Introduction To Toc

Theory of Computation Subject code: 160704
Text and Reference book

Text Book
Introduction To Languages And Theory Of Computation By John C !artin" Third #dition" T!$ Reference Books % Automata Theory" Languages and Computation" $opcroft" !ot&ani" '((man" )earson #ducation * Theory of automata" Langusges and computation" +umar" !c,ra$i(( - The Theory of Computation" !oret" )earson #ducation . Introduction to Computer Theory" Cohen" /i(ey0India
2
Computation
C)'
memory
temporary memory input memory C)' output memory )rogram memory

4
#xamp(e1
temporary memory
f ( x) = x
input memory C)' )rogram memory compute compute output memory
xx x x
2
5
f ( x) = x
temporary memory
input memory
x=2
C)' )rogram memory compute compute output memory
xx x x
2
6
temporary memory
z = 2*2 = 4 f ( x) = z * 2 = 8
f ( x) = x
input memory
x=2
C)' )rogram memory compute compute output memory
xx x x
2
7
temporary memory
z = 2*2 = 4 f ( x) = z * 2 = 8
f ( x) = x
input memory
x=2
C)' )rogram memory compute compute
f ( x) = 8
output memory
xx x x
2
Automaton
temporary memory Automaton C)' output memory )rogram memory
9
input memory
2ifferent +inds of Automata

Automata are distinguished by the temporary memory Finite Automata1 Pushdown Automata1 Turing Machines1 no temporary memory stack random access memory
10
3inite Automaton
temporary memory
3inite Automaton
input memory output memory
4ending !achines 5sma(( computing po&er6

11
)ushdo&n Automaton
Stack )ush" )op
)ushdo&n Automaton
)rogramming Languages 5medium computing po&er6

12
Turing !achine
Random Access !emory
Turing !achine
A(gorithms
5highest computing po&er6

13
)o&er of Automata
3inite Automata
)ushdo&n Automata
Turing !achine
14
/e &i(( sho& (ater in c(ass

$o& to bui(d compi(ers for programming (anguages 7ome computationa( prob(ems cannot be so(8ed 7ome prob(ems are hard to so(8e
15
!athematica( )re(iminaries
16
!athematica( )re(iminaries
7ets 3unctions Re(ations )roof Techni9ues
17
7#T7
A set is a co((ection of e(ements
A = {1, 2, 3} B = {train, bus, bicycle, airplane}

/e &rite
1 A ship B
18
7et Representations
C : ; a" b" c" d" e" f" g" h" i" <" k = C : ; a" b" >" k = 7 : ; *" ." ?" > =
finite set infinite set
7 : ; < 1 < @ A" and < : *k for some k@A = 7 : ; < 1 < is nonnegati8e and e8en =
19
A : ; %" *" -" ." B =
'
? C %A 'ni8ersa( 7et1 % .
A
* B E D
A(( possib(e e(ements ' : ; % " > " %A =

20
7et Operations
A : ; %" *" - = 'nion A ' B : ; %" *" -" ." B = Intersection A 2ifference A0B:;%= B 0 A : ; ." B =
A0B
21
B : ; *" -" ." B=

A B
'
B : ; *" - =
Comp(ement 'ni8ersa( set : ;%" >" C= A : ; %" *" - = . A : ; ." B" ?" C=
A
% B
A
*
A:A
22
; e8en integers = : ; odd integers = Integers %

odd
* -
e8en
? C
23
2e!organFs La&s
' A'B:A ' A B
B:A'B
24
#mpty" Gu(( 7et1

:;= 7' 7 ' :7 : :7 07: : 'ni8ersa( 7et
70
25
7ubset
A : ; %" *" -= A B B : ; %" *" -" ." B =
' '
)roper 7ubset1 A
B B
A
26
2is<oint 7ets
A : ; %" *" - = ' A B: B : ; B" ?=
27
7et Cardina(ity
3or finite sets A : ; *" B" C = HAH : -
28
)o&ersets
A po&erset is a set of sets 7 : ; a" b" c = )o&erset of 7 : the set of a(( the subsets of 7 *7 : ; " ;a=" ;b=" ;c=" ;a" b=" ;a" c=" ;b" c=" ;a" b" c= = 5 D : *- 6
29
Obser8ation1 H *7 H : *H7H
Cartesian )roduct
A : ; *" . = B : ; *" -" B =
A I B : ; 5*" *6" 5*" -6" 5*" B6" 5 ." *6" 5." -6" 5." .6 = HA I BH : HAH HBH ,enera(iJes to more than t&o sets AIBI>IK
30
3'GCTIOG7
domain A % * f 1 A 0@ B f5%6 : a b range B a c
If A : domain
then f is a tota( function other&ise f is a partia( function

