power levels , t h es e cla ds a r e n a r r ow a n d win din g a n d do n ot h a ve
a s moot h s u r fa ce. In t h es e s er ies , t h e exper imen t s per for med a t 8 a n d 6 mm/ s
r es u lt ed in a n a ccept a ble dilu t ion of r es pect ively 5 a n d 8 %. A fu r t h er r edu ct ion
of t h e feed r a t e t o 4 a n d 3 mm/ s led t o a fu r t h er in cr ea s e of t h e dilu t ion .
Figu r e 5.4 a n d 5.5 s h ow exa mples of a poor cla d cr os s -s ect ion a n d a good on e.
In t h e fir s t figu r e t h e la s er power wa s in s u fficien t in or der t o melt t h e s u bs t r a t e.
On ly t h e pr epla ced coa t in g cou ld be molt en . Th e cla d la yer in t h e ot h er figu r e
h a s been flown ou t over t h e s u bs t r a t e, wh er ea s t h e cla d dept h a n d dilu t ion r e-
ma in s ma ll. Th e a r ea t h a t ca n be n ot iced dir ect ly below t h e cla d is t h e h ea t a f-
Fig. 5.3 Clad dimens ions as function of the feed rate.
fect ed zon e of t h e s u bs t r a t e. In t h is a r ea t h e in it ia l micr os t r u ct u r e h a s been
t r a n s for med t o ma r t en s it e. Th is s t r u ct u r e is mu ch h a r der (~ 800 Hv ver s u s ~
500 Hv in t h e cla d) t h a n t h e cla d ma t er ia l a n d t h e in it ia l micr os t r u ct u r e. Th is
ca n be dedu ct ed fr om t h e h a r dn es s mea s u r emen t impr in t s .
Figu r e 5.6 (left ) s h ows t h e mea s u r ed ch emica l compos it ion in a good cla d wit h a
low dilu t ion . As ca n be s een fr om t h is gr a ph , t h e t r a n s it ion fr om t h e s u bs t r a t e
t o t h e coa t in g ma t er ia l occu r s wit h in 20 m. Th e coba lt con t en t in t h e cla d a v-
Fig. 5.4 Example of a clad that did not flow out over the s ubs trate.
Fig. 5.5 Example of a good quality clad.
84 Chapter 5
er a ges 40 %, wh ich a gr ees well wit h t h e 40.8 wt % coba lt in t h e coa t in g powder
Met co 18C (a ppen dix 1). Th e t r a n s it ion fr om cla d t o s u bs t r a t e is s h own in fig-
u r e 5.6 (r igh t ).
Cr a ckin g of s in gle t r a ck cla ds , pr odu ced wit h t h e ma t er ia l combin a t ion de-
s cr ibed h er e, ca n be pr even t ed by a pr oper s elect ion of ma ch in in g pa r a met er s
wit h ou t pr eh ea t in g. If t h e cla d flows ou t s u fficien t ly over t h e s u bs t r a t e, cr a ck-
in g ca n n ot be obs er ved.
Fig. 5.6 Left: Material compos ition on the trans ition from clad lay er to s ubs trate
(dilution: 4 %). Right: Corres ponding picture of the trans ition z one.
Fig. 5.7 Number of crack s in s ingle track clads w ith a length of 40 mm
produced on a hardened s ubs trate for tw o las er pow ers .
A few exper imen t s (n r . 148-159) wer e per for med on cla ddin g s in gle t r a cks on a
h a r den ed s u bs t r a t e. All t h es e cla ds s u ffer ed fr om cr a ckin g in t h e t r a n s ver s e di-
r ect ion (figu r e 5.8). Th e n u mber of cr a cks in cr ea s es wit h t h e feed r a t e a n d t h e
la s er power (figu r e 5.7). Exper imen t s on a n on h a r den ed s u bs t r a t e u n der ot h -
er wis e iden t ica l con dit ion s did n ot r es u lt in cr a ckin g.
Summary
Good qu a lit y s in gle t r a ck cla d la yer s ca n be obt a in ed by ma kin g s in gle t r a cks .
Por os it y wa s vir t u a lly n on -exis t en t in flown ou t cla ds , in s pit e of t h e pr es en ce of
a ch emica l bin der . Cr a ckin g is a ffect ed by t h e h ea t t r ea t men t t o wh ich t h e s u b-
s t r a t e h a s been s u bmit t ed t o befor e t h e la s er t r ea t men t . Cr a ckin g ca n n ot be
pr even t ed wh en a pplyin g a h a r den ed s u bs t r a t e, bu t ca n be con t r olled wit h
n or ma l s u bs t r a t es .
Good qu a lit y low dilu t ion cla ds wer e a t t a in ed wit h t h e followin g pa r a met er s et -
t in g:
la s er power : 1200-1400 W
feed r a t e: 4-6 mm/ s
Cl a d d i ng of l a rger a rea s wi t h overl a p p i ng t ra ck s
La r ger a r ea s ca n be cla d by t h e a pplica t ion of s ever a l pa r t ly over la ppin g t r a cks .
Th e s u bs t r a t e is h ea t ed by ea ch s u bs equ en t t r a ck. Th er efor e, t h e melt dept h
Fig. 5.8 Crack s in s ingle track clads on a hardened s ubs trate.
86 Chapter 5
in cr ea s es wit h ea ch n ew t r a ck. Th is ca n be pr even t ed by a s imu lt a n eou s r e-
du ct ion of t h e la s er power . However , in or der t o a t t a in min imu m pr oces s in g
t imes , it is mor e pr a ct ica l t o in cr ea s e t h e feed r a t e t o 12 mm/ s . Th e poor s u r -
fa ce qu a lit y a n d in cr ea s ed cr a ckin g t en den cy a s s ocia t ed wit h t h is h igh feed
r a t e, ca n be pr even t ed by a pplyin g a r a t h er la r ge over la p bet ween t h e s u bs e-
qu en t t r a cks : 80 %. Fu r t h er mor e, it is n eces s a r y t o a pply t h e t r a cks con t in u -
ou s ly in a mea n der s h a ped pa t t er n wit h a ma ximu m t r a ck len gt h of 15 mm.
Th e s u bs t r a t e r ema in es wa r m en ou gh bet ween ea ch s u bs equ en t pa s s t o r edu ce
t h e coolin g r a t es in t h e cla d s o a s t o limit t h e n u mber of cr a cks . Pr eh ea t in g t o
200 C h a s pr oven t o be h elpfu l, a lt h ou gh cr a ck-fr ee a r ea s cou ld n ot be a t -
t a in ed. High er pr eh ea t in g t emper a t u r es a r e n ot pos s ible, beca u s e t h a t ca u s es
eva por a t ion of t h e ch emica l bin der .
Figu r e 5.9 s h ows t h e cr os s -s ect ion of a n a r ea t h a t wa s cla d by mea n s of over -
la ppin g t r a cks . Th e over la ppin g pa t t er n ca n be r ecogn is ed fr om t h e ma t er ia l
s t r u ct u r e in t h e s u bs t r a t e. Some deep cr a cks ca n be s een . Figu r e 5.10 s h ows
t h e cr a ckin g pa t t er n in s ever a l cla ds .
Effect of s ubs t ra t e t emp era t ure a nd p rehea t i ng
Bot h t h e coa t in g ma t er ia l a n d a t h in la yer of t h e s u bs t r a t e mu s t melt t o a t t a in
a well bon ded cla d la yer wit h ou t dilu t ion . Th e ma in pa r t of t h e a bs or bed la s er
Fig. 5.10 Crack ing pattern in clad areas produced by overlapping track s .
power is r equ ir ed for t h e h ea t in g of t h e s u bs t r a t e, a s is s h own wit h t h e follow-
in g exa mple:
A cla d exper imen t per for med wit h a la s er power of 1300 W a n d a feed r a t e of 5
mm/ s r es u lt s in t h e for ma t ion of a cla d wit h a widt h of 2.3 mm a n d a h eigh t of
0.3 mm. Th e melt in g of t h e pr epla ced powder r equ ir es 30 W.
Th e a bs or pt ivit y of en er gy du r in g cla ddin g wit h pr epla ced powder a ver a ges 30
% (a ppen dix 2). Hen ce, s ligh t ly les s t h a n 400 W is a bs or bed. Th is implies t h a t
in t h is pa r t icu la r ca s e on ly 7.5 % of t h e a bs or bed en er gy is u s ed for melt in g of
t h e coa t in g ma t er ia l. Th e r ema in in g pa r t of t h e a bs or bed en er gy con t r ibu t es t o
t h e for ma t ion of a melt pool in t h e s u bs t r a t e a n d t o t h e h ea t in g of t h e s u r -
r ou n din g ma t er ia l.
Th e t emper a t u r e of t h e s u r r ou n din g ma t er ia l s eems t o be a n impor t a n t pa -
r a met er in t h e la s er cla ddin g pr oces s . On e of t h e r equ ir emen t s for a ch ievin g a
good qu a lit y cla d la yer is t h e pos s ibilit y for t h e coa t in g ma t er ia l t o flow over t h e
s u bs t r a t e. Th a t flowin g beh a viou r is en h a n ced by a t emper a t u r e in cr ea s e of t h e
s u bs t r a t e. On e of t h e wa ys t o a ch ieve s u ch a t emper a t u r e in cr ea s e is t h e s u p-
ply of mor e en er gy t o t h e s u bs t r a t e du r in g t h e pr oces s .
Th e effect of a va r ia t ion of t h e la s er power on t h e flowin g beh a viou r of t h e cla d
la yer is illu s t r a t ed in figu r e 5.11 a n d t a ble 5.1 (exper imen t 83-87, a ppen dix 3).
At 800 W en ou gh la s er power is a va ila ble in or der t o melt t h e pr epla ced powder .
However , t h e s u bs t r a t e did n ot melt . As a r es u lt of t h is , t h e coa t in g ma t er ia l
for med a dr oplet on t h e s u bs t r a t e du r in g s olidifica t ion .
At 1050 W, a t h in la yer of t h e s u bs t r a t e did melt . A good bon din g bet ween
coa t in g a n d ba s e ma t er ia l wa s a ch ieved a n d t h e cla d la yer wa s a ble t o flow. At
h igh er power levels (1300, 1500, 1800 W) t h is flowin g beh a viou r wa s en h a n ced.
However , t h is a ls o r es u lt ed in a n in cr ea s e of t h e melt in g dept h .
Fig. 5.9 Clad w ith s everal crack s produced by means of overlapping track s .
88 Chapter 5
An ot h er wa y t o in cr ea s e t h e t emper a t u r e of t h e s u bs t r a t e is pr eh ea t in g. As ca n
be s een in figu r e 5.12 a n d t a ble 5.2, a n in cr ea s e of t h e s u bs t r a t e t emper a t u r e
r es u lt s in t h e for ma t ion of a wider cla d la yer . At t h e s a me t ime, t h e cla d h eigh t
decr ea s es a n d t h e melt dept h in cr ea s es .
Fig. 5.11 Ty pical cros s -s ections of clad lay ers produced by means of the pre-
placed pow der method (feed rate: 5 mm/ s ; coating thick nes s : 0.8 mm).
Tab. 5.1 Dimens ions of the cros s -s ections s how n in figure 5.11.
laser power
[W]
clad width
w
c
[mm]
clad height
h
c
[mm]
melt depth
d
c
[mm]
800
1050
1300
1550
1800
1.89
2.37
2.55
2.71
2.82
0.94
0.82
0.71
0.41
0.35
0.00
0.02
0.09
0.13
0.47
Fig. 5.12 Effect of preheating and feed rate on clad lay er geometry in cas e of
las er cladding of s ingle track s w ith preplaced pow der (las er pow er: 1400 W).
Figu r e 5.12 a ls o s h ows t h e effect of t h e feed r a t e on t h e cla d geomet r y. As t h e
feed r a t e in cr ea s es , t h e en er gy in pu t in t h e s u bs t r a t e is dimin is h ed. Hen ce, t h e
cla d widt h a n d t h e cla d dept h decr ea s e, wh er ea s t h e cla d h eigh t in cr ea s es .
Th e pr eh ea t in g of t h e s a mples h a s a n ot h er , pos it ive, effect on t h e cla d la yer
qu a lit y. It r edu ces t h e coolin g r a t e a n d, t h er efor e, r edu ces t h e r es idu a l t en s ile
s t r es s in t h e cla d la yer a s well. Th is r edu ct ion of t h e t en s ile s t r es s con t r ibu t es
t o t h e for ma t ion of cr a ck-fr ee cla d la yer s a n d ca n impr ove t h e wea r pr oper t ies
of t h e a pplied coa t in g.
Ta ble 5.2 s h ows t h is effect of pr eh ea t in g on t h e r es idu a l s t r es s in a s in gle t r a ck
cla d la yer . As ca n be n ot iced, t h e r es idu a l s t r es s decr ea s es a s a r es u lt of a n in -
cr ea s e of t h e in it ia l s u bs t r a t e t emper a t u r e. High er pr eh ea t in g t emper a t u r es
t h a n t h os e a pplied, wer e n ot pos s ible, beca u s e of t h e eva por a t ion of t h e ch emi-
ca l bin der in t h e pr epla ced powder pa s t e.
Th e ma gn it u de of t h e r es idu a l s t r es s is r ela t ed t o t h e n u mber of cr a cks in t h e
cla d la yer . Figu r e 5.13 s h ows t h a t t h e t en s ile s t r es s in t h e s u r fa ce la yer r edu ces
wit h a n in cr ea s in g n u mber of cr a cks by r ela xa t ion (det a ils in a ppen dix 3, ex-
per imen t s O8-O35).
Effect of d i l ut i on on cl a d qua l i t y
Th e effect of t h e dilu t ion on t h e cla d qu a lit y ca n be illu s t r a t ed wit h figu r e 5.14.
Th is figu r e s h ows t h r ee cla d la yer s , ea ch wit h a differ en t cla d geomet r y.
Tab. 5.2 Effect of preheating on clad geometry and longitudinal s tres s in cas e of
cladding s ingle track s . Las er pow er: 1400 W.
initial temperature
[C]
w
c
[mm]
h
c
[mm]
d
c
[mm]
longitudinal
residual
stress [MPa]
5 mm/s
20
100
200
2.34
2.43
2.63
0.38
0.26
0.17
0.09
0.18
0.23
6 mm/s
20
100
200
2.30
2.41
2.54
0.39
0.31
0.22
0.07
0.10
0.15
8 mm/s
20
100
200
2.16
2.22
2.37
0.40
0.33
0.24
0.03
0.06
0.13
515
444
380
90 Chapter 5
Ba s ed on t h e geomet r ica l a ppr oa ch , t h e dilu t ion in t h es e cla d la yer s va r ies fr om
les s t h a n 5 % (figu r e 6.14 t op) t o 15 % (middle) t o mor e t h a n 40 % (bot t om). Th e
effect of t h is dilu t ion on t h e a s s ocia t ed h a r dn es s dis t r ibu t ion in t h e cla d la yer
cr os s -s ect ion is clea r . Th a t h a r dn es s va r ies fr om a bou t 550 t o 950 t o 450 Hv
r es pect ively. Th e h a r dn es s of 550 Hv t h a t is a ch ieved in t h e a lmos t u n dilu t ed
cla d la yer is in a ccor da n ce wit h t h e in t r in s ic h a r dn es s of t h e a pplied coa t in g
mat er ial.
Th e en h a n cemen t of t h e h a r dn es s t o 950 Hv, wh ich is a s s ocia t ed wit h a n in -
cr ea s ed dilu t ion of 15 %, is ca u s ed by t h e for ma t ion of met a s t a ble met a l-
ca r bides in t h e cla d la yer . Th e ca r bon t h a t is r equ ir ed for t h e for ma t ion of t h os e
h a r d ph a s es is s u pplied by t h e molt en s u bs t r a t e.
A fu r t h er in cr ea s e of t h e melt in g dept h a n d t h e dilu t ion lea ds t o a r edu ct ion of
t h e h a r dn es s . Th e h a r dn es s is s t ill h igh er t h a n t h a t of t h e s u bs t r a t e, bu t lower
t h a n t h e h a r dn es s in t h e pu r e coa t in g.
Th is pa r t icu la r ca s e s h ows t h a t t h e pr es en ce of s ome dilu t ion ca n h a ve a fa -
vou r a ble effect on t h e pr oper t ies of t h e cla d la yer . However , it is on ly pos s ible t o
t a ke fu ll a dva n t a ge of s u ch mech a n is ms by h a vin g a s olid u n der s t a n din g of a ll
met a llu r gica l a s pect s in volved a n d by bein g a ble t o con t r ol t h e pr oces s .
It ca n be u s efu l t o mea s u r e t h e dilu t ion by mea n s of t h e ch emica l compos it ion
on s ever a l pos it ion s in a cla d la yer cr os s -s ect ion . Th is is es pecia lly t r u e if a
n on -h omogen eou s mixin g bet ween elemen t s fr om t h e s u bs t r a t e a n d elemen t s
fr om t h e coa t in g ma t er ia l is a ch ieved. Th e occu r r en ce of s u ch a n in h omogen e-
Fig. 5.13 Effect of las er pow er on res idual s tres s (left) and number of crack s per
cm in cas e of las er cladding w ith preplaced pow er w ith overlapping track s
(s eries 1: feed rate: 6 mm/ s ; overlap: 2.4 mm; s eries 2: feed rate: 8 mm/ s ; over-
lap: 1.8 mm; s eries 3: feed rate: 12 mm/ s ; overlap: 1.8 mm).
ou s mixin g of elemen t s wa s fou n d in deed du r in g t h e cla ddin g of a n a r ea by
mea n s of over la ppin g t r a cks (figu r e 5.15).
Th e r es u lt in g cla d geomet r y a n d t h e differ en t zon es t h a t ca n be dis t in gu is h ed
in t h e s u r fa ce la yer a r e s h own in figu r e 5.15. Differ en t ma t er ia l ph a s es ca n be
fou n d in ea ch zon e. Th e compos it ion of t h es e ph a s es is given in t a ble 5.3. Th e
micr os t r u ct u r e of t h e va r iou s r egion s is s h own in figu r e 5.16.
Fig. 5.14 Effect of dilution on hardnes s dis tribution in a clad lay er.
92 Chapter 5
A pa r t of t h e cla d la yer is r emelt ed du r in g t h e a pplica t ion of t h e n ext t r a ck. Th e
ma t er ia l compos it ion in t h is over la ppin g zon e (r egion s 2 a n d 3) differ s fr om t h e
ot h er pa r t s of t h e cla d la yer (r egion s 1 a n d 4). Mos t r ema r ka ble is t h e ver y la r ge
fer r it e con t en t in t h e over la ppin g zon e. Th e fer r it e con t en t in t h e coa t in g ma t e-
Fig. 5.15 Zones in s urface lay er achieved by apply ing s everal overlapping
track s by las er cladding w ith preplaced pow der.
Tab. 5.3 Material compos ition of the different phas es (w t %) in the clad lay er.
phase Fe Co Cr Mo Ni Si V
1-d
1-e
59.5
55.5
17.9
18.8
7.5
11.5
0.4
2.5
14.0
11.4
0.3
0.0
0.3
0.3
2-p 37.6 15.6 22.6 13.5 9.6 0.0 1.2
3-m
3-p
30.9
24.8
30.3
23.1
11.7
25.6
2.6
12.0
23.0
12.9
1.1
0.8
0.4
0.9
4-m
4-lp
4-rp
4-np
6.6
6.4
11.0
15.0
40.4
35.4
21.5
37.3
16.8
43.4
44.7
14.8
4.0
3.1
14.8
5.7
30.3
11.5
8.0
26.1
1.6
0.0
0.0
0.9
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.3
d: dendritic; e: eutectic; p: precipitates ; m: matrix; rp: rectangular precipitates ; lp:
lamellar precipitates ; nd: needle s haped parts
r ia l is on ly 3 %. Hen ce, a n ext en s ive mixin g wit h t h e ba s e ma t er ia l in t h a t r e-
gion h a s occu r r ed. Th e fer r it e con t en t in t h e met a l ma t r ix of t h e u n a ffect ed cla d
la yer (r egion 4) is les s t h a n 7 %. Th er efor e, t h e over -a ll dilu t ion is n ot ver y la r ge.
Th is con clu s ion is s u ppor t ed by t h e h igh coba lt con t en t in t h e cla d la yer wh ich
a lmos t equ a ls t h e va lu e of 40 % of a n u n dilu t ed cla d la yer . Alt h ou gh t h e a ver -
a ge dilu t ion is low, t h e obs er ved loca l r egion s wit h s ever e dilu t ion ca n det er io-
r a t e t h e s u r fa ce pr oper t ies of t h e en t ir e s u r fa ce la yer .
94 Chapter 5
Fig. 5.16 Micros tructure in the various regions . Top left: trans ition s ubs trate-
clad; Top right: region 1; Middle left: region 1, 2 and s ubs trate; Middle right: re-
gion 3; Bottom left: region 4 needle phas e and s quare precipitates ; Bottom right:
plate precipitates and s quare precipitates .
Chapter 6
Laser cladding with powder injection
6.1 Experiments
Powder Met co 18C (pr oper t ies in a ppen dix 1) wa s a pplied a s cla ddin g ma t er ia l.
Met co 18C wa s s elect ed beca u s e it wa s a ls o a pplied in la s er cla ddin g wit h pr e-
pla ced powder (ch a pt er 5). It wa s s u pplied t o t h e melt pool by mea n s of a pow-
der n ozzle wit h a dia met er of 2.0 mm.
Th e s u bs t r a t e is s t eel X32Cr MoV33 (ma t er ia l pr oper t ies in a ppen dix 1). It wa s
polis h ed a n d degr ea s ed.
In t ot a l 54 exper imen t s wer e per for med. Du r in g ea ch exper imen t fift een a dja -
cen t , pa r t ly over la ppin g t r a cks wer e a pplied wit h a pit ch of 1.0 mm a n d a bea m
dia met er of 3.0 mm. Th e va r ied pr oces s pa r a met er s a r e s h own in t a ble 6.1.
Th e combin a t ion of la s er power a n d feed r a t e r equ ir ed t o a ccomplis h t h e de-
s ir ed s pecific en er gy level (equ a t ion 2.1) is s h own in t a ble 6.2.
Th e exper imen t s (s et -u p in figu r e 6.1) wer e per for med wit h a r gon a s s h ieldin g
ga s for t h e pr ot ect ion of t h e wor kpiece t o oxida t ion a s well a s ca r r ier ga s for t h e
in ject ed powder . Th e foca l len gt h of t h e a pplied Zn Se len s is 95 mm. Th e pow-
der in ject ion a n gle wa s mea s u r ed wit h r es pect t o t h e h or izon t a l.
96 Chapter 6
Th e exper imen t a l r es u lt s a r e s h own in t h e followin g t a bles .
Tab. 6.1 Varied proces s parameters .
powder feed rate:
feed rate:
specific energy:
powder injection angle:
75 - 150 mg/s
3 - 5 - 7 mm/s
50 - 60 - 70 J/mm
2
30 - 45 - 60
Tab. 6.2 Required las er pow er for obtaining a certain s pecific energy level w ith
a given feed rate.
feed rate [mm/s]
specific energy [J/mm
2
] 3 5 7
50
60
70
450 W
540 W
630 W
750 W
900 W
1050 W
1050 W
1260 W
1470 W
Fig. 6.1 Experimental s et-up las er cladding w ith pow der injection.
Las er cladding w ith pow der injection 97
98 Chapter 6
Th e s pecific en er gy is n ot a good pa r a met er t o ch a r a ct er is e t h e la s er cla ddin g
pr oces s wit h . Th is is s h own by, for in s t a n ce, t h e exper imen t combin a t ion 7-16-
25. Th es e t h r ee exper imen t s wer e per for med wit h a s pecific en er gy of 70
J / mm
2
. Never t h eles s , t h e cla d r es u lt s a r e qu it e differ en t du e t o t h e differ en t
combin a t ion s of la s er power a n d feed r a t e a n d t h e con s equ en t ly differ en t t em-
per a t u r e cycles . Exper imen t 7 (3 mm/ s ) yields a ver y t h ick (~ 4 mm) la yer on
t h e s u bs t r a t e t h a t h a s n o fu s ion bon d t o it a n d s h ows a lot of por os it y a n d a
ca pr iciou s s h a pe. Exper imen t 16 (5 mm/ s ) r es u lt s in a good qu a lit y cla d la yer ,
wh er ea s exper imen t 25 (7 mm/ s ) yields a t h in la yer (< 0.1 mm) t h a t mer ely
con s is t s of molt en ba s e ma t er ia l.
Th er efor e, it wa s con clu ded t h a t t h e s pecific en er gy a lon e is n ot s u fficien t t o
ch a r a ct er is e cla ddin g r es u lt s . As a con s equ en ce, t h e r es u lt s will be dis cu s s ed
by u s in g t h e combin a t ion of la s er power a n d feed r a t e.
Th e r es u lt s s h ow t h a t t h e on ly pa r a met er combin a t ion s t h a t r es u lt in pr oper
cla ds a r e la s er power s of 900 a n d 1050 W wit h a feed r a t e of 5 mm/ s a n d a
powder feed r a t e of 75 mg/ s (exper imen t 13-18). No s a t is fa ct or y cla ds cou ld be
a ch ieved wit h t h e h igh er powder feed r a t e of 150 mg/ s . Th e exper imen t s 1-12
(450-750 W) r es u lt in ver y t h ick, n ot bon ded la yer s , wh er ea s exper imen t s 22-27
(1260-1470 W) do n ot yield cla ds a t a ll.
Figu r e 6.2 s h ows t h e effect of t h e powder in ject ion a n gle on t h e cla d h eigh t . An
in cr ea s e of t h e powder in ject ion a n gle r es u lt s in h igh er cla ds , bu t a ls o in a r e-
du ced s u r fa ce qu a lit y. Th e powder in ject ion a n gle mu s t be limit ed t o 45.
Du r in g t h e exper imen t s s ome glowin g powder pa r t icles h a ve been n ot iced.
Th os e glowin g pa r t icles move a wa y fr om t h e melt pool a r ea . Th a t mea n s t h a t
Fig. 6.2 Clad height as function of pow der injection angle (feed rate: 5
mm/ s ; 900 W: experiment 13-14-15; 1050 W: experiment 16-17-18).
100 Chapter 6
on ly pa r t icles t h a t h a ve r icoch et ed fr om t h e s u bs t r a t e (figu r e 6.3) a r e expos ed
t o la s er r a dia t ion lon g en ou gh t o s t a r t glowin g in t h is pa r t icu la r s et -u p. Th e
t emper a t u r e r is e t h a t pa r t icles ca n exper ien ce is dis cu s s ed in det a il in s ect ion
6.2.
An ot h er ph en omen on wa s obs er ved du r in g s ome exper imen t s t h a t wer e per -
for med wit h a feed r a t e of 7 mm/ s a n d a la s er power of 1260 a n d 1470 W: t h e
for ma t ion of a pla s ma . Th is pla s ma s h ielded t h e s u bs t r a t e fr om t h e la s er bea m
a n d s t opped t h e cla ddin g pr oces s . Pla s ma for ma t ion wa s fou n d t o be depen d-
en t on t h e powder feed r a t e: t h e pla s ma occu r s mor e fr equ en t ly a t t h e h igh er
powder feed r a t e of 150 mg/ s .
Sin ce t h e for ma t ion of a pla s ma du r in g la s er cla ddin g is u n a ccept a ble, t h is
ph en omen on wa s s t u died in mor e det a il. Th is s u bject is dea lt wit h in s ect ion
6.3.
Th e exper imen t s s h owed t h e effect of t h e s u bs t r a t e t emper a t u r e on t h e cla d
la yer for ma t ion . Ma n y cla d la yer s did n ot s t a r t t o bu ilt u p immedia t ely, bu t
s t a r t ed on ly a ft er a few pa s s es of t h e la s er bea m. In t h a t ca s e, t h e la s er power
wa s t oo low t o melt t h e s u bs t r a t e in s t a n t a n eou s ly. Th e fir s t few pa s s es of t h e
la s er bea m on ly h ea t t h e s u bs t r a t e, s o t h a t a ft er s ever a l t r a cks t h e a va ila ble la -
s er power is fin a lly s u fficien t a s t o pr odu ce a n a r r ow melt pool in wh ich powder
pa r t icles ca n be t r a pped.
Th e poor cla ds t h a t wer e obt a in ed wit h a powder feed r a t e of 150 mg/ s a ll h a ve
t h e s a me t ypica l s h a pe (figu r e 6.4). Th e fir s t few t r a cks , a r ela t ively h igh lu mp
wit h n o bon din g t o t h e s u bs t r a t e wa s bu ilt on t h e s u bs t r a t e. Th es e t r a cks pa s s
in t o a la yer wit h a con s t a n t t h ickn es s a n d a s t r on g fu s ion bon din g.
Fig. 6.3 Particles that are not caught in the melt pool ricochet on the s urface.
6.2 Modelling of particle heating in a CO
2
laser beam
Sever a l a u t h or s in ves t iga t ed t h e h ea t in g of powder pa r t icles on t h eir fligh t
t h r ou gh a Nd:YAG la s er bea m t o t h e s u bs t r a t e [J ou va r d, 1997; Lemoin e, 1993,
1995; Ma r s den , 1992; Vet t er , 1993, 1994]. On ly Li [1995] s t u died t h is s u bject
for CO
2
la s er s . Accor din g t o t h es e pa per s , t h e mos t impor t a n t pa r a met er s a r e
t h e in t en s it y dis t r ibu t ion a n d t ot a l power of t h e la s er bea m, t h e velocit y of t h e
powder pa r t icles , t h e volu me of t h e s t r ea m wit h powder pa r t icles a n d t h e con -
cen t r a t ion of t h e pa r t icles t h er ein , t h e pa r t icle pr oper t ies , t h e powder in ject ion
a n gle a n d, t h e pr oper t ies of t h e ir r a dia t ed ba s e ma t er ia l.
A s ch ema t ic r epr es en t a t ion of t h e in ject ion of powder pa r t icles is s h own in fig-
u r e 6.5. Some a s s u mpt ion s wer e ma de:
- Th e powder is dir ect ed by a powder n ozzle wit h dia met er D
pn
t o t h e la s er
gen er a t ed melt pool. Th e powder pa r t icles a r e t r a n s por t ed by a ga s s t r ea m t o
t h e s u bs t r a t e. Th is s ys t em of ga s s t r ea m a n d movin g pa r t icles is r efer r ed t o
a s powder s t r ea m or powder clou d. Th is powder s t r ea m h a s a fixed a n gle of
diver gen ce (2). Hen ce, t h e con cen t r a t ion of pa r t icles (C) in t h e powder
s t r ea m depen ds s olely on t h e powder flow r a t e, t h e dia met er of t h e powder
n ozzle a n d t h e dis t a n ce fr om t h a t n ozzle (s ).
- Th e melt pool edges in t h e cr os s -s ect ion cor r es pon d t o t h e la s er bea m di-
a met er on t h e s u bs t r a t e. Th e melt pool in clin a t ion is con s t a n t .
- Th e pr oper t ies of t h e pa r t icles do n ot depen d on t emper a t u r e.
Fig. 6.4 Shape of poor quality clads . The firs t few track s are higher (~
2.5 mm) than the other track s (~ 1.5 mm) (top: top view ; bottom: cros s -
s ection in travers e direction).
102 Chapter 6
- Th e pa r t icles a r e s ph er es wit h a u n ifor m s ize.
Ot h er pa r a met er s in t h is figu r e a r e:
- powder in ject ion a n gle : t h is is t h e a n gle wit h r es pect t h e h or izon t a l a lon g
wh ich t h e powder n ozzle is r ot a t ed.
- x,y ,z co-or din a t e s ys t em. Th e or igin of t h e s ys t em is loca t ed in t h e cen t r e of
t h e la s er bea m on t h e s u bs t r a t e.
- x
in
a n d x
out
: t h e x pos it ion wh er e a pa r t icle en t er s (in) or lea ves (out) t h e la s er
bea m.
- l
z
: t h e pen et r a t ion dept h of t h e la s er ligh t t h r ou gh t h e powder clou d t o r ea ch
t h e powder pa r t icle con cer n ed.
- x: off-s et bet ween powder s t r ea m a n d la s er bea m.
Th e fligh t pa t h of a cer t a in pa r t icle is s h own in figu r e 6.5 by a dot t ed lin e. Su ch
a pa r t icle t r a vels s ome dis t a n ce befor e it en t er s t h e la s er bea m. Some pa r t icles
a r e a imed t oo low a n d t ou ch t h e s u bs t r a t e in fr on t of t h e melt pool. Ot h er pa r t i-
cles a r e a imed t oo h igh a n d, for t h a t r ea s on , mis s t h e melt pool.
Th e ba s ic con s ider a t ion for ca lcu la t in g t h e t emper a t u r e ch a n ge of a n y pa r t icle
is t h e la w of en er gy con s er va t ion , i.e. in t h is pa r t icu la r ca s e:
Fig. 6.5 Schematic repres entation of the interaction betw een the pow der
s tream, the las er beam and the melt pool.
Eq. 6.1 E E E E E E
a r ra c t 0
+ + + +
wh er e E
0
is t h e in ciden t en er gy on a pa r t icle, E
a
is t h e a bs or bed en er gy, E
r
is t h e
r eflect ed en er gy, E
ra
a n d E
c
a r e t h e en er gy los s es du e t o r a dia t ion a n d con vec-
t ion a n d E
t
is t h e t r a n s mit t ed en er gy t h r ou gh t h e pa r t icle. Th e en er gy los s du e
t o r a dia t ion a n d con vect ion is n eglect ed. If t h e ca lcu la t ion s in dica t e t h a t t h e
pa r t icles r ea ch t emper a t u r es over a bou t 1000 C, t h en r a dia t ive a n d con vect ive
en er gy los s es mu s t be a ccou n t ed for .
Th e t r a n s mit t ed en er gy ca n a ls o be n eglect ed, beca u s e t h e pen et r a t ion dept h of
CO
2
la s er r a dia t ion in a met a l s u r fa ce (~ 15 n m) is s ever a l or der s s ma ller t h a n
t h e t h ickn es s of a powder pa r t icle (20-150 m) [Wis s elin k, 1996]. Th er efor e, t h e
en er gy equ a t ion (equ a t ion 6.1) r edu ces t o:
wh er e R a n d A a r e r es pect ively t h e r eflect ion a n d a bs or pt ion coefficien t of t h e
pa r t icle a ver a ged over t h e en t ir e s u r fa ce.
For a s ma ll t ime in t er va l t t h e a bs or bed en er gy ca n be expr es s ed a s (figu r e
6.6):
wh er e r
p
2
is t h e pr oject ed a r ea of t h e ir r a dia t ed s u r fa ce of a pa r t icle wit h r a diu s
r
p
a n d I
z
(x,y ) is t h e power den s it y on pos it ion (x,y ) a t t h e cor r es pon din g pen et r a -
t ion dept h l
z
..
It is impor t a n t t o n ot e t h a t t h e powder clou d a t t en u a t es t h e la s er bea m. Fol-
lowin g t h e la w of Beer -La mber t [Ba s s , 1987, Beckma n n , 1989; Fr en k, 1993;
Lemoin e, 1993, 1995; Li, 1995], t h e decr ea s e of t h e la s er in t en s it y in a powder
clou d ca n be des cr ibed a s :
Eq. 6.2 E E E R E AE
a r

