Research methodology

1 ECM701 DR NUR EMILEEN ABD RASHID

What is Research?
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The word research derives from recherch. Its literal meaning is

The systematic process of collecting and analyzing information (data) in order to discover of new knowledge or expend and verify the existing one To do so, it is required a..
Scientific Method

Scientific methods
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SCIENTIFIC METHOD IS THE METHOD INVOLVES THE CONCEPTS OF:

Objectivity
Indicates the attempt to observe things as they are, without falsifying observations to accord with some preconceived world view

Acceptability
Judged in terms of degree to which observations and

Inductive reasoning
Reasoning from specific observations and experiments to more general hypotheses and theories

Deductive reasoning
Reasoning from theories to account for specific experimental results

experimentations

can be produced

Research
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The degree to which these criteria are expected to be

fulfilled varies from discipline to discipline and so the meaning of research differs from one academic discipline to another search:

The word research is composed of 2 syllables, re and

re : a prefix meaning again, anew or over again search: a verb meaning to examine closely and carefully , to test and try or to probe

Together they form a noun describing a careful,

systematic, patient study and investigation in some field of knowledge, undertaken to establish facts or principles

Research
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Research : structured enquiry that utilizes acceptable

scientific methodology to solve problems and create new knowledge that is generally applicable
and interpretation of data

Scientific consist of systematic observation, classification

Research is a process of collecting, analyzing and

interpreting information to answer questions But to qualify research, the process must have certain characteristics: it must, as far as possible, be controlled, rigorous, systematic, valid and verifiable, empirical and critical

Controlled The concept of control implies that in exploring causality in relation to two variables- to minimizes the effect to other factor Rigorous Must be scrupulous in ensuring that the procedures followed to find answers to questions are relevant, appropriate and justified. Systematic Implies that the procedure adopted to undertake an investigation follow a certain logical sequence.

Valid and verifiable Implies that whatever you conclude on the basis of your findings is correct and can be verified by you and others Empirical Any conclusion drawn are based upon hard evidence gathered from information collected from real life experience or observations Critical Critical scrutiny of the procedures used and the methods employed is crucial to a search enquiry.

Type f research
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Research can be classified from three perspectives: Application of research study

Pure research involves developing and testing theories and hypotheses that are intellectually challenging to the researcher but may and may not have practical application at the present time or in the future. The knowledge produced through pure research is sought in order to add the existing body of research methods Applied research done to solve specific, practical questions; for policy formulation, administration and understanding of a phenomenon. It can be exploratory but is usually descriptive

Type f research
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Objectives in undertaking the research

Descriptive Describe systematically a situation , problem, phenomenon, service or program , or provides information about Correlation To discover or establish the existence of a relationship/ interdependence between two or more aspects of situation Explanatory To clarify why and how there is a relationship between two or more aspects of a situation or phenomenon Exploratory To explore an area where little is known or to investigate the possibilities of undertaking a particular research study (feasibility study/ pilot study)

In practice most studies are combination of the first

three categories

Type of research
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Inquiry mode employed

Structured approach

To inquiry is usually classified as quantitative research To inquiry is usually classified as qualitative research

Unstructured approach

Both approaches have their place in research. Both have their strengths and weaknesses In many studies you have to combine both quantitative and qualitative approaches

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The Research Process

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There are two important decision to make: What you want to find out or what research questions you want to find answers to How to go about finding their answers

the path to finding answers to your research

questions constitutes research methodology At each operational step, you are required to choose from a multiplicity of methods, procedures and models of research methodology

The Research Process

Identify broad area of research (Formulating Research Problem) Formulate phase Extensive Literature Review Developing research objectives Decide approach Design and executing phase Formulate plan Collect data Analyze data Analytical phase Present findings Preparation of report
Gill & Johnson, 1997

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Formulation phase
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Confirm need- Review Literature Define problem Develop Questions and objectives specify hypotheses develop theoretical model
Chapter 1 Introduction
Introduction Problem background Problem statement Research questions Objective Scope Significant of study

Chapter 2 Literature Review

Introduction Definition of terms (concept) Logical flow of ideas Unbiased and comprehensive view of the previous research on topic Identify areas of controversy in the literature Identify gaps in the literature Development of theoretical framework