31
R#LATIOG7
R : ;5x%" y%6" 5x*" y*6" 5x-" y-6" >= xi R yi e g if R : L@F1 * @ %" - @ *" - @ %
In re(ations xi can be repeated

32
#9ui8a(ence Re(ations
Ref(exi8e1 7ymmetric1 Transiti8e1 #xamp(e1 R : L:L x:x x:y x : y and y : J y:x x:J
33
xRx xRy yRx xRJ x R M and y R J
#9ui8a(ence C(asses
3or e9ui8a(ence re(ation R e9ui8a(ence c(ass of x : ;y 1 x R y= #xamp(e1 R : ; 5%" %6" 5*" *6" 5%" *6" 5*" %6" 5-" -6" 5." .6" 5-" .6" 5." -6 = #9ui8a(ence c(ass of % : ;%" *= #9ui8a(ence c(ass of - : ;-" .=
34
)ROO3 T#C$GIN'#7
)roof by induction )roof by contradiction
35
Induction
/e ha8e statements )%" )*" )-" > If &e kno& for some k that )%" )*" >" )k are true for any n @: k that )%" )*" >" )n imp(y )nO% Then #8ery )i is true
36
)roof by Induction
Inducti8e basis 3ind )%" )*" >" )k &hich are true Inducti8e hypothesis LetFs assume )%" )*" >" )n are true" for any n @: k Inducti8e step 7ho& that )nO% is true
37
#xamp(e
Theorem1 A binary tree of height n has at most *n (ea8es )roof1 (et (5i6 be the number of (ea8es at (e8e( i (5A6 : %
(5-6 : D
38
/e &ant to sho&1 (5i6 P: *i Inducti8e basis (5A6 : % 5the root node6
Inducti8e hypothesis LetFs assume (5i6 P: *i for a(( i : A" %" >" n Induction step &e need to sho& that (5n O %6 P: *nO%
39
Induction 7tep
Le8e( n nO%
hypothesis1 (5n6 P: *n
40
Induction 7tep
Le8e( n nO%
hypothesis1 (5n6 P: *n
(5nO%6 P: * Q (5n6 P: * Q *n : *nO%
41
Remark
Recursion is another thing #xamp(e of recursi8e function1 f5n6 : f5n0%6 O f5n0*6 f5A6 : %" f5%6 : %
42
)roof by Contradiction
/e &ant to pro8e that a statement ) is true &e assume that ) is fa(se then &e arri8e at an incorrect conc(usion therefore" statement ) must be true
43
#xamp(e
Theorem1 )roof1 Assume by contradiction that it is rationa(
is not rationa(
: nRm
n and m ha8e no common factors /e &i(( sho& that this is impossib(e

44
: nRm
* m * : n*
Therefore" n* is e8en
n is e8en n:*k m is e8en m:*p
* m* : .k*
m* : *k*
Thus" m and n ha8e common factor *
ontradiction!
45

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Theory of Computation Subject code: 160704

Text and Reference book

temporary memory input memory C)' output memory )rogram memory

input memory C)' )rogram memory compute compute output memory

2ifferent +inds of Automata

input memory output memory

4ending !achines 5sma(( computing po&er6

input memory output memory

)rogramming Languages 5medium computing po&er6

input memory output memory

5highest computing po&er6

/e &i(( sho& (ater in c(ass

A = {1, 2, 3} B = {train, bus, bicycle, airplane}

finite set infinite set

A : ; %" *" -" ." B =

A(( possib(e e(ements ' : ; % " > " %A =

B : ; *" -" ." B=

; e8en integers = : ; odd integers = Integers %

#mpty" Gu(( 7et1

then f is a tota( function other&ise f is a partia( function

In re(ations xi can be repeated

xRx xRy yRx xRJ x R M and y R J

/e &ant to sho&1 (5i6 P: *i Inducti8e basis (5A6 : % 5the root node6

(5nO%6 P: * Q (5n6 P: * Q *n : *nO%

n and m ha8e no common factors /e &i(( sho& that this is impossib(e

n is e8en n:*k m is e8en m:*p

Thus" m and n ha8e common factor *

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(5nO%6 P: * Q (5n6 P: * Q n : nO%

n is e8en n:k m is e8en m:p