0 0 0
1 ( )
Eq. 6.3 E A r I x y z t
a p z

2
( , , )
Fig. 6.6 Las er radiation is abs orbed in the projected area r
p
2
.
104 Chapter 6
wh er e is t h e ext in ct ion coefficien t of t h e powder clou d a n d I
0
is t h e in t en s it y
wh ich h a s n ot been a ffect ed by a powder clou d.
Th e ext in ct ion coefficien t of t h e powder clou d depen ds on t h e volu me fr a ct ion of
powder pa r t icles (f
v
) in it (0<f
v
<1). Hen ce:
wh er e
0
is a kin d of r ela t ive ext in ct ion coefficien t .
On it s pa t h t h r ou gh t h e la s er bea m t h e t ot a l en er gy a bs or bed by a pa r t icle t h en
becomes :
wh er e t
in
a n d t
out
a r e r es pect ively t h e t ime of en t r a n ce in t h e la s er bea m a n d t ime
of exit fr om t h e la s er bea m. Th es e va lu es ca n be ca lcu la t ed, s in ce we h a ve:
wh er e v
p
is t h e velocit y of t h e powder pa r t icles a n d
p
is t h e in ject ion a n gle of
t h e pa r t icle con cer n ed. Su bs t it u t ion in t o equ a t ion 6.6, u n der t h e a s s u mpt ion
t h a t pa r t icles en t er t h e la s er bea m a t a pos it ion (x
in
,0) a n d lea ve a t (x
out
,0), gives :
Eq. 6.4
I x y z I x y z e
z
l
z
( , , ) ( , , )

