Material & Structural Configuration

Shri. Pulak Chakrabarti Chief Designer (Structures), Aircraft Research & Design Center (ARDC) Hindustan Aeronautics Ltd

24 Feb 2009

Aircraft Structure
Function of a structure is to transfer load from one point to another , retain a shape & form an enclosure Aircraft is made of complex structures Each complex structure is made of simple structural elements

Structural arrangement - principle

Each structural element should have a function If there is no role to play then remove the element Joining of two complicated structures should be simple (modular) - preferably statically determinant joint

STRUCTURAL ARRANGEMENT AND SIZING Based on past data, observation & experience Tailoring to meet the functional requirements Incorporation of innovative ideas based on risk assessment Structural analysis concurrently with design evolution

Type of Structural Elements

Bar with both ends pinned ( tie member or column) Beam Tube or box section Panel with in plane load Joints (fittings + fasteners) Composites (fibre in resin matrix)

DESIGN CONCEPTS
Structural function and configuration of the component
Wing box, fuselage barrel Control surfaces Joint, splice or fittings Panel with cutout

Basic loads( Static, fatigue, fail safe, and crashcondition loads)

Tension Compression Shear Normal surface pressure loading Any combination of above loading

DESIGN CONCEPTS Material selection

Static Fatigue Fracture toughness

Fastener and repairability

Fastener selection Joint or spice requirements Adequate edge margin Compromise efficient structure Configurations Fabrication Installation and assembly Design for stiffness requirements

DESIGN CONCEPTS

To meet low cost

Manufacturing and assembly Aircraft performance requirements To meet market competition

DESIGN REQUIREMENTS

ASR/Market requirements Mil-spec requirements Weight constraint Performance Fuel economy Stability

BUILDING BLOCKS STRUCTURAL CONFIGURATION (Contd.)

Fuselage
Frames Stringers Longerons Skin Wing attachment V.Tail/H.tail attachment Engine mounts (For Military A/c) Landing gear attachments (For Military A/c)

Wing

BUILDING BLOCKS STRUCTURAL CONFIGURATION

Spanwise members (spars or booms) Chordwise members (ribs). Covering skin. Stringers. Wing attachments to fuselage

Engine mounts (For Civil A/c) Landing gear attachments (For Civil A/c) Empennage
Spars Ribs Stringers Skin Tail attachments to fuselage

EVOLUTION OF STRUCTURAL LAYOUT

Function of Structure Basically, to:

Transmit & resist applied loads. Provide aerodynamic shape. Protect crew, passengers, payload, systems, etc.

For vast majority of a/c, leads to use of semi-monocoque design (thin, stressed outer shell with additional stiffening members) for wing, fuselage & empennage.

EVOLUTION OF STRUCTURAL LAYOUT(Contd.)

Stressed-Skin, Monocoque & Semi-Monocoque Constructions

Since 30s, most aircraft designed with skin (usually made of aluminium alloy) to carrying part of shear load.
Monocoque construction has skin carrying all the shear load, with no supporting framework. Rarely used on aircraft - large skin thicknesses and associated weight penalties. More efficient to use a semi-monocoque primary structure (i.e wing, fuselage & tailplane). Stressed-skin with extra supporting members.

EVOLUTION OF STRUCTURAL LAYOUT(Contd)

Mainplane (Wing) Structural Layout To fulfil these specific roles, a wing structural layout will conventionally comprise: spanwise members (spars), chordwise members (ribs), covering skin, stringers.

EVOLUTION OF STRUCTURAL LAYOUT(Contd.)

Fuselage Structural Layout Conventionally takes the form of a semimonocoque (stressed-skin) cylinder which is efficient at resisting structural loads.

Members are:
Longitudinal stringers, or sometimes fewer but more
substantial longerons instead. Transverse frames (hoops) or solid bulkheads (discs). Covering skin.

EVOLUTION OF STRUCTURAL LAYOUT

DESIGN CRITERIA
Structural design criterias are as follows Strength requirements Stiffness requirements Life requirements

Strength requirements
Limit Loads
Maximum one-off loads expected to be experienced in normal operations. Most structural components designed to these.

DESIGN CRITERIA

Strength requirements
Load Factors
Aerospace structures conventionally designed through use of design limit loads multiplied by load factors. Design Limit Loads Maximum loads expected under normal operating conditions. Load Factors Two generally used:
Proof Factor & Ultimate Factor.

DESIGN CRITERIA

Strength requirements
Reserve factors
Common in stressing calculations to make use of reserve factors (RFs), where: RF = allowable stress / factored design stress Proof and ultimate RFs calculated and must be > 1 for all limit load conditions. Design usually iterated so that RFs are only just > 1 to prevent overdesign and produce optimum mass solution.

DESIGN CRITERIA

Stiffness requirements
Flutter Control surface reversal Static divergence

Life requirements
safe-life fail-safe damage tolerant

AIRWORTHINESS REGULATIONS

The airworthiness of the structure of an aeroplane depends primarily on two characteristics of the structure, its strength, and its stiffness. Documentation exists for all classes of aircraft relating to structural strength and stiffness requirements. Military Aircraft UK Def Stan 00-970, Vol 1 FW, Vol 2 RW US - Mil Specs Civil Aircraft Europe JAR (Join Airworthiness Requirements) US FAR (Federal Airworthiness Requirements)

LOADING ACTION

PRODUCIBILITY (Contd.)
In aircraft design, time is always essence of the contract and pressure is always on. There is never sufficient time to consider objectively all the possible ways of doing a job and there by to arrive, on the first occasion, at the optimum method Principles of Producibility design General configuration Rectangular verses tapered wing sections, flaps and control surfaces Minimum number of major structures Cylindrical, straight or conical surfaces verses compound curvature Extend of fairing and filleting required

