Definition:

An opamp is a direct coupled high

gain differential amplifier. It is a versatile
device. It can be used as an AC and DC
input signal.
It is basically used for mathematical
operations like addition, subtraction,
differentiation, integration etc…
 Block diagram of Op-Amp [µa 741]:

Non inverting i/p

Input stage Intermediate Level

Output stage output
stage transistor

Inverting i/p

Dual input Dual input Complementary

balanced unbalanced Emitter follower push pull
output
output differentiator amplifier
differentiator amplifier
amplifier
 An opamp is a direct coupled high gain differential amplifier. It consists
of one or two difference amplifier followed by level transistor and an output
stage.

The input stage is a dual input balanced. Output differential amplifier which
provides voltage gain of establishes high input impedance of the opamp.

The intermediate stage is another dual input unbalanced output

differential amplifier which provides the output which is parallel to the first
stage. This stage is driven by output of the first stage.

Both the input and intermediate stage are direct coupled, due to this DC
voltage at output of intermediate stage is above ground level. Therefore a
level transistor is used to shift the Dc level and the output of the intermediate
stage to zero volts with respect to ground level, for this an emitter follower is
used.
 SYMBOL OF Op-Amp

+Vcc
Inverting terminal
Output
Non inverting terminal
-Vee

An opamp has two inputs and one output terminal. The

–ve terminal is called inverting terminal and +ve
terminal is called non inverting terminal.
The output is the difference between two input terminal
Vα=V0=V2-V1
Characteristics of opamp {ideal}:
• input impedance = ∞{Ri=∞}
• output impedance = 0 { Ro= 0}
• infinite voltage gain = ∞ {Av=∞}
• Characteristics do not drift with temperature.
• perfect balance when V1=V2 when V0=0
• Infinite common mode rejection ratio
 Parameters of Op-Amp
• Input offset voltage {Vio}
• Input offset current {Iio}
• Output offset voltage
• Common mode rejection ratio
• Gain
• Power supply rejection ratio
• bandwidth product
• Output impedance
• Input impedance Zi or Ri
Input offset voltage {Vio}:
Input offset voltage is that voltage which must be applied
between input terminals to balance the amplifier.

Input offset current {Iio}:

Input offset current is the difference between the currents enters
the input terminal of the balanced amplifier.

Output offset voltage:

It is the difference between two DC voltages present at two
output terminals when two input terminals are grounded.

Common mode rejection ratio:

It is defined s the ratio of differential voltage gain ‘Ad’ to the
common mode voltage gain ‘Ac’.
It is denoted by ‘∫’ {Et}
Gain:
It is the ratio of output voltage to difference of two
input voltage.
Av=V0/Vd
Av=V0/ (V2-V1)
Power supply rejection ratio:
It is the ratio of change in an opamp input offset
voltage. ∆Vio to variation in supply voltage is called
power supply rejection ratio.
It is expressed in µv/Ώ (micro volts/ohm}
PSRR=∆Vio/∆V µv/Ώ
Bandwidth product:
It is the product of bandwidth of the opamp when
voltage gain is unity.
Input impedance Zi or Ri:
It is the total resistance between
inverting and non inverting inputs.
Output impedance:
It is the equivalent resistance i.e. measured
between output terminal and ground.
 Applications of Op-Amp
• Inverting amplifier
• Non inverting amplifier
• Voltage follower
• Summing amplifier
• Difference amplifier
• Differentiator
• Integrator
• Comparator
• Zero crossing detector and peak detector
• Window comparator
• Multivibrator
• Active filter
 Inverting amplifier
Inverting amplifier is one in which the output is 180˚ out of
phase with the input. Here the input signal is applied to inverting
terminal and non inverting terminal is grounded. Rf is called as
feed back resistor.
Since the voltage gain and input impedance are infinite
virtual ground exists between inverting and non inverting
terminal therefore junction ‘A’ is called summing point.
Apply kcl at point ‘A ‘
i+if=0
i = -if
(Vi-0) /Rs=(0-V0) /Rf
V1/Rs = -Vo/Rf
V0/V1= -Rf/Rs
Av= -Rf/Rs
The –ve sign implies that the output is 80˚out phase with input.
Circuit & Wave Form Of Inverting Amplifier

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 Non invertintg amplifier
A Non inverting amplifier is one in which the output
is in phase with the input. Here the input signal is applied to non
inverting terminal and the inverting terminal is fed with the feed
back resistor Rf.
Apply kcl at point A
-i-if=0
-i=if
i=-ifVi/Rs= (V1-V0)/Rf
V1/Rs= (-Vi/Rf) + (V0/Rs)
V1/Rs+V1/Rf=V0/Rf
V1 [1/Rs+1/Rf] =V0/Rf
V1/V0= [Rs+Rf]/Rf
V1/V0=Rs/Rs+Rf/Rf
V0/V1=1+ (Rf/Rf)
Circuit & Wave Form Of Non Inverting
Amplifier