0

Eq. 6.5
0
f
v
Eq. 6.6
E A r I x y z e dt
a p
f l
t
t
v z
in
out

2
0
0
( , , )
Eq. 6.7
dt
dx
v
p p
cos
Eq. 6.8
E
A r
v
I x y z e dx
a
p
p p
f l
x
x
v z
in
out
2
0
cos
( , , )
Th e t emper a t u r e r is e of a pa r t icle (T] ca n n ow be ca lcu la t ed, beca u s e t h e a b-
s or bed en er gy E
a
mu s t be equ a l t o t h e in t er n a l en er gy (n o melt in g)
1
:
wh er e m
p
is t h e ma s s of a s in gle powder pa r t icle, is t h e den s it y of t h e powder
ma t er ia l a n d c
p
is t h e s pecific h ea t .
Th e t emper a t u r e r is e of t h e pa r t icle is t h u s :
Th e volu me fr a ct ion f
v
depen ds on t h e dis t a n ce (s ) fr om t h e n ozzle exit :
wh er e m
p
is t h e powder ma s s flow r a t e.
Exp eri ment a l d et ermi na t i on of
0
:
Th e t r a n s mit t ed power wa s mea s u r ed wit h t h e s et -u p s h own in figu r e 6.7. Th is
s et -u p con s is t s of a powder in ject ion n ozzle, wh ich dir ect s a powder s t r ea m t o
t h e s u bs t r a t e. A s ma ll h ole is ma de in t h is s u bs t r a t e, wh ich is ju s t la r ge

1
Th is equ at ion is valid u n der t h e as s u mpt ion t h at t h e t emperat u re dis t ribu t ion wit h in t h e
part icle is u n iform. Th is con dit ion can be fu lfilled if t h e Biot n u mber, wh ich provides a
meas u re of t h e t emperat u re drop in t h e s olid relat ive t o t h e t emperat u re differen ce be-
t ween t h e s u rface an d t h e en viron men t , is mu ch s maller t h an 1 [In cropera, 1990]. For a
s ph er ica l powder pa r t icle, t h e Biot n u mber is :
( )
Bi
h r
k
p
/ 3
wh ere h is t h e t h ermal con vect ivit y of t h e en viron men t an d k is t h e t h ermal con du ct ivit y
of t h e powder mat erial. Th e Biot n u mber of a powder part icle in an Argon gas flow is ap-
proximat ely 60 10
-6
, wh ich is mu ch lower t h an 1. Hen ce, t h e con dit ion impos ed by t h e
Biot n u mber ca n be fu lfilled ea s ily.
Eq. 6.9
E m c T r c T
a p p p p

4
3
3

Eq. 6.10
T
A
r c v
I x y z e dx
p p p p
f l
x
x
v z
in
out
3
4
0
0

cos
( , , )
( )
f s
m
v D s
v
p
p pn
( )
tan
4
2

Eq. 6.11
106 Chapter 6
en ou gh t o let t h r ou gh t h e la s er bea m. Pa r t of t h e la s er en er gy is a t t en u a t ed in
t h e a t t en u a t ion zon e wh ich is r epr es en t ed in t h is figu r e a s a s h a ded a r ea . Th e
t r a n s mit t ed la s er en er gy is mea s u r ed wit h a la s er power met er .
Th e da r kly s h a ded a r ea does n ot exis t du r in g r ea l cla ddin g con dit ion s . Th er e-
for e, it mu s t be min imis ed by t a kin g a s ma ll in ject ion a n gle combin ed wit h a
la r ge in ject ion dis t a n ce. No powder is a llowed t o bou n ce on t h e s u bs t r a t e in
fr on t of t h e h ole, beca u s e t h e power wh ich is a bs or bed by s u ch pa r t icles is n ot
a ccou n t ed for in t h e equ a t ion s .
Accor din g t o Ka s t ler
2
[1952] t h e a bs or pt ion of la s er en er gy in a powder clou d
depen ds on t h e ma t er ia l in t h a t clou d. Th er efor e, t h e a bs or pt ion of t h e powder

2
Kas t ler propos ed a t h eory t o calcu lat e t h e at t en u at ion of ligh t in a clou d wit h s mall wat er
droplet s . Th is t h eory is bas ed on t h e wave equ at ion s of ligh t an d s h ows an an alogy wit h
t h e at t en u at ion of las er en ergy in powder part icles . Un der cert ain con dit ion s (2r
p
/ >
100)
0
equ als 3R/ 2r
p
. Th is con dit ion can n ot be met wh en u s in g CO
2
las er radiat ion
(wavelen gt h =10.6 m). However, t h e wavelen gt h of a Nd:YAG las er is t en t imes s maller
Fig. 6.7 Experimental s et-up for the determination of the pow er attenuation by
the pow der s tream (pow der injection angle: 30; pow der injection dis tance: 30
mm). The dark ly s haded region is the attenuation z one that mus t be minimis ed
for an accurate calculation of the value of
0
.
clou d wa s mea s u r ed for t h r ee ma t er ia ls : St ellit e 6 (coba lt ba s e), Met co 15E
(n ickel ba s e) a n d Amdr y 5843 (t u n gs t en ba s e) (a ppen dix 1).
Th e t r a n s mit t ed power wa s mea s u r ed wit h t h e pa r a met er va r ia t ion s s h own in
t a ble 6.3.
Figu r e 6.8 s h ows t h e power a t t en u a t ion a s a fu n ct ion of t h e powder flow r a t e
for s ever a l la s er power s . It s h ows t h a t t h e la s er power h a s n o effect on t h e
mea s u r ed power a t t en u a t ion . Th e a t t en u a t ion in cr ea s es lin ea r ly wit h t h e pow-
der flow r at e.
Figu r e 6.9 s h ows t h e power a t t en u a t ion a s a fu n ct ion of t h e powder flow r a t e
for s ever a l bea m dia met er s . Th e a t t en u a t ion decr ea s es wh en t h e bea m dia met er
is en la r ged a n d in cr ea s es lin ea r ly wit h t h e powder flow r a t e.
Figu r e 6.10 s h ows t h e power a t t en u a t ion for t h r ee differ en t cla ddin g ma t er ia ls .
Th e in flu en ce of t h e pa r t icle s ize is clea r ly vis ible. Th e powder wit h t h e la r ges t
gr a in s , i.e. Amdr y 5843, h a s a power a t t en u a t ion t h a t is a fa ct or 3.5 h igh er
t h a n t h a t of St ellit e 6, wh ich h a s t h e s ma lles t gr a in s . Th e mea s u r ed power a t -
t en u a t ion of St ellit e 6, Met co 15E a n d Amdr y 5843 a r e in t h e pr opor t ion of 1 t o
1.3 t o 3.3. Th is r ela t es clos ely t o t h e in ver s e of t h eir pa r t icle s ize.