To guiding

Design and Execution Phase

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Research design
Data collection Data analysis

External validity
Reliability

Formulating the research problem

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MOST CRUCIAL STEP: Main function is to decide what you want to find out about The way you formulate a problem determines almost every step that follows Sources of research problems
People: a group of individuals Problems: examine the existence of certain issues or problems relating to their lives; to ascertain attitude of a group of people towards an issue Programs: to evaluate the effectiveness of an intervention Phenomena : to establish the existence of regularity

Formulating the research problem

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Considerations in selecting a research problem Interest: select topic of great interest to sustain the required motivation Magnitude: select topic that you can manage within time and resources at your disposal. Narrow the topic down to something manageable, specific and clear Measurement of concepts: clear about the indicators and measurement of concepts Level of expertise: have adequate level of expertise for the task you are proposing since you need to do the work yourself

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Availability of data: before finalizing the topic, make sure that the data are available Relevance: ensure that your study adds to the existing body of knowledge, bridges current gaps and is useful in policy information Ethical issues: how ethical issues can affect the study population and how ethical problems can be overcome should be thoroughly examined at the problem formulating stage

Step in formulation of a research problem

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Identify a broad field or subject area of interest to you

Dissect the broad are into sub areas

Select what is most interest to you

Assess your objectives

Formulate objectives

Raise research questions

Double check

Reviewing the literature

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Essential preliminary task in order to acquaint yourself

with the available body of knowledge in your area of interest Literature review- integral part of the entire research process and makes valuable contribution to every operational step Can be time consuming, daunting and frustrating but rewarding Functions:

Bring clarity and focus to your research problem Improve your methodology Broaden your knowledge Contextualise your findings

Reviewing the literature

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Bring clarity and focus to your research Helps you understand the subject area better thus helps you to conceptualise your research problem clearly and precisely Helps you to understand the relationship between your research problem and the body of knowledge in the area

Improve your methodology Tell you if others have used procedures and methods similar to
Which procedures and methods have worked well for them What problem they have faced with them

Reviewing the literature

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Broaden your knowledge based in your research area

Ensure you to read widely around the subject area Helps you understand how the findings of your study fit into the existing body of knowledge How do answers to your research questions compare with what others have found? What contribution have you been able to make in to the existing body of knowledge? How are your findings different from those of others? For you to be able to answer these questions, you need to go back to your literature review. It is important to place your findings in the context of what is already known in your field of enquiry

Contextualise your findings

Reviewing the literature

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Procedure for reviewing the literature: 1. Search for existing literature in your area of study 2. Review the literature selected 3. Develop a theoretical framework 4. Develop a conceptual framework Search for existing literature The effective search for literature in your field of enquiry , it is imperative that you have in mind at least some idea of broad subject area and of the problem you wish to investigate, in order to set parameters of your research Books, proceeding papers, journals

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Review the literature selected After identifying useful literature, start reading them critically to pull together themes and issues that are associated If you do not have a theoretical framework of themes in mind to start with, use separate sheets of paper for each article or book Once you develop a rough framework, slot the findings from the material so far reviewed into framework, using a separate sheet of paper for each theme of that framework As you read further, go on slotting the information where it logically belongs under the theme so far developed. You may need to add more themes as you go Read critically with particular reference as the following aspects

Note whether the knowledge relevant to your theoretical framework is confirm beyond doubt Note the theories put forward, the criticisms of these and their basis, the methodologies adopted and the criticisms of them Examine to what extent the findings can be generalised to other situations

Ascertain the areas in which little or nothing is known-the gaps that exist in the body of knowledge

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Developed a theoretical framework As you have limited time it is important to set parameters by reviewing the literature in relation to some main themes pertinent to your research topics you have limited As you start reading the literature, you will realize that it deals with a number of aspects that have a direct `and indirect bearing on your research topic. Use these aspects as a basis for developing your theoretical framework. Until you go through the literature you cannot develop a theoretical framework and until you have developed a theoretical framework, you cannot effectively review the literature. Literature pertinent to your study may deal with two types of information:

universal; more specific( i.e. local trends or specific program)

In writing about such information you should start with the general information, gradually narrowing down to the specific.