PRODUCIBILITY (Contd.)
Major breakdowns Adequate access for assembly Ease of handling and transportation Completeness of master breakdown units Assembly joints Effectiveness Structure and equipment Structure includes all primary and secondary structure, equipment includes everything within the structural frame oSimplicity Adequate access for fabrication and sub assembly Avoid compound curvature Free body principles

PRODUCIBILITY (contd)
Simplicity Alignment relations Minimum fabricating and processing operations Straight line systems Mechanical simplicity oParts Multiple use and minimum number of different parts Minimum total number of parts Minimum amount and types of attachments Effective use of standard parts, materials and material sizes

PRODUCIBILITY
Detail design Interchangeability Adjustment and take-up Tolerance Adequate clearances Rework margins Adequate fastener edge distance Machining economy

MAINTAINABILITY(Contd.)
The aim will be to keep the airplane flying every day thus putting a premium on the ability to change components quickly In general, a low wing transport layout is better from a servicing standpoint than high wing since engines and refueling points are more readily accessible without the use of steps. The low wing layout has considerable advantages from the point of view of installation of control cables , hydraulic pipes, electric cables and equipment etc.-all of which can be run under the cabin floor and reached for inspection and maintenance through doors in the underside of the fuselage-For easy transportation.

MAINTAINABILITY
Position of service joints in the main structure can be of considerable importance to the operator: if possible, a fighter aircraft wing joint should be located at the side of the fuselage. A modern airline technique is to change the component or items of equipment which have reached their service lifeproviding good accessibility It is very desirable to separate routine maintenance and changing points-to avoid crowded men Generation of technical data manuals

Materials
Primary

requirements are for high strength and stiffness allied with lightness - known as specific strength and stiffness. Secondary considerations vary from a/c to a/c, but include: toughness, corrosion resistance, fatigue resistance, ease of fabrication, availability, thermal properties and costs.

Materials
The main materials used nowadays on aircraft structures are: Aluminium Alloys Titanium Alloys Carbon Fibre Composites Steel Aluminium Lithium Alloys

Materials - Aluminium Alloys

Aluminium Alloys
Still the most important material used on a/c structures, though its use has dropped from about 71% in 1986 to about 40% nowadays. Two popular categories:
1. Al/Cu/Mg alloys (Duralumin, US2000 series) Damage-tolerant with low crack propagation behaviour. Used in fatigue sensitive areas (e.g. lower wing skins). 2. Al/Zn/Mg alloys (US7000 series)

High strength alloy

Used in compression-dominated areas (e.g. upper wing skins).

Materials - Steel
Steel
Possesses high tensile strength & stiffness but also high density (about 3 x that of aluminium alloys). Mainly used where high tensile strength and stiffness/volume required, e.g. landing gears, swing-wing sweep actuators, wing roots, arrestor hooks, engine supports and flap tracks. Properties suffer less thermal degradation than aluminium alloys.

Most popular form is stainless steel - used in about 8% (by weight) of all a/c structures.

Materials - Aluminium-Lithium Alloys (1)

Aluminium-Lithium Alloys 10% reduced density compared with 2000 series al alloys while it has the same strength as 7000 series alloys & 10% improved stiffness. But short critical crack length and production problems. Used on A3J Vigilante (50s) & TSR2 (60s).

Materials - Aluminium-Lithium Alloys (2)

Also used on Eurofighter Typhoon - about 5% of structure weight as opposed to originally planned 20%. - produces approximately 11% reduction in structure weight compared with use of standard al alloys.

Materials - Titanium Alloys

Titanium Alloys

Compared with aluminium alloys:

Advantages better specific strength & stiffness; less degradation of properties at high temperatures; better fatigue life & corrosion characteristics. Disadvantages cost (x 10 typically);

availability.

Materials - Titanium Alloys (2)

Very popular in 70s aircraft (makes up 17.5% of

Tornado structure mass) but more typically around 6% nowadays. Super plastic forming and diffusion bonding processes have reduced overall costs and led to another recent increase in usage.

Tornado GR4

Materials - Carbon Fibre Composites (1)

Carbon Fibre Composites (CFC)

Most important material to be introduced into a/c

structures in the last few decades. - Developed at RAE Farnborough in mid-60s. - Used on many modern FW & RW aircraft.

Beech Starship

AV-8B

Materials - Carbon Fibre Composites (2)

Specific Strength & Stiffness Even when accounting for reduction factors applicable due to
various environmental & design constraints, CFC is still superior to other common aerospace materials.

Other Benefits of Use Structure may be tailored according to directional loading.

Ability to mould complex shapes.

Problems
Degradation at high temperatures, susceptibility to moisture & UV exposure, property variability and difficulty to repair.

Materials - Carbon Fibre Composites (3)

Use of Carbon Fibre Composites (CFC) in RW Aircraft Blades

BERP Blade (Lynx/EH101)

Sea King Composite Blade

Improved fatigue life for composite rotor. Complicated shapes easier to produce in composites. Composites tailored to meet stress requirements.

Materials - Honeycomb Sandwich Panels (1)

Boeing 777-200 Usually based on aluminium alloy, comprising: Core of honeycomb cells Facing skins Use commonplace since 60s for many secondary, thin section substructures, e.g flaps, spoilers, on Boeing 747/777. Used less nowadays due to increased use of composites.

Advantages

Materials - Honeycomb Sandwich Panels (2)

Excellent resistance to buckling & sonic fatigue.

High specific strength & stiffness.

Disadvantages Costly, complicated, lengthy manufacture.

Fragile skins susceptible to damage & difficult to repair. Attachment to panels difficult - special inserts required.