(1.06 m). Hen ce, t h e con dit ion can be s at is fied. Lemoin e [1995] an d J ou vard [1997]
s h owed t h a t wit h t h e t h u s ca lcu la t ed va lu e of
0
, s a t is fa ct or y r es u lt s ca n be a ch ieved.
Tab. 6.3 Parameter variation for the determination of the trans mitted pow er.
Stellite 6 powder flow rate [mg/s]
diameter laser spot [mm]
laser power [W]
50 - 100 - 150 - 200 - 250
2.0 - 3.0 - 4.0 - 5.0
800 - 1300 - 1800
Metco 15 E powder flow rate [mg/s]
laser power [W]
50 - 100 - 150 - 200 - 250
3.0
1300
Amdry 5843 powder flow rate [mg/s]
laser power [W]
50 - 100 - 150 - 200 - 250
3.0
1300
108 Chapter 6
Fig. 6.8 Pow er attenuation as a function of the pow der flow rate meas ured for
three las er pow er levels (material: Stellite 6; las er beam diameter: 2.0 mm).
four las er beam diameters (material: Stellite 6; las er pow er: 1300 W).
Th e mea s u r ed power a t t en u a t ion wa s u s ed t o der ive t h e va lu e of
0
for ea ch
ma t er ia l. Th e r es u lt s a r e s h own in t a ble 6.4.
Th e on ly ot h er a u t h or t h a t h a s r epor t ed a s t u dy t o t h e pr eh ea t in g of powder
pa r t icles by a CO
2
la s er bea m [Li, 1995] u s ed a va lu e of 10
4
mm
-1
for t h e ext in c-
t ion coefficien t of a St ellit e 6 powder clou d, wh ich is a fa ct or 30 la r ger t h a n t h e
va lu e exper imen t a lly det er min ed in t h is ch a pt er . Th e va lu e of Li, wh ich is t h e
ext in ct ion fa ct or of CO
2
la s er r a dia t ion in a s olid, h a s been s h own in cor r ect by
ca lcu la t ion s a n d by exper imen t s . Us in g t h e va lu e pr opos ed by Li, les s t h a n 5 %
of t h e la s er power ca n r ea ch t h e s u bs t r a t e. As a con s equ en ce, n o melt pool ca n
be for med.
three cladding pow ders (las er pow er: 1300 W; s pot diameter: 3.0 mm).
Tab. 6.4 Pow der cloud extinction coefficient (
0
) derived from the meas ured
pow er attenuation.
Material mean particle
radius [m]
density
[kg/m
3
]
powder cloud extinction
coefficient
0
[mm
-1
]
Stellite 6
Metco 15E
Amdry 5843
48.5
37.5
17.5
8460
7700
12500
363
420
1650
110 Chapter 6
Temp era t ure of p owd er p a rt i cl es wi t h t he exp eri ment a l l y d et ermi ned
va l ue of
0
Th e t emper a t u r e r is e of pa r t icles wa s ca lcu la t ed for a s t a n da r d con figu r a t ion in
t h e a u t h or s la bor a t or y. Th es e defa u lt va lu es a r e s h own in t a ble 6.5.
Figu r e 6.11 s h ows t h e pa r t icle t emper a t u r e a s a fu n ct ion of t h e pos it ion wh er e
t h ey h it t h e s u bs t r a t e for t h r ee pa r t icle s izes . Th e pa r t icle t emper a t u r e in -
cr ea s es wh en t h e pa r t icle s ize is r edu ced. Th e t op-mos t pa r t icles in t h e powder
s t r ea m h it t h e s u bs t r a t e a bou t 6 mm beh in d t h e la s er s pot in t h is con figu r a -
t ion . Un for t u n a t ely, t h ey do n ot pa r t icipa t e t o t h e bu ildin g of t h e cla d, a lt h ou gh
t h ey a r e t h e pa r t icles t h a t exper ien ce t h e h igh es t t emper a t u r e r is e.
Figu r e 6.12 s h ows t h e effect of t h e powder velocit y v
p
on t h e pa r t icle t emper a -
t u r e r is e for a pa r t icle h it t in g t h e s u bs t r a t e 1.4 mm beh in d t h e la s er s pot cen -
t r e. Th e powder velocit y h a s a n on -lin ea r effect on t h e pa r t icle t emper a t u r e.
Th is n on -lin ea r beh a viou r is ca u s ed by t h e pr es en ce of t h is pa r a met er in t h e
den omin a t or of equ a t ion 6.10 a n d en h a n ced by t h e fa ct t h a t t h e volu me fr a c-
t ion is a ls o a ffect ed. Pa r t icu la r ly a t velocit ies below 5 m/ s , a con s ider a ble t em-
per a t u r e r is e ca n be a ch ieved.
Figu r e 6.13 s h ows t h e effect of t h e powder ma s s flow r a t e on t h e t emper a t u r e
r is e. Th e ma s s flow r a t e h a r dly h a s a n y effect on t h e pa r t icle t emper a t u r e in
t h is con figu r a t ion .
Tab. 6.5 Default values of parameters .
coating material:
focal length:
spot diameter D:
laser power P:
beam intensity profile:
powder flow rate:
particle speed v
p
:
particle radius r
p
:
diameter powder nozzle D
pn
:
distance powder nozzle -> substrate:
powder injection angle :
angle of divergence powder stream :
offset centre laser beam -> centre powder stream x:
Stellite 6
95 mm
3.0 mm
1500 W
Gaussian
75 mg/s
25 m/s
100 m
2.0 mm
9 mm
30
10
0.0 mm
Fig. 6.11 Effect of particle s iz e on temperature ris e.
Fig. 6.12 Effect of particle velocity v
p
on particle heating for a particle hit-
ting the s ubs trate 1.4 mm behind the las er beam centre.
112 Chapter 6
Figu r e 6.14 s h ows t h e effect of t h e la s er s pot s ize on t h e pa r t icle t emper a t u r e.
Ea ch of t h e la s er s pot s con t a in s t h e s a me la s er power (1500 W). Th e pa r t icle
t emper a t u r e in cr ea s es wit h a r edu ct ion of t h e s pot dia met er .
Fig. 6.13 Effect of pow der mas s flow rate on temperature ris e.
Fig. 6.14 Effect of s pot diameter on particle temperature. Same pow er in
all las er s pots (1500 W).
Th e effect s of t h e la s er power a n d t h e in t en s it y dis t r ibu t ion a r e n ot s h own . Th e
effect of t h e la s er power is lin ea r , a s wa s a lr ea dy eviden t fr om equ a t ion 6.10.
Th e effect of in t en s it y dis t r ibu t ion wa s in ves t iga t ed by compa r in g a Ga u s s ia n
pr ofile wit h a cir cu la r u n ifor m dis t r ibu t ion . Th e defa u lt pa r a met er s u s ed in t h is
s imu la t ion , yielded r es u lt s t h a t ca n n ot be dis t in gu is h ed fr om ea ch ot h er wh en
plot t in g t h em in gr a ph s .
Di s cus s i on of res ul t s
Th e t emper a t u r e r is e of pa r t icles t h a t a r e t r a n s por t ed in t h e ca r r ier ga s t o t h e
la s er s pot on t h e s u bs t r a t e is limit ed in t h e pr es en t con figu r a t ion t o a n a ver a ge
of 19.9 C. Th e ma in r ea s on s for t h is low va lu e a r e t h e h igh pa r t icle velocit y
a n d t h e la r ge a ver a ge gr a in s ize of t h e powder .
Th is low t emper a t u r e r is e pr oves t h a t t h e n ot iced glowin g pa r t icles (s ect ion 6.1)
ca n n ot be pa r t icles t h a t a r e in ject ed s t r a igh t fr om t h e powder n ozzle t o t h e
s u bs t r a t e. Th es e pa r t icles mu s t h a ve r icoch et ed fr om t h e s u bs t r a t e or t h e melt
pool.
Th e pr es en t powder efficien cy is low. Mos t pa r t icles a r e dir ect ed t o a pos it ion
beh in d t h e la s er s pot , wh ich is a wa s t e of pr eciou s coa t in g ma t er ia l. Beca u s e of
t h e moder a t e power a t t en u a t ion (figu r e 6.10), t h e poor powder efficien cy does
n ot a ffect t h e cla ddin g pr oces s it s elf.
Figu r e 6.15 s h ows t h e t emper a t u r e of pa r t icles t h a t h it t h e s u bs t r a t e for a n im-
pr oved con figu r a t ion for t h r ee powder in ject ion a n gles . Th e pa r t icle velocit y a n d
diver gen ce wer e r edu ced t o r es pect ively 4 m/ s a n d 2. Th e off-s et x wa s s e-
lect ed t o en s u r e t h a t t h e t opmos t pa r t icles , wh ich a r e h ea t ed mos t , h it t h e s u b-
s t r a t e wit h in t h e la s er s pot . Th e a ver a ge t emper a t u r e of pa r t icles t h a t a r r ive on
t h e s u bs t r a t e in cr ea s es fr om 20 C in t h e defa u lt con figu r a t ion t o 200 C in t h is
impr oved s et -u p. Accor din g t o figu r e 6.11 t h is t emper a t u r e r is e ca n be en -
h a n ced s u bs t a n t ia lly by r edu cin g t h e a ver a ge pa r t icle s ize.
Th e powder efficien cy impr oves a s well. Wh en a pplyin g a powder in ject ion a n gle
of 60 a n efficien cy of mor e t h a n 98 % ca n be a ch ieved.
114 Chapter 6
6.3 Ionisation of powder particles
Du r in g t h e exper imen t s des cr ibed in s ect ion 6.1, t h e occu r r en ce of a pla s ma
wa s obs er ved wh en a pplyin g la s er power s of 1260 W a n d h igh er . Th is pla s ma
effect ively a bs or bs t h e la s er r a dia t ion a n d s h ields t h e s u bs t r a t e fr om t h e la s er
bea m. Sin ce t h is s t ops t h e cla ddin g pr oces s , pla s ma for ma t ion mu s t be pr e-
ven t ed.
Pla s ma for ma t ion h a d n ot been obs er ved du r in g la s er cla ddin g wit h pr epla ced
powder . Th e exper imen t a l con figu r a t ion wa s iden t ica l, a s wer e t h e ma ch in in g
pa r a met er s . Th er efor e, t h e occu r r en ce of a pla s ma mu s t be a con s equ en ce of
t h e in ject ion of pa r t icles .
A la s er bea m in t en s it y of 10
6
-10
7
W/ cm
2
is r equ ir ed t o for m a pla s ma in a met a l
va pou r [Beyer , 1985]. Du r in g t h e exper imen t s des cr ibed in s ect ion 6.1, a la s er
power of a t lea s t 1260 W wa s n eces s a r y t o a ch ieve a pla s ma . Th e t h eor et ica l
mea n la s er in t en s it y in t h e focu s is in t h a t ca s e 5.7510
6
W/ cm
2
, wh ich is in t h e
r a n ge r equ ir ed for pla s ma for ma t ion . In pr a ct ice even h igh er va lu es a r e
a ch ieved loca lly, a s a r es u lt of t h e n on u n ifor m power den s it y dis t r ibu t ion of
t h e a pplied la s er bea m.
Th e mos t obviou s wa y t o pr even t t h e for ma t ion of a pla s ma is n ot t o a llow pa r -
t icles t o en t er t h e foca l a r ea by in cr ea s in g t h e s h ieldin g ga s flow fr om t h e n ozzle
Fig. 6.15 Particle temperature for improved pow der injection parameters .
(figu r e 6.1). Un for t u n a t ely, t h is is n ot pos s ible beca u s e a s t r on g ga s flow dis -
t u r bs t h e melt pool a n d t h e powder s t r ea m.
Th e mea n power den s it y in t h e focu s of t h e la s er bea m ca n be r edu ced by eit h er
decr ea s in g t h e la s er power or by in cr ea s in g t h e bea m wa is t (w
of
in figu r e 6.16).
Th e fir s t a lt er n a t ive ca n n ot be con s ider ed a s a n opt ion beca u s e a cer t a in la s er
power level is r equ ir ed t o melt a n d h ea t t h e s u bs t r a t e.
Th e s econ d a lt er n a t ive ca n be implemen t ed qu it e ea s ily by a pplyin g a len s wit h
a la r ger foca l len gt h (figu r e 6.16). An ot h er a dva n t a ge of a len s wit h a la r ger fo-
ca l len gt h is t h a t t h e dis t a n ce bet ween t h e pr oces s in g a r ea a n d t h e min imu m
wa is t will in cr ea s e, wh ich , in it s t u r n , will in cr ea s e t h e likelih ood t h a t t h e
s h ieldin g ga s ca n pr even t t h e pa r t icles fr om en t er in g t h e foca l a r ea .
Exper imen t s (t a ble 6.6) s h owed t h a t pla s ma for ma t ion cou ld a lmos t be com-
plet ely pr even t ed in t h e con figu r a t ion des cr ibed in s ect ion 6.1 wh en a pplyin g a
len s wit h a foca l len gt h of 154 mm in s t ea d of 95 mm. Th e la s er power cou ld be
in cr ea s ed t o 1500 W. Th e u s e of t h e 154 mm len s r es u lt ed in a r edu ct ion of t h e
a ver a ge power den s it y of 62%, br in gin g it down t o a bou t 210
6
W/ cm
2
, wh ich is
s t ill over t h e cr it ica l va lu e of 10
6
W/ cm
2
. Th er efor e, h igh er power levels cer t a in ly
r equ ir e t h e u s e of len s es wit h even la r ger foca l len gt h s .
Th e exper imen t s (t a ble 6.6) s h owed t h a t t h e la s er power a lon e is n ot s u fficien t
t o pr edict t h e momen t a t wh ich pla s ma for ma t ion s t a r t s . Some t r a cks wer e a l-
r ea dy in t er r u pt ed a ft er a few millimet r es , wh er ea s ot h er s u n der s eemin gly
Fig. 6.16 Las er beam contour as function of the dis tance to the w ais t for lens es
w ith a focal length of 95 and 154 mm. The s malles t w ais t is 167 m and 270
m for a focal length of res pectively 95 and 154 mm. The 3.0 mm beam diameter
is pos itioned res pectively 17 and 27 mm from the w ais t.
116 Chapter 6
iden t ica l pr oces s con dit ion s cou ld be a pplied s u cces s fu lly. Fu r t h er obs er va t ion s
s h owed t h a t pla s ma for ma t ion in t h e en clos ed wor kin g ch a mber is in cr ea s ed by
t h e exper imen t a t ion t ime a n d t h e powder ma s s flow r a t e. Appa r en t ly, a cr it ica l
con cen t r a t ion of s ma ll pa r t icles mu s t be r ea ch ed t o in it ia t e t h e pla s ma for ma -
t ion .
Ver y s ma ll pa r t icles (< 1 m) in t h e powder mixt u r e ca n r ema in floa t in g in t h e
wor kin g ch a mber for a lon g t ime befor e t h ey fa ll. Th e velocit y of s u ch pa r t icles
is ver y low a n d, t h er efor e t h eir expos u r e t ime t o t h e la s er bea m ca n be lon g. As
wa s s h own in s ect ion 6.2, t h e t emper a t u r e r is e of pa r t icles s t r on gly depen ds on
t h e in ver s e pa r t icle s ize. Th es e t h r ee fa ct or s combin ed, en h a n ce t h e likelih ood
t h a t t h os e pa r t icles a r e h ea t ed t o s u ch a n ext en t t h a t a met a l va pou r will be
for med.
Tab. 6.6 Experiments on plas ma formation.
plasma
formation
laser power
[W]
feed rate
[mm/s]
plasma at
track
relative powder
flow rate [%]
focal length:
95 mm
1700
1600
1500
1300
1400
1400
1300
1700
1700
1300
1500
1500
5
5
4
5
4
3
3
4
4
3
3
3
7 (of 10)
1 (of 1)
1 (of 1)
1 (of 1)
1 (of 1)
1 (of 1)
5 (of 10)
1 (of 1)
4 (of 10)
6 (of 10)
1 (of 1)
7 (of 15)
13
10
10
15
12.5
10
10
13
10
8
8
15
focal length:
154 mm
1500 3 2 (of 12) 12
no plasma
formation
laser power
[W]
feed rate
[mm/s]
number of
tracks
relative powder
flow rate [%]
focal length:
95 mm
1300
1300
1300
1400
1400
1300
1300
1700
1300
1300
1300
1500
1500
6
5
4
4
3
3
3
4
3
3
3
3
3
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
10
1
12
15
10
10
10
10
10
12
13
15
20
8
15
15
focal length:
154 mm
1500
1500
1500
1500
1500
1500
1500
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
1
1
1
12
12
12
12
15
10
8
15
12
10
8
Chapter 7
Examples of applications
7.1 Diesel engine inlet valve
In let va lves of dies el en gin es mu s t be r es is t a n t t o a dh es ive, a br a s ive a n d cor r o-
s ive wea r a n d, mu s t be a ble t o r es is t t h e impa ct wit h t h e va lve s ea t (figu r e 7.1).
Th e n eces s a r y ma t er ia l pr oper t ies ca n on ly be s u pplied by r ela t ively expen s ive
ma t er ia ls . In or der t o r edu ce ma t er ia l cos t s , or din a r y s t eel is cover ed wit h a
dedica t ed s u r fa ce la yer t h a t ca n fu lfil t h e r equ ir emen t s men t ion ed a bove. St el-
lit e 6 is a well kn own ma t er ia l for impr ovin g t h e s u r fa ce pr oper t ies of dies el en -
gin e va lves (ch a pt er 2) a n d h a s t h er efor e been s elect ed for t h e a pplica t ion de-
s cr ibed in t h is s ect ion .
Figu r e 7.1 s h ows t h e in t er a ct ion zon e bet ween t h e va lve a n d t h e va lve s ea t .
Th a t is t h e r egion t h a t mu s t be r ein for ced.
Th e cla d la yer mu s t h a ve t h e followin g dimen s ion s :
- cla d h eigh t : > 0.3 mm;
- cla d widt h : > 2.2 mm;
- n o a lt er a t ion of t h e s u r fa ce s h a pe.
Sin ce t h e va lve geomet r y s h ou ld n ot be modified, a gr oove wa s ma de in t h e
va lves (figu r e 7.1 r igh t ). Th e exper imen t a l s et -u p is s h own in figu r e 7.3.
120 Chapter 7
Th e followin g s et t in gs wer e u s ed:
- feed r a t e: 2.0 mm/ s ;
- powder in ject ion a n gle: 45;
- powder ma s s flow r a t e: 4.8 mg/ mm;
- powder in ject ion dis t a n ce: 10.5 mm;
- s h ieldin g ga s : a r gon .
Two differ en t la s er in t en s it y pr ofiles wer e a pplied (figu r e 7.2).
Bes t cla ddin g r es u lt s wer e a ch ieved wit h t h e s et t in gs s h own in t a ble 7.1. Th e
ma ch in in g pa r a met er s a r e differ en t du e t o t h e differ en t in t en s it y pr ofiles . Th e
bes t s et t in gs for bea m on e wer e det er min ed by per for min g a s er ies of exper i-
men t s .
Fig. 7.1 Valve and valve s eat as w ell as the dimens ions of the clad [mm].
Fig. 7.2 Applied las er beam profiles .
Examples of applications 121
However , t h e s et t in gs of bea m 2 wer e det er min ed by compa r in g t h e t emper a -
t u r e dis t r ibu t ion t h a t is in du ced on t h e s u r fa ce by t h es e bea m pr ofiles
(followin g t h e met h od des cr ibed in ch a pt er 3). Wit h bea m 1 h igh er t emper a -
t u r es a r e r ea ch ed. Th e a r ea over wh ich a h igh t emper a t u r e is a t t a in ed is la r ger
a s well (figu r e 7.4). Th is implies t h a t wit h bea m 1, a deeper melt pool is for med
t h a n wit h bea m 2, wh ich en s u r es a good bon din g wit h t h e ba s e ma t er ia l. In or -
der t o in cr ea s e t h e s u r fa ce t emper a t u r e t h a t is a t t a in ed wit h bea m 2, a s ma ller
Tab. 7.1 Machining parameters res ulting in bes t cladding res ults .
beam 1 beam 2
laser power [W]
spot size [mm]
1600
3.05
1410
2.50
Fig. 7.3 Experimental s et-up for las er cladding of an inlet valve.
122 Chapter 7
s pot s ize wit h a h igh er power den s it y wa s a pplied. Th is cor r ect ion r es u lt ed in a
ma ximu m s u r fa ce t emper a t u r e compa r a ble t o t h e on e a ch ieved wit h bea m 1.
Wh en la s er bea m 2 wa s a pplied wit h t h e ma ch in in g pa r a met er s of bea m 1, a
wider cla d (3.1 mm vs . 2.6 mm) wit h a poor qu a lit y wa s a t t a in ed. Th e bon din g
wit h t h e ba s e ma t er ia l wa s in complet e a n d a s ever e degr ee of por os it y wa s
fou n d in t h e cla d. As pr edict ed by t h e model, t h e melt pool t emper a t u r e wa s t oo
low. However , a cla d la yer wit h t h e s a me pr oper t ies a s t h e in it ia l on e wa s pr o-
du ced wh en a pplyin g bea m 2 wit h t h e ca lcu la t ed pa r a met er s .
Res u lt s :
- cla d h eigh t : 1.0 mm;
- cla d widt h : 2.6 mm;
Fig. 7.4 Effect of las er beam profiles on the temperature profile on the bas e
material (feed rate: 5 mm/ s ).
- dilu t ion : < 9 %;
- h a r dn es s : 560 Hv;
- powder efficien cy: 31 %;
- la s er ma ch in in g t ime: 77 s econ ds .
Th e h a r dn es s dis t r ibu t ion over t h e cla d cr os s -s ect ion (figu r e 7.6) is s h own in
figu r e 7.5. Th e h a r dn es s is u n ifor m over t h e cla d cr os s -s ect ion : bet ween 560
a n d 575 Hv0.3. Th e h a r dn es s dr ops t o 370 Hv0.3 a t a dis t a n ce of 1 mm fr om
t h e t op of t h e cla d. Th is a gr ees well wit h t h e mea s u r ed cla d h eigh t .
Th e mea s u r ed dis t r ibu t ion of elemen t s in t h e cr os s -s ect ion is s h own in figu r e
7.7.
Fig. 7.5 Hardnes s dis tribution meas ured over the clad cros s -s ection.
Fig. 7.6 Clad lay er produced in a premade groove.
124 Chapter 7
7.2 Extruder screw
Ext r u der s cr ews for pla s t ic ma ch in er y mu s t be r es is t a n t t o cor r os ive a n d me-
ch a n ica l wea r . Th es e r equ ir emen t s a r e n or ma lly met by n it r idin g t h e s t eel s u b-
s t r a t e. However , it is t o be expect ed t h a t t h is t r ea t men t will n ot be s u fficien t in
t h e n ea r fu t u r e, beca u s e:
- h igh t emper a t u r e r es is t a n t pla s t ics a r e comin g in t o pr a ct ice;
- a br a s ive pa r t icles a n d r ein for ced fibr es a r e a dded;
- ver y cor r os ive elemen t s a r e mixed t o pr ot ect t h e mixt u r e fr om ca t ch in g fir e;
- pla s t ic pr odu ct ion r a t es mu s t be in cr ea s ed wh ich in volves h igh er wor kin g
pr es s u r es .
Mor eover , t h e n it r idin g of s cr ews h a s a ma jor dr a wba ck. It ca u s es s ever e dis -
t or t ion of t h e s cr ew, r equ ir in g a r e-a lign men t of t h e s cr ew.
La s er cla ddin g does n ot h a ve t h is dis a dva n t a ge beca u s e t h e h ea t in pu t is con -
fin ed t o t h e s u r fa ces t o be t r ea t ed, in s t ea d of t o t h e en t ir e wor kpiece.
Th er efor e, it wa s decided u pon t o in ves t iga t e t h e pos s ibilit ies of la s er cla ddin g
for impr ovin g t h e cor r os ion a n d wea r r es is t a n ce of s cr ews for pla s t ic ma ch in er y.
Fig. 7.7 Material compos ition determined by SEM meas urements .
Th e s cr ews a r e pr odu ced of s t eel 14Cr MoV69. Repa r a t ion of wor n s cr ews is
per for med by weldin g St ellit e elect r odes on t o it . Hen ce, t h es e ma t er ia ls wer e
a ls o s elect ed for u s e in t h is la s er cla ddin g exper imen t .
Exper imen t s wer e per for med on a du mmy, wh ich dimen s ion s a r e s h own in fig-
u r e 7.8. Th e pit ch , wh ich exis t s in a r ea l ext r u der s cr ew, is s ma ll a n d does n ot
a ffect t h e cla ddin g beh a viou r .
Th e exper imen t a l s et -u p a n d t h e ma ch in in g pa r a met er s a r e s h own in figu r e 7.9
a n d t a ble 7.2.
Fig. 7.8 Specimen for las er cladding on extruder s crew .
Fig. 7.9 Schematic s et-up for cladding of an extruder s crew .
126 Chapter 7
Figu r e 7.10 s h ows t h e geomet r y of t h e pr odu ced cla d. Th is cla d wa s ma de by
a pplyin g t wo la yer s on t op of ea ch ot h er . Th e t wo la yer s wer e a h a lf bea m di-
a met er dis pla ced fr om ea ch ot h er a n d con s is t of s ever a l a dja cen t pa r t ly over -
la ppin g t r a cks . Th e fir s t la yer r es u lt ed in a cla d t h ickn es s of a bou t 0.6 mm. Th e
s econ d la yer a dded a n ot h er 0.4 mm t o t h is .
Th e bon din g t o t h e ba s e ma t er ia l is a s t r on g fu s ion bon d t h a t s h ows n o defect s
(figu r e 7.11). Th e dilu t ion is a ccept a ble (10 %) a n d n o cr a cks a n d on ly a s ma ll
degr ee of por os it y cou ld be obs er ved. Th e h a r dn es s in t h e cla d va r ies bet ween
500 a n d 570 Hv, wh ich is common for St ellit e cla ds . Du e t o t h e a pplica t ion of
t wo la yer s on t op of ea ch ot h er , t h e h a r dn es s in cr ea s e of t h e ba s e ma t er ia l
cou ld be r edu ced (figu r e 7.12).
Tab. 7.2 Parameter s ettings for cladding of extruder s crew .
Base material:
coating:
powder nozzle diameter:
nozzle-workpiece distance:
powder injection angle:
argon carrier gas:
- flow:
- pressure:
14CrMoV69
Stellite 6
1.5 mm
9.5 mm
45
4.8 l/min
1.5 10
5
N/m
2
powder mass flow:
track to track distance:
laser powder:
feed rate:
spot diameter:
focal length:
beam profile:
110 mg/s
0.9 mm
1100 W
8 mm/s
3.0 mm
200 mm
see app. 3
Fig. 7.10 Geometry of the produced clad.
Sin ce t h e la s er cla ddin g t ech n iqu e in t h is exa mple is mea n t a s a r epa r a t ion
met h od, s ome exper imen t s wer e per for med on a n it r ided s u r fa ce a s well.
Th es e exper imen t s a ls o yielded cla ds wit h a good bon din g t o t h e s u bs t r a t e.
However , cr a cks a n d ga s h oles wer e for med on t h e in t er fa ce bet ween t h e cla d
a n d t h e ba s e ma t er ia l (figu r e 7.13). Th e n it r ides dir ect ly u n der t h e in t er fa ce
dis a ppea r ed.
It wa s con clu ded t h a t la s er cla ddin g is a s u it a ble t ech n iqu e for r epa ir in g wor n
ext r u der s cr ews . It is es s en t ia l t o ma ch in e t h e da ma ged s u r fa ce t o below t h e
Fig. 7.11 Trans ition from the clad to the bas e material.
Fig. 7.12 Cours e of the hardnes s in the s urface of the extruder s crew .
128 Chapter 7
n it r idin g dept h in or der t o pr even t t h e for ma t ion of ga s h oles a n d cr a cks on t h e
in t er fa ce bet ween cla d a n d s cr ew.
Figu r e 7.14-7.16 s h ow t h r ee t ypes of por os it y t h a t wer e fou n d du r in g t h e ex-
per imen t s . Th e fir s t pict u r e s h ows t h e in t er -r u n por os it y t h a t ca n be a voided by
a r edu ct ion of t h e cla d h eigh t t o dept h r a t io. Th e s econ d pict u r e s h ows s ome
r a t h er la r ge ga s h oles in t h e cla d, a s well a s s ome defect s on t h e in t er fa ce. On e
of t h es e defect s is s h own in t h e la s t pict u r e.
Fig. 7.13 Crack s and gas hole on the interface betw een s ubs trate and clad.
Fig. 7.14 Inter-run poros ity .
7.3 Wireline cylinder head
Wir elin e cylin der s u s ed in t h e pet r o-ch emica l in du s t r y a r e pr on e t o cor r os ion .
Sever e cor r os ive wea r ca n lea d t o lea kin g. In t h a t ca s e, t h e fa ces in dica t ed a s A,
B a n d C in figu r e 7.17 mu s t be r epa ir ed.
Fig. 7.15 Some rather large gas holes and interface defects .
Fig. 7.16 Defect on the interface betw een clad and s ubs trate.
130 Chapter 7
Th e wir elin e cylin der h ea d is ma de of s t eel AISI 4130. Powder Dia ma lloy 1005,
wh ich is a cor r os ion r es is t a n t In con el 625 t ype powder , wa s s elect ed a s coa t in g
mat er ial.
Th e wor n s u r fa ces wer e gr it bla s t ed, ma ch in ed a n d degr ea s ed pr ior t o la s er
cla ddin g. Th e cla ddin g pr oces s it s elf in volved t h e pr oces s in g of t h e t h r ee fa ces
a s in dica t ed in figu r e 7.17, a s well a s t h e edges . Th e t wo ou t er s u r fa ces , i.e. t h e
t op s u r fa ce a n d t h e ou t er dia met er , wer e t r ea t ed wit h a per pen dicu la r ly ir r a di-
a t in g la s er bea m. For t r ea t men t of t h e in n er s u r fa ce t h e wor kpiece wa s pos i-
t ion ed u n der a n a n gle of 45 t o t h e h or izon t a l (figu r e 7.18).
Th e cla ddin g of t h e edges wa s mor e complica t ed. To pr even t t h e for ma t ion of a
r ou n ded cla d, a n a u xilia r y r in g wit h t h e s a me s ize a s t h e ou t er a n d in n er di-
a met er of t h e cylin der h ea d, wa s pla ced on t op of it . Fir s t , t h e ou t er a n d in n er
s u r fa ce wer e cla d. Aft er ma ch in in g t h os e s u r fa ces a n d r emovin g t h e r in g, t h e
t op s u r fa ce cou ld be t r ea t ed.
Fig. 7.17 Cros s s ection of a w ireline cy linder head.
Fig. 7.18 Pos itioning of the s urfaces w ith res pect to the las er beam.
La s er cla ddin g wa s per for med wit h t h e followin g pa r a met er s :
Depen din g on t h e r equ ir ed cla d t h ickn es s , s ever a l la yer s mu s t be a pplied on
t op of ea ch ot h er . Ea ch n ew la yer in cr ea s es t h e cla d t h ickn es s wit h 0.4 mm.
Th e cla ds wer e a n a lys ed by t wo n on -des t r u ct ive met h ods . Fir s t , a liqu id pen e-
t r a n t exa min a t ion wa s per for med t o s h ow pos s ible por os it y a n d cr a cks in t h e
s u r fa ce. Secon dly, t h e wor kpiece wa s immer s ed in a n et ch in g Nit a l s olu t ion .
Th is s olu t ion on ly et ch es t h e s t eel s u bs t r a t e. Th e a pplied coa t in g will n ot be
a ffect ed. If a da r k s h a de ca n be n ot iced a ft er t h e immer s ion , t h e s u bs t r a t e cov-
er a ge wa s in complet e. However , n eit h er of t h es e met h ods s h owed a n y ir r egu -
lar it y.
Figu r e 7.19 s h ows a micr ogr a ph of a pos t -ma ch in ed pa r t of t h e cylin der h ea d.
Tab. 7.3 Parameter s ettings for cladding of a w ireline cy linder head.
Laser parameters outer surfaces inner surface
focal length [mm]
nozzle opening [mm]
argon flow [l/min]
laser power [W]
spot diameter [mm]
feed rate [mm/s]
overlap between tracks [%]
200
6
8
1500
3.0
5
40
200
6
8
1800
3.0
4
50
powder parameters outer surfaces inner surface
powder feed rate [g/min]
argon carrier gas flow [l/min]
diameter powder nozzle [mm]
nozzle-workpiece distance [mm]
injection angle with respect to:
- laser beam
- clad direction
6
20
2
12
45
90
7.2
20
2
12
22.5
45
132 Chapter 7
Fig. 7.19 Cros s -s ection of the pos t-machined cy linder head.
Figu r e 7.20 s h ows t h e cou r s e of t h e h a r dn es s a s mea s u r ed on t h e t op s u r fa ce.
Th e h a r dn es s in t h e cla d is a bou t 250 Hv, wh ich equ a ls t h e h a r dn es s in t h e n ot
h ea t a ffect ed zon e. Un for t u n a t ely, t h e h a r dn es s in t h e h ea t a ffect ed zon e of t h e
ba s e ma t er ia l is t oo h igh . Th is h a r dn es s in cr ea s e is du e t o t h e for ma t ion of
ma r t en s it e. Th e for ma t ion of ma r t en s it e in t r odu ces r es idu a l s t r es s es in t h e
wor kpiece. Th e effect on t h e cor r os ion r es is t a n ce h a s n ot been kn own yet .
Pr a ct ice t es t s s h ou ld r evea l t h is .
Mea s u r emen t s of t h e ma t er ia l compos it ion (t a ble 7.4) in t h e cla d s h owed t h a t
t h e dilu t ion va r ies bet ween 1 a n d 12 %.
Fig. 7.20 Cours e of the hardnes s in the top s urface.
Tab. 7.4 Meas ured chemical compos ition in the applied clad.
outer
surface
top of
outer
edge
bottom of
outer
edge
outer
surface
inner
surface
AISI
4130
Al
Si
Nb
Mo
Cr
Fe
Ni
C
0.36
0.29
4.41
7.53
18.71
14.95
53.76
0.25
0.31
4.67
8.29
20.57
9.83
56.09
0.45
0.29
4.83
8.47
21.89
4.86
59.22
0.46
0.32
4.26
8.22
19.39
15.37
51.98
0.41
0.30
5.22
8.39
21.59
6.01
58.07
0.22
0.19
0.92
base
0.21
0.31
Chapter 8
Conclusions, review and
recommendations
8.1 Conclusions
Th e pu r pos e of t h is wor k wa s t o en h a n ce t h e in s igh t in mech a n is ms t h a t gov-
er n t h e la s er cla ddin g pr oces s a n d t o develop a ll kin ds of t ools t h a t fa cilit a t e t h e
exper imen t a l effor t s t h a t a r e r equ ir ed t o a ch ieve s u cces s fu l in du s t r ia l a pplica -
t ion s . Wit h t h e t h er ewit h ga in ed kn owledge, t h e Du t ch in du s t r y s h ou ld be a ble
t o a pply la s er cla ddin g, a s it is a s t r a t egic t ech n iqu e for t h e impr ovemen t of
h igh qu a lit y ma ch in e pa r t s .
Fir s t ly, a lit er a t u r e r es ea r ch h a d t o be per for med t o get a n idea of t h e s t a t e-of-
t h e-a r t . Secon dly, t h e effect of t h e la s er bea m power den s it y dis t r ibu t ion of t h e
t emper a t u r e pr ofile on t h e s u r fa ce h a d t o be s t u died. Fr om t h is s t u dy, it fol-
lowed t h a t a lin e s ou r ce wit h a u n ifor m power den s it y in t h e la t er a l dir ect ion is
pr efer r ed, beca u s e t h is s h a pe r es u lt s in t h e mos t u n ifor m t emper a t u r e dis t r i-
bu t ion . Th is pr oper t y, combin ed wit h t h e a dva n t a ge of h a vin g a well defin ed
s pot t h a t does n ot depen d on t h e a pplied la s er s ys t em, led t o t h e developmen t
of a lin e in t egr a t or .
136 Chapter 8
Th e developed lin e in t egr a t or fu lfilled t h e expect a t ion s in t er ms of power den s it y
u n ifor mit y a n d s pot defin it ion , bu t cou ld u n for t u n a t ely n ot be u s ed for la s er
cla ddin g exper imen t s . Th e la s er power a va ila ble on t h e a u t h or 's la s er s ys t em
wa s n ot s u fficien t t o a ch ieve a melt pool in t h e s u r fa ce. Th er efor e, a ll cla ddin g
exper imen t s h a d t o be per for med wit h or din a r y opt ics . Wit h t h es e exper imen t s
t h e effect of ma ch in in g pa r a met er s on t h e cla ddin g beh a viou r h a d t o be s t u d-
ied. Some in t er es t in g ph en omen a , s u ch a s powder pr eh ea t in g a n d t h e occu r -