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Writing up the literature reviewed In order to comply with the first function of literature review

i.e. to provide theoretical background to your study:

List the main themes that have emerged while reading literature. Convert them into subheadings. These subheadings should be precise, descriptive of the theme in question, and follow a logical progression. Now, under each subheading, record the main findings with respect to the theme in question, highlighting the reasons for and against an argument if they exist, and identify gaps and issues. In order to comply with the second function of literature review i.e. contextualising the findings of your study-requires you to very systematically compare your findings with those made by others. Quote from these studies to show how your findings contradict, confirm or add to them. It places your findings in the context of what others have found out. This function is undertaken when writing about your findings i.e. after analysis of your data

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The formulation of objectives

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Objectives are the goals you set out to attain in your study They inform a reader what you want to attain in your study Extremely important to word them clearly and specifically Objectives should be listed under two headings: Main objectives(aims)

an overall statement of the thrust of your study Statement of the main associations and relationships that you seek to discover or establish Specific aspects of the topics that you want to investigate within the main framework of your study Should be numerically listed Wording should be clearly, completely and specifically Each objective should contain only one aspect of the study Use action oriented words or verbs when writing objectives

Sub-objectives

The formulation of objectives

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Ie: to determine, to find out, to ascertain, to measure, to explore The wording determines the type of research (descriptive,

correlational and experimental) and the type of research design you need to adopt to achieve them Descriptive studies:

To describe the types of incentives provides by Hotel XYZ to employees in Mumbai. To find out the opinion of the employees about the medical facilities provided by five star hotels in Mumbai.

Correlational studies: To ascertain the impact of training on employee retention. To compare the effectiveness of different loyalty programmes on repeat clientele. Hypothesis testing studies: To ascertain if an increase in working hours will increase the incidence of drug/alchohol abuse. To demonstrate that the provision of company accommodation to employees in Mumbai hotels will reduce staff turnover.

Preparing the research design

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Research design is the conceptual structure within which research

would be conducted. The function of research design is to provide for the collection of relevant information with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money. The preparation of research design, appropriate for a particular research problem, involves the consideration of the following :
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Objectives of the research study. Method of Data Collection to be adopted Source of informationSample Design Tool for Data collection Data Analysis-- qualitative and quantitative

Objectives of the Research Study: Objectives identified to answer

1. 2.

the research questions have to be listed making sure that they are:
a) numbered, and b) statement begins with an action verb.

Preparing the research design

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Methods of Data Collection: There are two types of data Primary Data collected for the first time

Observation method- commonly used in behavioural sciences Survey method- suited for gathering descriptive information Experimental method empirical or cause and effect method Data based research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of being verified with observation or experiment Such research characterised by the researchers control over the variables under study and the deliberate manipulation of one of them to study its effect Researcher must provide self with a working hypothesis or guess as to the probable results. Then work to get enough facts (data) to prove or disprove the hypothesis. He then sets up experimental designs which he thinks will manipulate the persons or the materials concerned so as to bring forth the desired information. Evidence gathered through experimental or empirical studies today is considered to be the most powerful support possible for a given hypothesis.

Secondary Datathose which have already been collected and analysed by someone else.

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Determining sample design Researchers usually draw conclusions about large groups by taking a sample A Sample is a segment of the population selected to represent the population as a whole. Ideally, the sample should be representative and allow the researcher to make accurate estimates of the thoughts and behaviour of the larger population. Who will be surveyed? ( The Sample) The researcher must determine what type of information is needed and who is most likely to have it.