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 Summing amplifier
A summing amplifier using opamp it is one which
adds two or more inputs. The input voltage are applied to
inverting terminal and non inverting terminal is gnd. Due to
virtual gnd i.e. because of infinite input impedance and infinite
voltage gain point a is held at zero potential.
Apply kcl at node A
I1+I2-If=0
I1+I2=If
V1/R1+V2/R2= (0-Vf)/Rf
V1/R1+V2/R2=-Vf/Rf
Assume R1=R2=RF=R
(V1+V2)R=-V0/R
V0=-(V1+V2)
The –ve sign implied that the input voltage is fed to inverting
terminal
 Difference amplifier:
It is one whose output is the difference of one or more input.
Assume V2=0, A=0, B=0
Apply Kcl at Node A
I1-I2=0
V1/R1=-VO/R2 -------->1
Assume V1=0 A=0 B=0
Apply kcl at node A
I1-I2=0
V2/R1=0/R2
V2/R1=0 -------->2
Subtract 1 from 2
V2/R1-V1/R1=V0/R2
R1=R2=R
V2-V1=0
V2/R1-V1/R1=0-(-V0)/R2
 Voltage Follower
Fig shows a voltage follower circuit. A voltage follower is
one in which the output voltage follower the input voltage.
The input voltage is applied to non inverting terminal and
inverting terminal is directly shorted to output terminal due to
infinite input impedance and infinite voltage gain the inverting
terminal is also held at Vi.
Therefore output voltage is equal to the input voltage i.e. V0=Vi.
Since no resistors are used gain of the voltage follower is equal
to unity.
 Differentiator
A Differentiator produces an output voltage which is directly
proportional to derivative of input voltage.
Fig shows a Differentiator circuit which uses an RC network. The
through the capacitor is given by I=Cdvi/dt and current through the
resistor r is given by If=-V0/R due to virtual gnd at the opamp input.
I=If
Dvi/dt=-V0/R
V0=-RCdvi/dt
Therefore V0αdvi/dt
The –ve sign implies that the signal is connected to inverting
terminal.
Vi =vc=Q/c
Vi =Q/c
Vi = (1/c)Q
dvi/dt = 1/c (dq/dt)
dvi/dt = i/c
i=cdvi/dt
Circuit & Wave Form Of Differentiator

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 Integrator
A Integrator is one whose output voltage is directly
proportional to the integral of input voltage.
Current through the resistor is given by
I= (Vin/R)
Current through the capacitor is
If = -C(dVout/dt)
Due to the virtual ground at the input
I=If
(Vin/R) = -C(dVout/dt)
dVout = -(Vin/RC)dt
by integrating the above equation we get
Vout is directly proportional to the integral of Vin
-ve sign indicates that input voltages are fed to inverting terminal
Circuit & Wave Form Of Integrator

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 Comparator
It is a circuit which compares a signal
voltage at one input of an opamp with a known
reference voltage at the other input.
Comparator is basically an open loop opamp with
output equals to +/-Vsat
There are basically two types of comparator s non
inverting and inverting comparators.
 Inverting comparator with +ve Ref
Fig shows an inverting comparator with +ve ref
voltage.
Here inverting terminal is supplied with input signal and
non inverting terminal with known ref voltage.
When Vin< Vref then V0 = +Vsat because the non
inverting terminal voltage is greater than inverting
terminal voltage.
When Vin > Vref then V0 = -Vsat because the inverting
terminal voltage is greater than non inverting terminal
voltage.
When Vin = Vref the transistor takes places from +Vsat to
-Vsat.
Circuit & Waveforms Of Inverting
Comparator With +Ve Ref

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 Inverting comparator with –Ve Ref
Figure shows an inverting comparator with –ve
reference voltage. The input signal is applied to
inverting terminal and known reference voltage is
applied to non-inverting terminal.
When Vi<-Vr then Vo=+Vsat
Because a non inverting terminal voltage is greater
than inverting terminal voltage
When Vi>-Vr then Vo=-Vsat because inverting
terminal voltage is greater than non inverting terminal
voltage.
When Vi=Vr the transition takes place from –Vsat
to +Vsat
Circuit & Waveforms Of Inverting
Comparator With -Ve Ref

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 Non Inverting [+ve Ref]

The fig shows non inverting comparator with +ve

ref. The input is applied to non inverting terminal and
reference voltage is applied to inverting terminal. When
Vi< Vr, V0 = -Vsat because the inverting terminal
voltage is greater then non inverting. When Vi> Vr,
V0= Vsat because the non inverting terminal voltage is
greater than inverting terminal.
Circuit & Waveforms Of Non Inverting
Comparator With +Ve Ref

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 Non Inverting [-ve Ref]
The fig shows non inverting
comparator with -ve ref. The input is applied to
non inverting terminal and reference voltage is
applied to inverting terminal. When Vi< Vr, V0
= Vsat because the non inverting terminal
voltage is greater than inverting. When Vi> Vr,
V0= Vsat because the inverting terminal voltage
is greater than non inverting terminal.
Circuit & Waveforms Of Non Inverting
Comparator With -Ve Ref

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 Astable multivibrator
A multivibrator which generates square wave
of its own is called astable multivibrator.
An astable multivibrator output frequency
depends on charging and discharging of a
capacitor. There is no input signal to this
multivibrator.
Initially assume that the output is in +ve
saturation +Vsat. The voltage at non inverting
terminal becomes
Vlt=(R2/R1+R2)+Vsat
 So capacitor starts charging exponentially towards
+Vsat as shown by solid arrows. But never reaches to
+Vsat because once the capacitor voltage reaches just
above Vlt the output switches from +Vsat to –Vsat.
Now the –ve voltage is
Vlt=(R2/R1+R2) –Vsat
It is fed back to the non inverting input. Now the
capacitor starts discharging from +Vlt to zero volts
completely and recharges towards –Vsat in the reverse
direction as shown by the dotted arrows.
When the capacitor voltage reaches just below the
lower trigger voltage –Vlt then the output switches back
from –Vsat to +Vsat. Thus because of continuous
charging and discharging of capacitor the output is a
square wave with 50% duty cycle.
The time period is given by
T = 2Rc ln(1+ß/1-ß)
Where ß --->R2/(R1+R2)
The frequency of output wave form is given by
F = 1/T

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