r en ce of a pla s ma , n eeded s pecia l a t t en t ion .
Fin a lly, s ome in du s t r ia l a pplica t ion s h a d t o be developed t o illu s t r a t e t h e op-
por t u n it ies offer ed by t h e la s er cla ddin g t ech n iqu e.
Th e lit er a t u r e r es ea r ch s h owed t h a t la s er cla ddin g is pr edomin a n t ly per for med
by powder in ject ion , beca u s e t h a t met h od is mor e flexible a n d ea s ier t o con t r ol.
Th is con clu s ion wa s s u ppor t ed by t h e exper imen t s des cr ibed in t h is t h es is . Th e
lit er a t u r e r es ea r ch a ls o r evea led t h a t la s er cla ddin g is n ot a ma t u r e t ech n iqu e
yet . In or der t o a llow t h e cla ddin g of pr odu ct s by n on -a ca demica l per s on n el
a n d, a n effect ive t r a n s fer of r es u lt s fr om la bor a t or y t o pr odu ct ion en vir on men t ,
dedica t ed powder in ject ion equ ipmen t , s pecia l opt ica l s ys t ems a n d a ccu r a t e
pr oces s con t r ol s ys t ems a r e r equ ir ed.
A n u mer ica l model wa s developed wh ich a llows t h e pr edict ion of t h e s u r fa ce
t emper a t u r e dis t r ibu t ion t h a t is a t t a in ed wit h a n a r bit r a r ily s h a ped la s er bea m
in t en s it y pr ofile. Th e r es u lt s s h owed, t h a t for la s er cla ddin g a lin e s ou r ce wit h a
la t er a lly u n ifor m en er gy dis t r ibu t ion is pr efer r ed over Ga u s s ia n , t op-h a t or
r ect a n gu la r la s er bea m en er gy dis t r ibu t ion s on t h e s u r fa ce. Su ch a lin e s ou r ce
r es u lt s in a u n ifor m t emper a t u r e dis t r ibu t ion over t h e cla d widt h a n d, h en ce, in
mor e u n ifor m s u r fa ce pr oper t ies . Th e ot h er bea m pr ofiles r es u lt in a mor e or
les s pr on ou n ced t emper a t u r e pea k in t h e cen t r e of t h e t r a ck.
Th er efor e, a lin e in t egr a t or wa s developed. Th e s pot dimen s ion s ca n be va r ied
bet ween 0.3 x 9.1 mm
2
a n d 1.1 x 7.8 mm
2
by ch a n gin g t h e dis t a n ce bet ween
t h e in t egr a t or a n d t h e wor kpiece. Th e la t er a l en er gy dis t r ibu t ion in t h e s pot
r ema in s u n ifor m in t h is en t ir e foca l r a n ge. Th e a ch ieved lin e s pot is in depen d-
en t of t h e a pplied la s er s ou r ce a n d h a s well defin ed dimen s ion s . Th is lin e in t e-
gr a t or is t h er efor e a n es s en t ia l elemen t in t h e la s er cla ddin g s ys t em for a n ef-
fect ive t r a n s fer of r es u lt s bet ween differ en t CO
2
la s er s ys t ems . Un for t u n a t ely,
n o s u cces s fu l cla ddin g exper imen t s cou ld be per for med wit h t h is lin e in t egr a -
t or , beca u s e t h e a va ila ble la s er power of 1800 W wa s n ot en ou gh t o melt t h e
s u r fa ce.
Conclus ions , review and recommendations 137
Exper imen t s per for med on la s er cla ddin g wit h pr epla ced coba lt ba s e powder
Met co 18C on a s u bs t r a t e con s is t in g of s t eel X32Cr V3 3, s h owed t h a t t h is
met h od is s u it a ble for obt a in in g s in gle cla d t r a cks . Th e bes t r es u lt s wer e ch a r -
a ct er is ed by a s moot h s u r fa ce a n d a moder a t e dilu t ion of 10-15 % a n d did n ot
s u ffer fr om por os it y or cr a ckin g. However , t h e pa r a met er r a n ge in wh ich t h os e
good r es u lt s cou ld be obt a in ed wa s r a t h er s ma ll. Th e la s er power mu s t be be-
t ween 1200 a n d 1400 W a n d t h e feed r a t e bet ween 4 a n d 6 mm/ s . Lower la s er
power s or h igh er feed r a t es a r e r es pon s ible for pr odu cin g con t in u ou s cla d
t r a cks . At h igh er power levels or lower feed r a t es t h e dilu t ion is in cr ea s ed.
Th e ma ximu m h a r dn es s in t h e cla d (800 Hv) wa s a ch ieved wit h a dilu t ion of 15
%. Th is h a r dn es s is h igh er t h a n t h e t ypica l h a r dn es s of t h e a pplied powder
(500-550 Hv), t h a t is a ch ieved if t h e dilu t ion is limit ed t o les s t h a n 5 %.
Pr eh ea t in g of t h e s u bs t r a t e t o 200 C r edu ced t h e r es idu a l s t r es s in t h e cla d
fr om 515 t o 380 MPa . High er t emper a t u r es wer e n ot a pplica ble, beca u s e t h e
ch emica l bin der eva por a t ed. As a con s equ en ce, ir r egu la r ly s h a ped t r a cks , or n o
t r a cks a t a ll, wer e pr odu ced.
Th e pr epla ced powder met h od is n ot s u it a ble for t h e cla ddin g of la r ger a r ea s by
ma kin g s ever a l a dja cen t pa r t ly over la ppin g t r a cks . Cr a ckin g of t h e cla dded a r -
ea s cou ld n ot be pr even t ed wit h t h e a pplied ma t er ia l combin a t ion . Mor e s er i-
ou s ly a r e t h e occu r r en ce of a n on -u n ifor m mixin g of elemen t s a n d t h e occu r -
r en ce of a s ever e degr ee of dilu t ion (> 20 %), wh ich a r e in evit a ble wit h t h is
met h od.
La s er cla ddin g wit h powder in ject ion did r es u lt in good qu a lit y cla d a r ea s wit h -
ou t s ever e dilu t ion . Powder pa r t icles a r e in ject ed a s a powder s t r ea m in t o t h e
la s er gen er a t ed melt pool. Th e pa r t icle s t r ea m ca n be s een a s a powder clou d
t h a t a t t en u a t es s ome pa r t of t h e la s er bea m. Th e pa r t icles a r e pr eh ea t ed du e t o
t h is a t t en u a t ion du r in g t h eir fligh t t h r ou gh t h e la s er bea m t o ma xima lly 120 C
in t h e a pplied exper imen t a l s et -u p. Melt in g of t h e pa r t icles s t a r t s a ft er t h ey en -
t er t h e melt pool. Th e powder efficien cy wa s ver y poor . Les s t h a n 30 % of t h e
in ject ed powder wa s u t ilis ed for t h e bu ildin g of a cla d t r a ck.
Simu la t ion s per for med wit h t h e model, wh ich wa s developed t o pr edict t h e pr e-
h ea t in g of t h e pa r t icles , s h owed t h a t t h is pr eh ea t in g t emper a t u r e ca n be in -
cr ea s ed ea s ily t o 700 C a n d t h a t t h e efficien cy ca n be en h a n ced t o 98 %, by
impr ovin g t h e in ject ion pa r a met er s et t in gs . Th e powder velocit y, t h e pa r t icle
s ize a n d, of cou r s e, t h e la s er power a r e ver y impor t a n t pa r a met er s for t h e pr e-
h ea t in g, wh er ea s t h e efficien cy is a ffect ed ma in ly by t h e powder s t r ea m pr oper -
t ies .
138 Chapter 8
In t h e a pplied con figu r a t ion t h e mea s u r ed a t t en u a t ion by a powder clou d con -
s is t in g of pa r t icles St ellit e 6 wa s les s t h a n 5 %. Th is a t t en u a t ion depen ds on
t h e a pplied powder . Ot h er exper imen t s a pplied on n ickel ba s e Met co 15E a n d
t u n gs t en ba s e Amdr y 5843 r es u lt ed in ma ximu m va lu es of r es pect ively 5 a n d
14 %. Du e t o t h es e low a t t en u a t ion levels , t h e powder clou d does n ot a ffect t h e
la s er bea m in t en s it y pr ofile.
In s pit e of t h e r ela t ively low pa r t icle t emper a t u r e, it wa s obs er ved t h a t a pla s ma
cou ld be for med. Th is pla s ma effect ively a bs or bs a ll la s er r a dia t ion a n d s t ops
t h e pr oces s . A pla s ma ca n on ly be for med over a cer t a in cr it ica l powder den s it y
level (~ 210
6
W/ cm
2
). In t h e a pplied con figu r a t ion , t h is level is r ea ch ed in t h e
foca l a r ea on ly. Pla s ma for ma t ion cou ld be pr even t ed la r gely by exch a n gin g t h e
in it ia lly a pplied len s wit h a foca l len gt h of 95 mm wit h on e wit h a foca l len gt h of
154 mm. Th is in cr ea s ed t h e bea m wa is t in t h e foca l r egion fr om 167 t o 270 m,
wh ich r edu ced t h e mea n power den s it y in t h e foca l a r ea .
Th e a pplica bilit y of la s er cla ddin g wa s s h own s u cces s fu lly wit h t h e developmen t
of s ever a l in du s t r ia l a pplica t ion s .
8.2 Review
Ma n y exper imen t s wer e per for med t o in cr ea s e t h e in s igh t in mech a n is ms t h a t
gover n t h e la s er cla ddin g pr oces s . At t h e s t a r t of t h is wor k exper imen t s wer e
per for med in a r a t h er empir ica l wa y. La s er cla ddin g r es u lt s wer e h igh ly u n pr e-
dict a ble. Sligh t va r ia t ion s in ma ch in in g pa r a met er s cou ld yield qu it e differ en t
cla d la yer pr oper t ies . Cla ddin g exper imen t s r epor t ed in t h e lit er a t u r e or per -
for med on differ en t s it es cou ld n ot be r epr odu ced. It wa s clea r t h a t t h is s it u a -
t ion h a d t o ch a n ge t o in t r odu ce t h e la s er cla ddin g t ech n ology s u cces s fu lly in
t h e Du t ch in du s t r y.
It ca n be con clu ded n ow t h a t t h e s it u a t ion h a s impr oved con s ider a bly. Th e
model t h a t wa s developed, a llows t h e pr edict ion of melt pool for ma t ion . Th a t is
a n es s en t ia l pa r t of la s er cla ddin g. Obviou s ly, it is n ot pos s ible t o a ch ieve t h e
des ir ed fu s ion bon d bet ween t h e cla ddin g ma t er ia l a n d t h e s u bs t r a t e if n ot bot h
ma t er ia ls a r e molt en s imu lt a n eou s ly a t s ome t ime du r in g t h e pr oces s .
Th e model is ba s ica lly a n ext en s ion of t h e cla s s ica l movin g poin t s olu t ion of
Ca r s la w a n d J a eger . By dividin g t h e la s er s pot in t o s ever a l dis cr et e poin t
s ou r ces a n d in t egr a t in g t h e s olu t ion of a s in gle poin t s ou r ce over t h e en t ir e
gr id, a n a r bit r a r ily s h a ped la s er bea m in t en s it y pr ofile ca n be in cor por a t ed. Th e
a ccu r a cy of t h e model wa s va lida t ed by compa r in g it t o t h e a n a lyt ica l s olu t ion
of Rea dy, wh ich is va lid for t h e s pecia l ca s e of a n on -movin g cir cu la r la s er s pot
wh ich h a s a n u n ifor m power den s it y dis t r ibu t ion .
Th e ma t er ia l pr oper t ies t h a t a r e r equ ir ed by t h e model wer e der ived fr om la s er
t r a n s for ma t ion h a r den in g exper imen t s . Th os e exper imen t s a r e ch a r a ct er is ed by
a s h a r p t r a n s it ion fr om t h e ma r t en s it ic h ea t a ffect ed zon e t o t h e n on a lt er ed
fer r it ic s t r u ct u r e. Th e dept h a t wh ich t h is t r a n s it ion occu r s , i.e. t h e h a r den in g
dept h , ca n be mea s u r ed. By va r yin g t h e ma t er ia l pr oper t ies , t h e model wa s a ble
t o pr edict t h e h a r den in g dept h a ccu r a t ely. As a fin a l ch eck, n ew h a r den in g ex-
per imen t s wer e per for med wit h differ en t pa r a met er s . By t a kin g t h e pr eviou s ly
ca lcu la t ed ma t er ia l pr oper t ies in t o t h e model, t h e t h u s a ch ieved h a r den in g
dept h cou ld be pr edict ed. Th e ca lcu la t ed ma t er ia l pr oper t ies a r e a kin d of effec-
t ive va lu e. Th is effect ive va lu e differ s r a t h er mu ch fr om t h e va lu e a t r oom t em-
per a t u r e.
Th e t emper a t u r e dis t r ibu t ion t h a t is ca lcu la t ed wit h t h e model is qu it e r ea lis t ic.
However , t wo a s pect s s h ou ld be kept in min d. Fir s t ly, t h e model a s s u mes con -
s t a n t ma t er ia l pr oper t ies . However , t h es e pr oper t ies ch a n ge u pon t h e t r a n s for -
ma t ion fr om t h e s olid t o t h e liqu id s t a t e. Mor eover , t h e la t en t h ea t of fu s ion is
n ot in cor por a t ed. Secon dly, con vect ive flows will occu r in a pr odu ced melt pool.
Th es e flows will r edis t r ibu t e t h e h ea t over t h e en t ir e melt pool. Th e r ea l t em-
per a t u r e will t h er efor e be lower t h a n t h e ca lcu la t ed t h eor et ica l t emper a t u r e.
Never t h eles s , t h e model gives a r ea s on a ble impr es s ion of t h e t emper a t u r es t h a t
occu r du r in g la s er cla ddin g.
Accor din g t o t h e lit er a t u r e, a lin e in t egr a t or wit h a la t er a lly u n ifor m power den -
s it y dis t r ibu t ion is fa vou r a ble for la s er cla ddin g. Not on ly does s u ch a lin e in t e-
gr a t or yield a u n ifor m t emper a t u r e dis t r ibu t ion over t h e widt h of a cla d t r a ck
a n d t h er ewit h con s t a n t cla d pr oper t ies , it a ls o s u pplies a well defin ed la s er s pot
on t h e s u r fa ce wh ich pr oper t ies do n o lon ger depen d on t h e a pplied la s er
s ou r ce. Th e a ch ievemen t of a la t er a lly u n ifor m t emper a t u r e dis t r ibu t ion wit h
t h is lin e in t egr a t or cou ld be a ffir med by s imu la t ion s wit h t h e model dis cu s s ed It
wa s t h er efor e decided t o develop s u ch a lin e in t egr a t or . An a ddit ion a l r equ ir e-
men t impos ed on t h e in t egr a t or is t h a t it mu s t be a dju s t a ble t o differ en t CO
2
la s er s ys t ems .
Th is r equ ir emen t complica t ed t h e des ign s omewh a t . Th e fin a l des ign con s is t s of
t h r ee pa r t s . Th e fir s t pa r t is a t eles cope t h a t en la r ges t h e in comin g la s er bea m
a n d ma kes it pa r a llel a n d t h er ewit h in depen den t of t h e la s er s ys t em in t er ms of
diver gen ce. Th e en la r gemen t is impor t a n t t o be a ble t o s plit t h e bea m in t o s ev-
er a l s ma ller bea mlet s .
140 Chapter 8
Th e s econ d pa r t is a cylin dr ica l mir r or wh ich focu s es t h e bea m in t h e dir ect ion
of movemen t (lin e len gt h ). Th e a ct u a l lin e is a ch ieved wit h t h e t h ir d pa r t , wh ich
is a fa cet ed mir r or t h a t s plit s t h e bea m in t h e s a git a l pla n e a n d r ecombin es it in
t h e foca l pla n e. Th e lin e widt h is ma in ly det er min ed by t h e fa cet s ize.
Th is a ppr oa ch of decou plin g t h e s pot len gt h a n d t h e s pot widt h fa cilit a t es t h e
a ch ievemen t of a lin e s pot wh ich foca l poin t s a gr ee wit h ea ch ot h er . It a ls o
per mit s a va r ia t ion of t h e s pot dimen s ion s a r ou n d it s des ign va lu e by ch a n gin g
t h e dis t a n ce bet ween t h e in t egr a t or a n d t h e wor kpiece. Th e s pot dimen s ion s
ca n t h u s be va r ied bet ween 0.3 x 9.1 mm
2
a n d 1.1 x 7.8 mm
2
wit h ou t los in g t h e
u n ifor m en er gy dis t r ibu t ion on t h e s u r fa ce in t h e la t er a l dir ect ion .
Th e en er gy dis t r ibu t ion t h a t wa s a ch ieved wit h t h is lin e in t egr a t or fu lfilled t h e
expect a t ion s . It wa s u n ifor m over t h e en t ir e widt h . On ly s ome r egu la r ly s pa ced
in t er fer en ce pea ks cou ld be n ot iced on t op of t h e pr ofile. However , t h e in t egr a -
t or cou ld n ot be u s ed in t h e a u t h or 's la bor a t or y for la s er cla ddin g. Th e a va ila ble
la s er power of 1800 W wa s n ot en ou gh t o pr odu ce a melt pool in a s t eel s u b-
s t r a t e. In r et r os pect , t h is wa s pr edict ed a lr ea dy by t h e developed s u r fa ce t em-
per a t u r e model.
To impr ove t h e in s igh t in ot h er a s pect s of la s er cla ddin g, exper imen t s h a d t o be
per for med. Accor din g t o t h e lit er a t u r e, t h e powder met h ods a r e t h e mos t
pr omis in g cla ddin g met h ods . Two met h ods ca n be dis t in gu is h ed: pr epla ced
powder a n d powder in ject ion . Th e fir s t met h od is t h e mos t s t r a igh t for wa r d on e:
t h e powder is a pplied a s a pa s t e (mixt u r e of bin der a n d powder ) on t h e s u b-
s t r a t e, s o n o s pecia l equ ipmen t is r equ ir ed. Th e s econ d met h od r equ ir es t h e
u s e of a dedica t ed powder deliver y s ys t em a n d a powder n ozzle t o dir ect t h e
powder t o t h e des ir ed pos it ion . Th is la t t er met h od is s u ppos ed t o be mor e flexi-
ble.
Th e pu r pos e of t h e exper imen t s on la s er cla ddin g wit h pr epla ced powder a n d
powder in ject ion wa s t o s t u dy t h e effect of t h e ma ch in in g pa r a met er s on t h e
cla d r es u lt s a n d t o det er min e t h e kin d of a pplica t ion (or geomet r y) wh ich t h e
met h ods a r e mos t s u it ed for .
Th e exper imen t s per for med on pr epla ced powder r evea led t h e exis t en ce of a
lower bou n da r y of t h e la s er power for a given feed r a t e. Below t h is t h r es h old
va lu e n o s moot h , well bon ded cla d la yer s cou ld be for med. A fu r t h er in cr ea s e of
t h e la s er power r es u lt ed in a n in cr ea s e of t h e dilu t ion . Su ch a wor kin g r egion
a ls o exis t s for t h e feed r a t e.
Th e exis t en ce of a wor kin g r egion ca n be expla in ed ea s ily, a s will be s h own wit h
t h e followin g exa mple. For a t ypica l cla d exper imen t t h e followin g exper imen t a l
pa r a met er s ca n be u s ed:
la s er power : 1300 W
feed r a t e: 5 mm/ s
cla d t h ickn es s : 0.5 mm
la s er s pot s ize: 3.0 mm
Th is implies t h a t les s t h a n 10 % of t h e a bs or bed la s er power is r equ ir ed for t h e
melt in g of t h e pr epla ced powder . Th e ma jor pa r t con t r ibu t es t o t h e h ea t in g of
t h e s u bs t r a t e. Th is fa ct ca n be n ot iced du r in g t h e exper imen t s . Wh en cla ddin g
wit h 800 W in s t ea d of 1300 W, t h e la s er power is s u fficien t for melt in g of t h e
powder . However , t h is molt en powder on ly for ms dr oplet s on t h e s u r fa ce of t h e
s u bs t r a t e a n d does n ot flow ou t . Th e s u r fa ce t emper a t u r e r ema in s below t h e
cr it ica l t emper a t u r e t h a t is n eces s a r y t o a llow wet t in g by t h e molt en powder .
Th e h a r dn es s in t h e cla d la yer s (coba lt ba s e Met co 18C) depen ded s t r on gly on
t h e dilu t ion . Th e pr odu ced good qu a lit y cla d la yer s h a d a h a r dn es s of a bou t
800 Hv, wh ich is mu ch h igh er t h a n t h e h a r dn es s of t h e a pplied powder . Th is is
a n effect of t h e h igh coolin g r a t es a n d t h e s ma ll degr ee of dilu t ion t h a t mu s t be
a ccept ed in or der t o a ch ieve a s t r on g fu s ion bon d bet ween t h e t wo ma t er ia ls .
Th e h a r dn es s cou ld be in cr ea s ed fu r t h er by a llowin g mor e dilu t ion . However ,
t h is does n ot a gr ee wit h t h e ba s ic pr in ciple of la s er cla ddin g.
Th e exper imen t a l con clu s ion s migh t s u gges t t h a t la s er cla ddin g depen ds on t h e
a pplied s pecific en er gy, beca u s e t h a t pa r a met er r ela t es t h e cla d pr oper t ies t o
t h e la s er power a n d t h e in ver s e of t h e feed r a t e. Ma n y a u t h or s fou n d t h is pa -
r a met er ver y u s efu l in deed. However , t h e a u t h or of t h is wor k ca n n ot a gr ee wit h
t h is . Exper imen t s wh ich wer e per for med wit h t h e s a me s pecific en er gy, bu t dif-
fer en t combin a t ion s of la s er power a n d feed r a t e, did r es u lt in qu it e differ en t
cla d la yer s . Th is is a ls o t o be expect ed, beca u s e differ en t combin a t ion s of t h os e
ma ch in in g pa r a met er s r es u lt in ver y differ en t coolin g r a t es . Th is ca n be illu s -
t r a t ed wit h t h e followin g exa mple. As s u min g t h a t we n eed a s pecific en er gy of
50 J / mm
2
a n d a la s er s pot of 3.0 mm t o a ch ieve a good cla d la yer , t h en t h r ee
pos s ible combin a t ion s a r e 500 W - 3.3 mm/ s , 750 W - 5 mm/ s a n d 1000 W -
6.7 mm/ s . Accor din g t o t h e model des cr ibed in t h is t h es is , t h is yields t h e fol-
lowin g ma ximu m t emper a t u r es on t h e s u r fa ce: 2300 C, 3300 C a n d 4200 C,
wh er ea s t h e in t er a ct ion decr ea s es fr om 1.8 t o 1.2 a n d 0.9 s . Obviou s ly, t h e
coolin g r a t es will differ con s ider a bly, a s will t h e micr os t r u ct u r e a n d t h e r es idu a l
s t r es s .
142 Chapter 8
Th os e ca s es in wh ich t h e s pecific en er gy cou ld be u s ed t o expla in t h e cla ddin g
r es u lt s , t h is wa s mer ely t h e effect of on ly t h e la s er power or t h e feed r a t e a n d
n ot r ea lly a combin ed effect of t h es e t wo pa r a met er s .
La r ger a r ea s wer e cla d by a pplyin g s ever a l a dja cen t , pa r t ly over la ppin g t r a cks .
However , t h is met h od cou ld n ot pr odu ce cr a ck-fr ee cla d la yer s . Pr eh ea t in g of
t h e s u bs t r a t e t o 200 C h elped t o limit t h e n u mber of cr a cks , bu t cou ld n ot
pr even t it en t ir ely. Pr eh ea t in g r edu ces t h e coolin g r a t es in t h e cla d la yer s a n d
t h u s limit s t h e in du ced r es idu a l s t r es s . It is t o be expect ed t h a t pr eh ea t in g t o
h igh er t emper a t u r es ca n pr even t t h e for ma t ion of cr a cks en t ir ely. Un for t u -
n a t ely, t h is wa s n ot pos s ible, beca u s e t h e bin der eva por a t es a t t emper a t u r es
a bove 200 C. In t h e a u t h or 's opin ion pr eh ea t in g of a n en t ir e wor kpiece is defi-
n it ely n o opt ion in la s er cla ddin g, beca u s e t h a t wou ld r equ ir e a n a ddit ion a l
s t a ge in t h e pr odu ct ion pr oces s a n d, mor e impor t a n t , wou ld u n do on e of t h e
ma in a dva n t a ges of la s er cla ddin g, i.e. n o dis t or t ion of t h e wor kpiece. Th e on ly
wor ka ble a lt er n a t ive t o r edu ce t h e coolin g r a t es a n d h en ce t h e r es idu a l s t r es s is
t h e a pplica t ion of a mea n der s h a ped pa t t er n , beca u s e t h is r edu ces t h e coolin g
of t h e s u bs t r a t e bet ween t h e s u bs equ en t s h or t t r a cks s omewh a t . If t h is does
n ot wor k ou t , t h a n a n ot h er , les s cr a ck-s en s it ive, ma t er ia l combin a t ion mu s t be
a pplied.
Th e con clu s ion on t h is s er ies of exper imen t s is t h a t t h e pr epla ced powder
met h od is s u it a ble on ly for pr odu cin g s in gle t r a ck cla d la yer s .
For t u n a t ely, it wa s pos s ible t o a ch ieve good qu a lit y, cr a ck-fr ee cla d la yer s by
mea n s of t h e powder in ject ion met h od. Th is met h od a ppa r en t ly in t r odu ces les s
r es idu a l s t r es s in t h e cla d la yer s du e t o t h e differ en t pr oces s developmen t . Th e
melt pool is in it ia lly for med in t h e s u bs t r a t e. Th e melt pool volu me is in cr ea s ed
by in ject ion of powder pa r t icles in t o it . Aft er coolin g down a n ew s u r fa ce la yer is
a ch ieved on t op of t h e in it ia l s u r fa ce. Beca u s e t h er e exis t s a good con t a ct be-
t ween t h e melt pool a n d t h e s u bs t r a t e r igh t fr om t h e s t a r t of t h e pr oces s , t h e
h ea t flow t o t h e cold bu lk is mor e u n ifor m a n d ca n be con t r olled mor e ea s ily: A
mor e moder a t e coolin g r a t e is a ch ieved (les s in t er n a l s t r es s ) a n d t h e melt in g
dept h a n d dilu t ion r ema in s limit ed.
Th e exper imen t a l r egion wit h in wh ich good cla d la yer s cou ld be a ch ieved is
r a t h er s ma ll for t h e a pplied la s er s et -u p. Th e la s er power mu s t be bet ween 900
a n d 1050 W wh en u s in g a feed r a t e of 5 mm/ s a n d a la s er s pot s ize of 3.0 mm.
Lower la s er power levels a r e n ot s u fficien t t o melt t h e s u bs t r a t e. It is in t er es t in g
t o n ot e t h a t t h e lower limit of a bou t 1 kW wh en cla ddin g wit h powder in ject ion
is well below t h e 1.3 kW t h a t is r equ ir ed for cla ddin g wit h pr epla ced powder .
Th e in t er a ct ion bet ween t h e in ject ed powder pa r t icles a n d t h e la s er bea m r e-
qu ir ed s ome s pecia l a t t en t ion . It wa s n ot iced t h a t t h os e pa r t icles a r e pr eh ea t ed
by t h e la s er bea m a n d t h u s in flu en ce t h e melt pool a n d t h e bea m power den s it y
on t h e s u r fa ce. Th is in t er a ct ion h a s been modelled a lr ea dy by s ever a l ot h er s for
Nd:YAG la s er bea ms , bu t on ly on ce for a CO
2
la s er bea m. However , in t h a t la t -
t er a r t icle t h e a u t h or t r ea t ed t h e powder s t r ea m a s a s olid, wh ich does n ot
a gr ee wit h t h e exper imen t a l obs er va t ion s . It wa s t h er efor e decided t o model t h is
in t er a ct ion mor e a ccu r a t ely. Th e powder s t r ea m is t r ea t ed a s a clou d t h a t a t -
t en u a t es la s er en er gy. Th e model follows t h e Beer -La mber t la w, wh ich a s s u mes
t h a t t h e a t t en u a t ion is a fu n ct ion of t h e pa t h len gt h t h r ou gh t h e clou d a n d a
cer t a in ma t er ia l s pecific ext in ct ion coefficien t . Th a t ext in ct ion coefficien t h a d t o
be der ived fr om exper imen t s . A t ypica l va lu e for t h is ver y powder depen den t pa -
r a met er is 363 mm
-1
for St ellit e 6. Us in g t h is va lu e in t h e model r evea led t h a t
t h e a ver a ge pa r t icle t emper a t u r e in t h e cu r r en t con figu r a t ion r ema in ed below
20 C. Th e model s h owed h ow t o impr ove t h e pr oces s efficien cy: t h e pa r t icle
s peed mu s t be r edu ced a n d t h e geomet r ica l pr oper t ies of t h e powder in ject ion
n ozzle mu s t be ch a n ged. It s h ou ld be pos s ible t o a ch ieve a powder efficien cy of
98 % a n d t o in cr ea s e t h e powder t emper a t u r e.
Th e on ly r ea l pr oblem t h a t wa s obs er ved du r in g cla ddin g wit h powder in ject ion
wa s t h e occu r r en ce of a pla s ma t h a t s t opped t h e pr oces s . An a n a lys is of t h is
ph en omen on r evea led t h a t it occu r r ed in t h e foca l r egion on ly a n d wa s r ela t ed
t o ver y s ma ll powder pa r t icles t h a t con t a min a t ed t h e wor kin g ch a mber . Th e
pla s ma for ma t ion du r in g la s er cla ddin g ca n be a voided by a pplyin g opt ics wit h
wh ich t h e cr it ica l va lu e of 10
6
W/ cm
2
in t h e foca l r egion is n ot exceeded.
In gen er a l, la s er cla ddin g wit h powder in ject ion pr oved t o be a r a t h er h a s s le-
fr ee t ech n iqu e t h a t h a s cer t a in ly mor e pot en t ia l t h a n t h e pr epla ced powder
met h od.
8.3 Recommendations and future research
Alt h ou gh la s er cla ddin g is a t ech n iqu e t h a t a llows t h e developmen t of a dva n ced
s u r fa ce la yer s , t h e pr es en t field of a pplica t ion s is r a t h er con s er va t ive. Th e t ech -
n iqu e is mer ely u s ed a s a n a lt er n a t ive t o con ven t ion a l met h ods , in s t ea d of de-
s ign in g n ew pr odu ct s s pecifica lly for la s er cla ddin g. Th e ma jor it y of a pplica t ion s
h a s been ba s ed on St ellit e 6, wh ich h a s been kn own a lr ea dy for mor e t h a n 40
yea r s for it s h a r dfa cin g qu a lit y. Ot h er powder mixt u r es h a ve defin it ely mor e
pot en t ia l, bu t a r e n ot u s ed yet .
Th is a s pect ca n be s olved in t wo wa ys . Fir s t ly, t h e r es ea r ch in s t it u t es ca n de-
velop s ome n ew a pplica t ion s t h ems elves a n d pr es en t t h os e exa mples t o t h e in -
144 Chapter 8
du s t r y. Secon dly, s ome t ools (models ) ca n be developed t h a t ca n a ccu r a t ely
pr edict t h e micr os t r u ct u r e in t h e cla d la yer a n d t h e cla d geomet r y.
In t h is t h es is a lin e in t egr a t or h a s been dis cu s s ed. It is on e of t h e n ew devel-
opmen t s t h a t ca n h elp t o impr ove a n d s implify t h e la s er cla ddin g t ech n iqu e.
On e of t h e developmen t s in t h e field of s pot s h a pin g is t h e u s e of bea m s ca n -
n er s t h a t a llow a ver y flexible s u r fa ce t r ea t men t wit h loca l va r ia t ion s of t h e en -
er gy dis t r ibu t ion . Alt h ou gh it is r ecogn is ed t h a t t h is s pot s h a pin g offer s ma n y
oppor t u n it ies , n o models a r e a va ila ble t o pr edict t h e cla d pr oper t ies t h a t r es u lt
fr om it .
Th e n ext s t ep wou ld be t h e in t egr a t ion of t h e a va ila ble kn owledge a n d models
in CAD/ CAM s ys t ems . Ba s ed on t h e des ir ed s u r fa ce pr oper t ies s u ch a s ys t em
s h ou ld be a ble t o s elect a s u it a ble s u bs t r a t e-powder combin a t ion a n d t o gen er -
a t e t h e pr oper ma ch in e s et t in gs .
Th e pr es en t powder n ozzles a r e u s u a lly n ot h in g mor e t h a n a s imple copper
t u be. However , t h e n ew, n on cir cu la r , s pot s h a pes r equ ir e dedica t ed powder
n ozzles in or der t o dir ect t h e powder t o t h e des ir ed pos it ion .
On e of t h e s u ppos ed a dva n t a ges of la s er cla ddin g wit h powder in ject ion is t h e
on -lin e va r ia t ion of cla d la yer pr oper t ies , s u ch a s t h e dimen s ion s a n d t h e com-
pos it ion . However , t h is oppor t u n it y is n ot u s ed yet , beca u s e s u it a ble a ll-
in clu s ive commer cia l pr oces s con t r ol s ys t ems a r e n ot a va ila ble yet . Pr oces s a n d
qu a lit y con t r ol will become on e of t h e mos t impor t a n t is s u es in la s er cla ddin g.
Appendix 1
Material properties
All pr oper t ies a t r oom t emper a t u r e:
Metco 18C Stellite 6 Metco 15 E
Co 40.8 %
Ni 27.0 %
Cr 18.0 %
Mo 6.0 %
Si 3.5 %
Fe 2.5 %
B 2.0 %
C 0.2 %
Co 60.2 %
Cr 28.0 %
W 4.84 %
Ni 2.12 %
Fe 2.07 %
Si 1.2 %
C 1.1 %
Mn 0.34 %
B 0.14 %
Ni 70.5 %
Cr 17.0 %
Si 4.0 %
Fe 4.0 %
B 3.5 %
C 1.0 %
grain size: 53-125 m
density: 8350 kg/m
3
specific heat: 442 J/kg/K
melting point: 1120 C
density: 8460 kg/m
3
thermal conductivity: 14.8 W/m/K
thermal expansion: 1410
-6
K
-1
density: 7700 kg/m
3
146 Appendix 1
Amdry 5843 C45 X32CrMoV33
W 80.7 %
Co 10.0 %
C 5.3 %
Cr 4.0 %
Fe balance
Mn 0.70 %
C 0.44 %
Si 0.26 %
Cr 0.18 %
Si 0.3 %
Cr 3.0 %
Mo 2.8 %
Fe balance
V 0.5 %
C 0.3 %
grain size: 16-53 m
density: 12500 kg/m
3
density: 7850 kg/m
3
thermal conductivity: 48 W/m/K
thermal expansion: 13.910
-6
K
-1
density: 7850 kg/m
3
thermal conductivity: 30 W/m/K
thermal expansion: 11.110
-6
K
-1
Appendix 2
Determination of the absorption of
laser energy in the base material
Th e a bs or bed la s er power is t a ken a s a n in pu t pa r a met er for t h e (in t h e pr evi-
ou s s ect ion pr es en t ed) n u mer ica l met h od. Hen ce, it is n eces s a r y t o h a ve a
mea n s t o det er min e it s qu a n t it y.
A ca lor imet r ic met h od wa s a pplied in t h is s t u dy. Th e pr in ciple of t h is met h od is
s h own s ch ema t ica lly in figu r e A2.1. Th is figu r e s h ows t h e t emper a t u r e r e-
s pon s e of a s en s or pla ced a t a cer t a in dis t a n ce fr om t h e h ea t in pu t . Wh en t h e
h ea t in pu t du r a t ion is s h or t compa r ed t o t h e mea s u r emen t t ime, t h e a bs or bed
la s er power (AP) ca n be ca lcu la t ed by ext r a pola t in g t h e coolin g cu r ve con dit ion s
[Bea , 1990; Bor ik, 1990; Ta n gelder , 1992):
wh er e t
i
is t h e pu ls e du r a t ion , m is t h e ma s s of t h e s pecimen a n d T
max
is t h e
ma ximu m t emper a t u r e r is e, wh ich equ a ls T
max
-T
0
.
Eq. A2.1
AP
mc T
t
p
i

