Heat and Internal Energy

Internal Energy U is the total energy associated with

the microscopic components of the system
Includes kinetic and potential energy associated with the
random translational, rotational and vibrational motion of
the atoms or molecules
Also includes the intermolecular potential energy
Does not include macroscopic kinetic energy or external
potential energy
Heat refers to the transfer of energy between a
system and its environment due to a temperature
difference between them
Amount of energy transferred by heat designated by
symbol Q
A system does not have heat, just like it does not have
work (heat and work speak to transfer of energy)
Units of Heat
The historical unit of heat was the calorie
A calorie is the amount of energy necessary to raise the
temperature of 1 g of water from 14.5C to 15.5C
A Calorie (food calorie, with a capital C) is 1000 cal
Since heat (like work) is a measure of energy
transfer, its SI unit is the joule
1 cal = 4.186 J (Mechanical Equivalent of Heat)
New definition of the calorie
The unit of heat in the U.S. customary system is the
British thermal unit (BTU)
Defined as the amount of energy necessary to raise the
temperature of 1 lb of water from 63F to 64F
More About Heat
Heat is a microscopic form of energy transfer
involving large numbers of particles
Energy exchange occurs due to individual
interactions of the particles
No macroscopic displacements or forces involved
Heat flow is from a system at higher temperature to
one at lower temperature
Flow of heat tends to equalize average microscopic kinetic
energy of molecules
When 2 systems are in thermal equilibrium, they are
at the same temperature and there is no net heat
flow
Energy transferred by heat does not always mean
there is a temperature change (see phase changes)
Heat Transfer Simulation
Simulation presented in class.
(ActivPhysics Online Exercise #8.6, copyright Addison Wesley publishing)
Specific Heat
Every substance requires a unique amount of
energy per unit mass to change the temperature of
that substance by 1C
The specific heat c of a substance is a measure of
this amount, defined as:
Or
AT is always the final temperature minus the initial
temperature
When the temperature increases, AT and Q are
considered to be positive and energy flows into the system
When the temperature decreases, AT and Q are
considered to be negative and energy flows out of the
system
c varies slightly with temperature
T m
Q
c
A
=
(units of J / kg
o
C)
T mc Q A =
Consequences of Different Specific Heats
Air circulation at the beach
Water has a high specific heat
compared to land
On a hot day, the air above the
land warms faster
The warmer air flows upward
and cooler air moves toward the
beach, creating air circulation pattern
Moderate winter temperatures in regions near large
bodies of water
Water transfers energy to air, which carries energy toward
land (predominant on west coast rather than east coast)
Similar effect creates thermals (rising layers of air)
which help flight of eagles and hang gliders
Sections of land are at higher temp. than other areas
Calorimetry
Calorimetry means measuring heat
In practice, it is a technique used to measure specific heat
Technique involves:
Raising temperature of object(s) to some value
Place object(s) in vessel containing cold water of known
mass and temperature
Measure temperature of object(s) + water after
equilibrium is reached
A calorimeter is a vessel providing good insulation
that allows a thermal equilibrium to be achieved
between substances without any energy loss to the
environment (styrofoam cup or thermos with lid)
Conservation of energy requires that:
0 =
k
Q
(Q > 0 (< 0) when energy is gained (lost))
Example Problem #11.17
Solution (details given in class):
80 g
An aluminum cup contains 225 g of water and
a 40-g copper stirrer, all at 27C. A 400-g
sample of silver at an initial temperature of
87C is placed in the water. The stirrer is
used to stir the mixture until it reaches its final
equilibrium temperature of 32C. Calculate
the mass of the aluminum cup.
CQ1: Interactive Example Problem:
Calorimetry
(Physlet Physics Exploration #19.3, copyright PrenticeHall publishing)
Part (a): What is the energy released via heat
by the block?
A) 193 J
B) 193 J
C) 193 kJ
D) 193 kJ
E) 4186 kJ
CQ2: Interactive Example Problem:
Calorimetry
(Physlet Physics Exploration #19.3, copyright PrenticeHall publishing)
Part (c): What is the equilibrium temperature
of the system?
A) 300.0 K
B) 304.6 K
C) 319.0 K
D) 327.1 K
E) 1000 K
Phase Transitions
A phase transition occurs when the physical
characteristics of the substance change from one
form to another
Common phase transitions are
Solid liquid (melting)
Liquid gas (boiling)
Phase transitions involve a change in the internal
energy, but no change in temperature
Kinetic energy of molecules (which is related to
temperature) is not changing, but their potential energy
changes as work is done to change their positions
Energy required to change the phase of a given
mass m of a pure substance is:
L = latent heat depends on substance and nature of
phase transition
+ () sign used if energy is added (removed)
mL Q =
Phase Transitions
All phase changes can go in either direction
Heat flowing into a substance can cause melting (solid to
liquid) or boiling (liquid to gas)
Heat flowing out of a substance can cause freezing (liquid
to solid) or condensation (gas to liquid)
Latent heat of fusion L
f
is used for melting or
freezing
Latent heat of vaporization L
v
is used for boiling or
condensing (somewhat larger for lower pressures)
Table 11.2 gives the latent heats for various
substances
Large L
f
of water is partly why spraying fruit trees
with water can protect the buds from freezing
In process of freezing, water gives up a large amount of
energy and keeps bud temperature from going below 0C
T vs. Q for Transition from Ice to Steam
Part A: Temperature of ice changes from 30C to 0C
Q = mc
ice
AT = (1.00 10
3
kg)(2090 J/kgC)(30.0C)