Sample Size- Large samples give more reliable results than small samples. However it is not necessary to sample the entire target population. How should the sample be chosen? (Sampling) Sample members may be chosen at random from the entire population (probability sample) The researcher might select people who are easier to obtain information from (nonprobability sample)

The needs of the research project will determine which method is most effective

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TOOL FOR DATA COLLECTION (RESEARCH

INSTRUMENTS)

The construction of a research instrument or tool for data collection is the most important aspect of a research project because anything you say by way of findings or conclusions is based upon the type of information you collect, and the data you collect is entirely dependent upon the questions that you ask of your respondents. The famous saying about computers- garbage in garbage out- is also applicable for data collection. The research tool provides the input into a study and therefore the quality and validity of the output (the findings), are solely dependent of it

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Guidelines to Construct a Research Tool: The underlying principle behind the guidelines suggested below is to ensure the validity of your instrument by making sure that your questions relate to the objectives of your study. Step I: Clearly define and individually list all the specific objectives or research. Questions for your study. Step II: For each objective or research questions, list all the associated questions. That you want to answer through your study. Step III: Take each research question listed in step II and list the information. Required to answer it. Step IV: Formulate question(s) to obtain this information.

Collecting Data
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Having formulated the research problem,, developed a

study design, constructed a research instrument and selected a sample, you then collect the data from which you will draw inferences and conclusions for your study. Depending upon your plans, you might commence interviews, mail out a questionnaire, conduct experiments and/or make observations. Collecting data through any of the methods may involve some ethical issues in relation to the participants and the researcher :

Those from whom information is collected or those who are studied by a researcher become participants of the study. Anyone who collects information for a specific purpose, adhering to the accepted code of conduct, is a researcher.

Collecting Data
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Ethical issues Ethical issues concerning research participants: There are many ethical issues in relation to participants of a research activity.
Collecting information: Seeking consent: Providing incentives: Seeking sensitive information: The possibility of causing harm to participant: Maintaining confidentiality:

Collecting Data
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b) Ethical issues relating to the researcher:

Avoiding bias: Provision or deprivation of a treatment: Using inappropriate research methodology: Incorrect reporting: Inappropriate use of the information:

Processing and Analysing Data

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Processing and analysing data involves a number of

closely related operations which are performed with the purpose of summarizing the collected data and organizing these in a manner that they answer the research questions (objectives).

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Reporting the Findings

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Writing the report is the last, and for many, the most

difficult step of the research process. The report informs the world what you have done, what you have discovered and what conclusions you have drawn from your findings. The report should be written in an academic style. Language should be formal and not journalistic.

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Written Research Project Report Format Traditional written reports tend to be produced in the

following format

Title Page Table of Contents

In this section is listed the contents of the report, either in chapters or in subheadings This section includes title and page number of all tables e.g. This section contains title and page number of all graphs, pie charts et Here the researcher may acknowledge Institute Principal, Faculty Guide-both research guide and technical guide, research participants, friends etc.

List of Tables

List Of Figures

Acknowledgements

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Introduction
This section introduces the research setting out aims and objectives. It includes a rationale for the research.

Theoretical Framework and Review of Literature

In this section is included all your background research which may be obtained from the literature review. You must indicate from where all the information has come, so remember to keep a complete record of everything you read. If you do not do this, you could be accused of plagiarism which is a form of intellectual theft. When you are referring to a particular book or journal article, use the Harvard system

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Research design:
This section includes all practical details followed for research . After reading this, any interested party should be able to replicate the research study. The methods used for data collection, how many people took part, how they were chosen, what tool was used for data collection, how the data was analysed etc.

Data Analysis and Interpretation:

If you have conducted a large quantitative survey, this section may contain tables, graphs, pie charts and associated statistics. If you have conducted a qualitative piece of research this section may be descriptive prose

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Summary and Conclusion:

In this section you sum up your findings and draw conclusions from them, perhaps in relation to other research or literature. If you have conducted a piece of research for a hotel or any other client organization, this section could be the most important part of the report. A list of clear recommendations which have been developed from the research is included- sometimes this section is included at the beginning of the report. It is useful in both academic reports and work-related reports to include a section which shows how the research can be continued. Perhaps some results are inconclusive, or perhaps the research has thrown up many more research questions which need to be addressed. It is useful to include this section because it shows that you are aware of the wider picture and that you are not trying to cover up something which you feel may be lacking in your own work.

Recommendations

Suggestion for Further Research

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List of References /Bibliography

List of references contains details only of those works cited in the text. A bibliography includes sources not cited in the text but which are relevant to the subject.(larger dissertations or thesis) Small research projects will need only a reference section. This includes all the literature to which you have referred in your report.

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