max
148 Appendix 2
Beca u s e t h e s pecimen exch a n ges h ea t wit h t h e s u r r ou n din g a ir by fr ee con vec-
t ion , t h e coolin g cu r ve mu s t be ext r a pola t ed t o t=t. Th is t ime a ppr oxima t ely
ma r ks t h e pos it ion on t h e h ea t in g cu r ve wh er e t h e effect of t h e h ea t in pu t be-
comes les s impor t a n t t h a n t h e coolin g. For t h e ext r a pola t ion of t h e coolin g
cu r ve, it is s u fficien t t o per for m on ly t wo mea s u r emen t s , a s it wa s s h own
[Bor ik, 1990; Ta n gelder , 1992] t h a t t h e ma ximu m t emper a t u r e r is e in t h e ma -
t er ia l equ a ls :
A pr oper ch oice of t
1
a n d t
2
, i.e. t
2
=2t
1
s implifies t h is expr es s ion t o:
Th e t emper a t u r e of t h e wor kpiece is mea s u r ed by mea n s of on e t ype K copper -
con s t a n t a n e t h er mocou ple pa ir . Th e t ypica l s en s it ivit y is 40.20.1 V/ K.
Th e ir r a dia t ed ba s e ma t er ia l (s t eel C45) wa s polis h ed a n d degr ea s ed wit h et h yl-
a lcoh ol. Th e dimen s ion s of a t ypica l s a mple a r e 60 x 40 x 8 mm. Th es e dimen -
s ion s a llow t h e for ma t ion of a 40 mm lon g t r a ck wit h a feed r a t e of 3-8 mm/ s in
5-13 s econ ds . Su ch feed r a t es a r e t ypica l for la s er cla ddin g. Th e dr a wba ck of
Fig. A2.1 Left: Set-up for calorimetric meas urement of the abs orbed las er
energy . Right: res pons e of the detector to the heat puls e.
Eq. A2.2
( ) ( )
T T T e
t T T t T T
t t
max max
ln ln