= 62.7 J
Part B: Ice melts to water at 0C
Q = mL
f
= (1.00 10
3
kg)(3.33 10
5
J/kg)

= 333 J
Part C: Temperature of water changes from 0C to 100C
Q = mc
water
AT = (1.00 10
3
kg)(4.19 10
3
J/kgC)(100C)

= 419 J
Part D: Water changes to steam at 100C
Q = mL
v
= (1.00 10
3
kg)(2.26 10
6
J/kg)

= 2.26 10
3
J
Part E: Temperature of steam changes from 100C to 120C
Q = mc
steam
AT = (1.00 10
3
kg)(2.01 10
3
J/kgC)(20C)

= 40.2 J
Initial state: 1 g
of ice at 30C
Final state: 1 g
of steam at
120C
Q
tot
= 3.11 10
3
J
Evaporation and Condensation
The previous example shows why a burn caused by
100C steam is much more severe than a burn
caused by 100C water
Steam releases large amount of energy through heat as it
condenses to form water on the skin
Much more energy is transferred to the skin than would
be the case for same amount of water at 100C
Evaporation is similar to boiling
Molecular bonds are being broken by the most energetic
molecules
Average kinetic energy is lowered as a result, which is
why evaporation is a cooling process
Approximately the same latent heat of vaporization
applies
Reason why you feel cool after stepping out from a
swimming pool
Example Problem #11.31
Solution (details given in class):
16C
A 40-g block of ice is cooled to 78C and is then
added to 560 g of water in an 80-g copper
calorimeter at a temperature of 25C. Determine the
final temperature of the system consisting of the ice,
water, and calorimeter. (If not all the ice melts,
determine how much ice is left.) Remember that the
ice must first warm to 0C, melt, and then continue
warming as water. The specific heat of ice is 0.500
cal/gC = 2090 J/kgC.
Conduction
Energy can be transferred via heat in one of three
ways: conduction, convection, radiation
Conduction occurs with temperature differences
Transfer by conduction can be understood on an
atomic scale
It is an exchange of energy between microscopic particles
by collisions
Less energetic particles gain energy during collisions with
more energetic particles
Net result is heat flow from higher temperature region to
lower temperature region
Rate of conduction depends upon the characteristics
of the substance
Metals are good conductors due to loosely-bound
electrons
Conduction
Consider the flow of heat by
conduction through a slab of cross-
sectional area A and width L
The rate of energy transfer (power)
is given by:


Assumes that slab is insulated so that energy cannot
escape by conduction from its surface except at the ends
k is the thermal conductivity and depends on the material
Substances that are good (poor) conductors have large
(small) thermal conductivities (see Table 11.3)
P is in Watts when Q is in Joules and At is in seconds
L
T T
kA
t
Q
P
c h

=
A
=
L
Home Insulation
In engineering, the insulating quality of materials
are rated according to their R value: R = L / k
R values have strange units: Fft
2
/ (Btu/h)
Thats why units are not usually given!
Substances with larger R value are better insulators
For multiple layers, the total R value is the sum of
the R values of each layer
Still air provides good insulation, but moving air
increases the energy loss by conduction in a home
Much of the thermal resistance of a window is due to the
stagnant air layers rather than to the glass
Convection
Convection is heat flow by the movement of a fluid
When the movement results from differences in
density, it is called natural convection (fluid currents
are due to gravity)
Air currents at the beach
Water currents in a saucepan while heating
When the movement is forced by a fan or a pump, it
is called forced convection (fluid is pushed around
by mechanical means fan or pump)
Forced-air heating systems
Hot-water baseboard heating
Blood circulation in the body
)
`

(although air currents move

under natural convection)
Thermal Radiation
Thermal radiation transfers energy through
emission of electromagnetic waves does not
require physical contact
All objects radiate energy continuously in the form
of electromagnetic waves due to thermal vibrations
of the molecules
At ordinary temperatures (~20C) nearly all the radiation
is in the infrared (wavelengths longer than visible light)
At 800C a body emits enough visible radiation to be self-
luminous and appears red-hot
At 3000C (incandescent lamp filament) the radiation
contains enough visible light so the body appears white-
hot
An ideal emitter and absorber of radiation is called a
blackbody (would appear black)
Thermal Radiation
The rate at which energy is radiated is given by
Stefans Law:

P is the rate of energy transfer (power), in Watts
= Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 5.6696 x 10
8
W/m
2
K
4

A is the surface area of the object
e is a constant called the emissivity, and ranges from 0
to 1 depending on the properties of the objects surface
T is the temperature in Kelvin
Objects absorb radiation as well
Net rate of energy gained or lost given by:

T
0
= temperature of environment
4
AeT P o =
( )
4
0
4
net
T T Ae P =o
Applications of Thermal Radiation
Choice of clothing
Black fabric acts as a good absorber, so about half of the
emitted energy radiates toward the body
White fabric reflects thermal radiation well
Thermography as medical diagnostic tool
Measurement of emitted thermal energy using infrared
detectors, producing a visual display (see Fig. 11.13)
Areas of high temperature are indicated, showing regions
of abnormal cellular activity
Measuring body temperature
Radiation thermometer measures the intensity of the
infrared radiation from the eardrum (see Fig. 11.14)
Eardrum is good location to measure temperature since it
is near hypothalamus (bodys temperature control center)
Resisting Energy Transfer
Dewar flask/thermos bottle
Designed to minimize energy transfer to
surroundings
Space between walls is evacuated to
minimize conduction and convection
Silvered surface minimizes energy
transfer by radiation
Neck size is reduced
Same principle behind dressing in coats
and sweaters to keep warm
Warmer air is trapped close to our bodies, reducing
energy loss by convection and conduction
Global Warming
Analogous to a greenhouse
Visible light and short-wavelength infrared radiation are
absorbed by contents of greenhouse, resulting in the
emission of longer-wavelength infrared radiation (IR)
Longer-wavelength IR absorbed by glass
Glass emits IR, half of which is emitted back inside the
greenhouse
Convection currents are inhibited by the glass (although
this is not mirrored in Earths atmosphere)
Earths atmosphere fills role of glass roof in
greenhouse
Greenhouse gasses like CO
2
are particularly good
absorbers of IR
More greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere means more
IR is absorbed and Earths surface becomes warmer