0
1 2 0 2 1 0
1 2
Eq. A2.3
( )
T
T T
T T
max

1 0
2
2 0
Determination of the abs orption of las er energy in the bas e material 149
t h is s a mple s ize is t h e la r ge t h er ma l t ime con s t a n t
3
of a bou t 80 s econ ds . De-
pen din g on t h e n u mber of a pplied cla d t r a cks , t h e t emper a t u r e r is e r a n ges fr om
2 t o 30 C.
Th e a bs or pt ivit y wa s mea s u r ed wit h a n d wit h ou t St ellit e 6 powder in ject ion . In
t h e fir s t ca s e t h e a bs or pt ion depen ds ma in ly on t h e pr es en ce of a melt pool in
t h e s u bs t r a t e. Th e a bs or pt ion of la s er en er gy in a melt pool is a bou t 30 %
(figu r e A2.2). Upon in cr ea s in g t h e feed r a t e of t h e ba s e ma t er ia l wit h r es pect t o
t h e la s er bea m, t h e s u r fa ce t emper a t u r e decr ea s es . If a melt pool is n o lon ger
pr es en t , wh ich is in t h is ca s e a t feed r a t es over 8 mm/ s , t h e a bs or pt ion is lim-
it ed t o a bou t 10 % (figu r e A2.2). Th es e va lu es for t h e a bs or pt ion h a ve been
con fir med by ot h er a u t h or s [Gr n en wa ld, 1996; Ollier , 1995; Pica s s o, 1994;
St er n , 1990].
Th e mea s u r ed a bs or pt ivit y in t h e s econ d ca s e, i.e. wit h powder in ject ion , is
s h own in figu r e A2.3. A compa r is on wit h figu r e A2.2 s h ows t h a t t h e a bs or pt ion
du r in g la s er cla ddin g con dit ion s is s ligh t ly lower . Th is ca n on ly be con t r ibu t ed
t o t h e power a t t en u a t ion by powder pa r t icles t h a t a r e n ot dir ect ed in t h e melt
pool.

3
Th e t h ermal t ime con s t an t is defin ed as =
2
/ 4, wh ere repres en t s t h e lon ges t diffu s ion
dis t an ce in t h e workpiece. Aft er t h is t ime a h omogen eou s t emperat u re dis t ribu t ion wit h
a con s t an t h eat exch an ge t o t h e en viron men t is obt ain ed an d t h e t wo meas u remen t s can
be made.
Fig. A2.2 Abs orption of CO
2
las er radiation in a C45 s urface. Las er
pow er: 1350 W; s pot diameter: 3.0 mm.
150 Appendix 2
Fig. A2.3 Abs orption of CO
2
las er radiation in a C45 s urface under
cladding conditions w ith a feed rate of 3 mm/ s (las er pow er: 1350 W;
s pot diameter: 3.0 mm).
Appendix 3
Experiments on laser cladding with
preplaced powder
coa t in g ma t er ia l: Met co 18C (a ppen dix 1)
s u bs t r a t e: X32Cr MoV3 3 (a ppen dix 1)
ch emica l bin der : Nicr obr a z t ype II
la s er bea m dia met er : 3.0 mm (defocu s ed) mea s u r ed wit h Pr omet ec UFF 100
bea m a n a lys er
la s er s ys t em: Rofin Sin a r 1700RF CO
2
la s er wit h a mixed TEM
00
a n d TEM
10

in t en s it y pr ofile
opt ics : s a lt pla t e pr ot ect ed Zn Se len s
wit h foca l len gt h of 95 mm
coa t in g t h ickn es s : 0.4 mm
s h ieldin g ga s : a r gon
power met er : Opt ica l En gin eer in g
P-2000 (a ccu r a cy: 5%)
mea s u r emen t of in t er n a l s t r es s es by
mea n s of r oen t gen diffr a ct ion
(s in
2
met h od).
Equ ipmen t : Riga ku St r a in flex MSF-2M gon iomet er .
152 Appendix 3
Experiments on las er cladding w ith preplaced pow der 153
154 Appendix 3
156 Appendix 3
158 Appendix 3
Effect of l a s er p ower a nd s ubs t ra t e t emp era t ure on res i d ua l s t res s a nd
number of cra ck s p er cm i n ca s e of l a s er cl a d d i ng wi t h p rep l a ced p ower
wi t h overl a p p i ng t ra ck s
10 over la ppin g a dja cen t t r a cks
det er min a t ion of cr a cks : flu or es cen t pen et r a n t met h od.
s er ies 1: feed r a t e: 6 mm/ s
over la p bet ween a dja cen t t r a cks : 2.4 mm
s er ies 2: feed r a t e: 8 mm/ s
s er ies 3: 12 mm/ s
series laser power
[W]
number of cracks
[cm
-1
]
longitudinal stress
[MPa]
1 1000
1200
1400
1600
1.25
0.75
0.50
0.25
593
812
1023
1157
2 1200
1400
1600
2.00
1.75
0.75
548
602
621
3 1200
1400
2.50
2.00
479
482
Appendix 4
Powder-substrate combinations
reported in literature
bas e mat e rial c oat ing s ourc e
FERROUS
C40/ C45 F600, C76
St ellit e 157, F, 6, Delor o 40, 22
Nicr obor 40, Delor o 60
Co/ Ni-Al, Co/ Ni-10Al, Ni-15Al/ Co
St ellit e 6
St ellit e F, SF6, 1, 6, CTS 10136
St ellit e F, SF6, 1, 6, Met co 15E,
Colmon oy 5, CTS 10136
Bu r ch a r ds , 1990
Ga s s ma n n , 1992
Br en n er , 1996
Ca r va lh o, 1995
Kr eu t z, 1995
Ma gr in i, 1986
Ra mou s , 1989
low ca r bon s t eel
C15/ C20/ C22
AISI 304, 316
Ha dfield s t eel
mixt u re of ZrO
2
-8%Y
2
O
3
an d AISI
316
Tr iba lloy T-800
Fou qu et , 1994
Pellet ier , 1996
J as im, 1989
Amen de, 1990
mild s t eel En 1a Al-Mn -Fe, Al-Co-Fe, Ni-Co-Fe St een , 1992
160 Appendix 4
mild s t eel En 3b St ellit e 6+SiC
AISI 316
St ellit e 6
Alloy 4815+SiC, Alloy 4815
Al-Sn 10Si4Cu 1 wit h Ni s a n dwich
Abba s , 1989 (2x), 1990, 1991
Weer a s in gh e, 1983
Abba s , 1989, 1991
Abba s , 1989
Ellis , 1995
mild s t eel Tr iba lloy T-800
Colmon oy 62
Ni-Cr -Nb-B, Ni-Cr -Ta -B
Ni-Cr -Fe-Si-B-Cu -Mo-C
bin der +WC/ W
2
C
Ni-Cr-Nb-B, Ni-Cr-Ta-B, Ni-Cr-B-
Si, CoC+WC
Ni-Cr -Fe-Ti
AISI 304
Amen de, 1990
Lu gs ch eider , 1990
Pellet ier , 1992
Ober l n der , 1992
Tos t o, 1994
Fou qu et , 1993
mild s t eel St 37 St ellit e 6, Fe-Cr , Fe-Cr -P-C
F600, C76
Ni-Cr -B-Si
Ni-Cr -B-Si-Fe
St ellit e 21
Cu Sn 20+dia mon d
Ma r s den , 1990
Bu r ch a r ds , 1990
Sepold, 1989
Becker , 1991
Kn ig, 1994
La n g, 1994
mild s t eel St 52 Ni-Cr -B-Si, WC/ Co
Ti (bon d)+Al
2
O
3
/ TiO
2
Becker , 1989
ASTM A36 St ellit e 6, 157, 156, 1, 12, 21, 158,
F
Met zbower , 1986
AISI 1016 Fe-Cr -Mn -C, Cr -Mn -C
Cr -Mn -C
Ni-Cr -Al-Hf
Fe-Cr -Mn -C
Fe-Cr -C-W
Sin gh , 1985
Ma zu mder , 1986 (2x)
Sin gh , 1987
Eih olzer , 1985; Sin gh , 1987
Ch oi, 1994
AISI 1018 ~ A
3
s t eel
AISI 1020
Fe-Cr -C-W
AISI 309, In con el 625
Nich r ome
TiC+St ellit e 6, Co+St ellit e 6,
Co+Ha yn es 25, MoSi
2
+St ellit e 6
Fe-Cr -C-W, Fe-Cr -Mn -C
Ni-Cr -Si-B
WC/ Co
Fe-Cr -Si-B
Komvopou los , 1990
Br u ck, 1988
Ayer s , 1981
Tu cker , 1984
Komvopou los , 1994
Ya n g, 1988
Ya n g, 1990
Ya n g, 1991
Pow der-s ubs trate combinations reported in literature 161
Ni-Cr -Al (bon d)+Al, Ni-Cr -Al (bon d)
+Zr
Fe-Cr-Mo, Fe-Cr-Si
3
N
4
, Fe-Cr-Mo-
Si
3
N
4
Ta o, 1994
Hu a n g, 1995
AISI 1043/ 1045 WC-Co-Ni-Cr -Fe-Si-B-C,
mixt u r e Co/ WC+Ni-Cr a lloy
compos it e SiC a n d Ni
Ni-Cr -B-Si+TiN, Ni-Cr -B-Si +SiC
Fer n a n dez, 1995
Pei, 1995
Pei, 1996
AISI 304 St ellit e F, SF6, 1, 6, CTS 10136
St ellit e 6, Colmon oy 5
St ellit e 6
Colmon oy 5, Met co 15E, St ellit e F,
SF6, 1, 6, CTS 10136
St ellit e F, SF6
Ni-Cr-Co-Fe, Cen iu m 36, Met co
18C, 41C
Cr
2
O
3
+pu r e Fe
St ellit e 6, Eu t rolloy 16262, Cen iu m
Z20
Ma gr in i, 1986
Cor ch ia , 1987
Liu , 1983
Ra mou s , 1989
Gior da n o
Pellet ier , 1993
Zh ou , 1991
Yellu p, 1995; Li, 1992
AISI 316 St ellit e F, SF6, 1, 6, CTS 10136
Colmon oy 5, Met co 15E, St ellit e F,
SF6, 1, 6, CTS 10136
St ellit e 6
Met co 443 (Ni-Cr -6%Al)
Ma gr in i, 1986
Ra mou s , 1989
Br u ck, 1988
Da mbor en ea , 1994
AISI 400 St ellit e 1, 6, 21, St ellit e 21+Nb-C,
St ellit e 21+CrC, Ni-Cr-Al-Y+Al, Ni-
Cr -Al-Y + Nb-C, Ni-Cr -Al-Y+Cr C
Hir os e, 1995
AISI 410 St ellit e 6 Liu , 1983
AISI 1008 St ellit e 6 Pizu r ova , 1993
AISI 4140 Met co 461, 202NS, Y
2
O
3
+Zr O
2
Van deHaar , 1988
X7Cr 13 s t eel TiC/ Ni Ga s s ma n n , 1992
4Cr 13 s t a in les s s t eel Ni-Cr -B-Si+Zr O
2
Pei, 1996
X20Cr 13 St ellit e 6 Fr en k, 1991
X2Cr NiMo18 14
s t a in les s s t eel
St ellit e 6
St ellit e 6, E16001, E16019
gr a ph it e+BN
Fr en k, 1991, 1993
Fr en k, 1991
Sa ka mot o, 1995
X8Cr Ni18 10 St ellit e 157, F, 6, Delor o 40, 20 Ga s s ma n n , 1992
20Ni4Mo s t eel Ni-Cr -Fe-Si-B-C (bon d)+WC Zh u , 1993
162 Appendix 4
X45Cr Si9 St ellit e 6, F K pper, 1990; Wis s en bach ,
1991
ca r bon s t eel Cu / Ni Br u ck, 1987
s t a in les s s t eel In con el 625+Cr C, AISI 410 Br u ck, 1988
Z10CNDV 12-2
mart en s it ic s t ain les s
s t eel
St ellit e F Her n a n dez, 1986
RENE 80 Ni-Al-Cr -Hf Sir ca r , 1988, 1989;
Riba u do, 1989
0.4C 0.6Mn s t eel Wa llex 6 Colmon oy 5 Mon s on , 1986
0.16C 1.2Mn s t eel Ni-Cr -Si-B Ch en , 1989
C-Mn s t eel St ellit e 6, Eu t rolloy 16262, Cen iu m
Z20
Yellu p, 1995
0.42C 1Cr Mo s t eel Ni-ba s e a lloy Pellet ier , 1994
16Mn Cr 5 s t eel St ellit e 21(bon d)+WC/ W
2
C, St ellit e
21(bon d)+WC/ CoNiBSi(bon d)+WC/
Co, NiBSi(bon d)+WC/ W
2
C
Tech el, 1995; Nowot n y,
1994;
Lu ft , 1995
90Mn Cr V8 Nicr obor 40, Delor o 60 Br en n er , 1996
SAE 4340 St ellit e 6
Co-ba s e a lloy
Ria bkin a -Fis h ma n , 1996
Fis h ma n , 1995
SAE 4620 Ni-Al-Mo (bon d)+Cr
2
O
3
+TiO
2
Cu et os , 1993
SAF 2205
du plex s t eel
Cr
2
O
3
+pu r e Fe Zh ou , 1991
s t eel 1.4571 LC2.3B, LC1.5A, LC0.1C Volz, 1994
s t eel 1.4541 ~
X6Cr NiTi18 10
LC2.3B, LC0.1C, LC15.7C. LC5.0C
Zr O
2
/ Y
2
O
3
, Al
2
O
3
, Cr
2
O
3
,
Cr
2
O
3
/ SiO
2
/ TiO
2
Wolf, 1995
GGG40 ca s t ir on St ellit e 1, 6
Ni-ba s e a lloy
Wolf, 1994
Ga s s er , 1996
GGG60 ca s t ir on Al-br on ze Ha fer ka mp, 1994
GG25 ca s t ir on St ellit e 1, 6 Wolf, 1994
s ph er oida l ca s t ir on Cen iu m Z20, St ellit e 6, Eu t rolloy
16262
St ellit e 6
Ni-ba s e a lloy
Yellu p, 1995
Flin kfeldt , 1994
Pellet ier , 1994
Fe-ba s e Ni-Cr (bon d)+TiC, Ni-Cr (bon d)
+WC+Ni, Ni-Al-Si(bon d)+TiC,
Pellet ier , 1994
Pow der-s ubs trate combinations reported in literature 163
Ni-Al-Si(bon d)+ WC+Ni
NON-FERROUS
In con el 625 Al+SiC
Tr iba lloy T-400
J as im, 1993
Cooper , 1989
In con el 718 Ni-Cr -Al-Hf Sin gh , 1987
In con el 738 Ni-Cr -Al-Si-Y Ma r s den , 1990
In con el 800H s ilica Fellowes , 1990
Nicr obor 20 WC/ Co Ga s s ma n n , 1992
Ni-Cr -Al Ni-Cr -Al+Zr O
2
(Met co 202NS),
Ni-Cr -Al+Zr O
2
(Met co 202NS)+
Y
2
O
3
+Y+Zr
Da mbor en ea , 1993
Ni Al
Fe-Cr -P-C
Hf
Kar , 1989
Ma r s den , 1990
Kar , 1988; Sir car , 1989
Al 333 Ni-Al br on ze (Cu -Al-Ni-Fe)
Ni-a lloy FP-5 + bon d Ni-Al br on ze
Liu , 1992
Liu , 1994
Al 6061 Al+SiO
2
Hos s on , 1995
Al 7075 SiC Riccia r di, 1990
Al+7%Si Ni-Al, Al-Si Sa lla ma n d, 1993
AlSi12 Cu Al-br on ze Gr n en wa ld, 1996
AlCu 4SiMg (H15) St ellit e 6, pu r e Si Li, 1992
AlMgSi AlMgSi0,5, AlSi12 Reich elt , 1996
Al-ba s e Al+SiC Hegge, 1990
Ti-6Al-4V Tr iba lloy T-400
Nimon ic 80A, In con el 100
Ti-6Al-4V+cu bic BN
Ti-6Al-4V+Cr
2
O
3
, Ti-6Al-4V+Cr
3
C
2
,
Ti-6Al-4V+WC, Ti-6Al-4V+Mo
2
C
Cooper , 1989
Coqu er elle, 1986
La n g, 1994
Folkes , 1994
Mg-ba s e Mg-Zr , Mg-Al
Mg-Al
Wa n g, 1990
Wa n g, 1993
Cu -Cr -Zr (Elbr odu r ) Delor o 50, PEX 23 Reich elt , 1996
164 Appendix 4
Cu -Zn -Pb (br a s s ) Ni-ba s e a lloy Pellet ier , 1994
Cu -Sn (br on ze) Ni-ba s e a lloy Pellet ier , 1994
Cu -ba s e Ni-Al-Si (bon d)+WC+Ni,
Ni-Al-Si (bon d)+TiC, Ni-Cr (bon d)
+TiC, Ni-Cr (bon d)+WC+Ni
Pellet ier , 1994
PET Met co 101B-NS Ayr a u lt , 1996
PMMA Met co 101B-NS Ayr a u lt , 1996
UNKNOWN
MATERIAL
Mo-Cr -Cr C-Ni-Si
St ellit e 156
St ellit e SF6, 158, 6, 90, Triballoy T-
700, Delor o 60, Ha ys t ellit e 1
TiC/ Ni, TiC/ Ni+Ni-Cr -B-Si (bon d),
TiC/ Ni+Co-Cr -W-C (bon d),
WC/ Co, WC/ Co +Ni-Cr-B-Si
(bon d),
WC/ Co +Co-Cr -W-C (bon d)
Co-Cr -W-Si-B-C
Met co 461NS (bon d)+Met co 205NS
St ellit e 21 (bon d)+ WC/ Co,
St ellit e 21 (bon d)+ WC,
St ellit e 21 (bon d)+ WC/ Ni
St ellit e 1, 6, 20, SF20, 21
WC/ Co+Ni-B-Si
Belmon do, 1979
Nu r min en , 1983
Ma t t h ews , 1983
Fu x, 1992
Smu r ov, 1992
Ga s s ma n n , 1992
Hos s on , 1996
Nowot n y, 1994
Dankwoord
Een pr oefs ch r ift ka n n iet t ot s t a n d komen zon der de s t eu n en bijdr a ge va n een
h eleboel a n der en . Allen die h ebben bijgedr a gen a a n h et wels la gen va n dit pr o-
mot iewer k wil ik bij deze bijzon der beda n ken .
Mijn da n k ga a t a ller eer s t u it n a a r mijn collega -AIOs . Met n a me ju llie pr et t ige
a a n wezigh eid en de goede s feer h eb ik er g op pr ijs ges t eld. Ch r is , Fr a n k, Ger t -
Willem, Her ma n , Pa u l en Roelof beda n kt voor de leu ke t ijd en veel s u cces met
ju llie eigen wer k.
Ber t u s en J a n zijn mij beh u lpza a m gewees t bij h et ma ken va n pr oefs t u kken en
h et exper imen t er en . Als de on mis ba r e s t ille kr a ch t en op de a ch t er gr on d h ebben
zij veel geda a n voor dit pr oject . Mich el wa s a lt ijd er g beh u lpza a m bij h et ma t e-
r ia a lku n dig on der zoek. Beh a lve h et wer k wa s er da a r bij ook a lt ijd t ijd voor de
men s elijke ka n t va n h et wer k. Mich el, s t er kt e met de komen de ver a n der in gen !
Veel s t u den t en h ebben t ijden s h u n a fs t u der en wer k ver zet voor dit pr oject . Er
wer d h a r d gewer kt , veel ops t ellin gen wer den gebou wd en er wer d voor a l veel
pa pier gepr odu ceer d. Ik h eb veel plezier a a n de s a men wer kin g met ju llie
beleefd.
Een gezon de gees t in een gezon d lich a a m is een beken d gezegde da t voor wij
zeer va n t oepa s s in g is . Het u u r t je h a r dlopen of t en n is s en t u s s en de midda g wa s
va a k h a r d n odig om weer fr is met h et wer k ver der t e ku n n en . Gelu kkig voelden
velen zich ger oepen met mij mee t e ga a n . Voor a l met Her ma n h eb ik h eel wa t
166 Dank w oord
kilomet er t jes in de mooie Dr ien er los e bos s en a fgelegd. Mijn t oen wa t min der e
s n elh eid h eeft h em h eel wa t s pier pijn opgelever d. Gelu kkig gin gen we ook wel
een s t en n is s en . Da t gin g me da n gelu kkig wa t bet er a f
Ver der da n k a a n J oh a n Meijer en pr of. Beckma n n . Vele dis cu s s ies en s u gges -
t ies leidden u it ein delijk da n t och t ot dit pr oefs ch r ift . De men in gen liepen wel
een s wa t u it een en ook de ma n ier va n a a n pa k wa s s oms ver s ch illen d, ma a r
da n kzij de weder zijds e in zet is er t och een r es u lt a a t geboekt da t er gezien ma g
wor den .
Na t u u r lijk ook a a n da ch t voor h et t h u is fr on t : Ir is h eeft zich er g veel moet en
on t zeggen voor dit pr oefs ch r ift . Hen k h eeft vele ma a n den zijn geliefde compu t er
bela n geloos u it geleen d. Lin da h eeft h et geh eel door gelezen en gecor r igeer d da a r
wa a r h et En gels ech t n iet door de beu gel kon . Br igiet , Ber en d, Lis et t e en
Ron a ld wa r en zo a f en t oe gr a a g ber eid een da gje op Ch a n t a l t e pa s s en , zoda t ik
flin k op kon s ch iet en . Fr a n k ga f h et n odige a dvies en zor gde de la a t s t e t ijd voor
een ga s t vr ij on der komen in Den Ha a g.
Tot s lot , h et ga ju llie a llen goed!
Ma r cel
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LASER CLADDING WITH POWDER

h ea t exch a n ge coefficien t t o en vir on men t [Wm

Las er cladding: s tate-of-the-art 43

Temperature profile on a clad s urface 59

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