Fluid Mechanics

Chapter 6
Energy Equation and its Applications
FOSTEM
INTI International University

Energy of a Flowing Fluid
For an element of fluid whose weight W = mg
a) Potential energy = mgz (or) Potential energy/wt = z

b) Kinetic energy = mv
2
(or) Kinetic energy/wt = v
2
/2g

c) Pressure energy (Work done by the fluid pressure)






Fig. 6.1: Energy of a flowing fluid
Energy of a Flowing Fluid
A flowing fluid can do work due to its pressure
Pressure at section AB = p Cross-sectional Area = A
Force exerted on AB = pA

After the fluid has flowed along the streamtube, section (AB) will have
moved to (AB)

Volume passing section (AB) = Wt / g
= mg/g = m/
Distance AA = Volume/Area = m/A

Work done = Force x distance =


W.D./wt due to pressure = = = Pressure energy/wt
)
A
m
)( pA (

g
p

)
mg
1
)(
A
m
)( pA (

Bernoullis equation
For steady flow of a frictionless fluid along a streamline, the total energy per
unit weight remains constant from point to point although its division
between the three forms of energy may vary:

Pressure Energy/Wt. + Kinetic Energy/Wt. + Potential Energy/Wt. =
Total Energy/Wt. = Constant (for frictionless fluid)

Pressure head + Velocity head + Elevation head = Total head


(m)

H z
g 2
v
g
p
2
= + +

Steady Flow Energy Equation

In general, energy could have been lost by doing work against friction
or energy loss in a turbine or energy could have been gained by
having a pump.

Bernoullis equation can be expanded to include these conditions,
such as,

Total energy/wt at 1 = Total energy/wt at 2 + Friction Loss/wt +
W.D./wt by a turbine Energy supplied/wt by a pump



p t f
h h h z
g
v
g
p
z
g
v
g
p
+ + + + = + +
2
2
2 2
1
2
1 1
2 2
Flow of water between Two Reservoirs
Energy lost due to pipe friction
Fig. 6.5: Flow between two reservoirs open to atmosphere
f
h z
g
v
g
p
z
g
v
g
p
+ + + = + +
2
2
2 2
1
2
1 1
2 2
Energy subtracted by a Turbine
Fig. Energy subtracted by a turbine
t f
h h z
g
v
g
p
z
g
v
g
p
+ + + + = + +
2
2
2 2
1
2
1 1
2 2
1
2
Energy added by a Pump






Fig. Energy added by a pump

2






1 Pump



f p
h z
g
v
g
p
h z
g
v
g
p
+ + + = + + +
2
2
2 2
1
2
1 1
2 2
Example 6.1
Example 6.1
(a) To determine the velocity of jet at C:
Applying Bernoullis equation to A and C:
Total energy/wt at A = Total energy/wt at C + Loss in inlet pipe Energy/wt supplied by
pump + Loss in discharge pipe (I)



P
A
and P
c
= P
atm
v
A
= 0 (large sump) z
A
= 0 z
C
= z
3
= 32

(II)

From continuity equation, Q
1
= Q
2
= Q
3




and

) 18 ( g 2 u 12 u 5 u
2
2
2
1
2
3
= + +
g 2
u
12 50
g 2
u
5 ) z
g 2
u
g
p
( ) z
g 2
v
g
p
(
2
2
2
1
3
2
3 C
A
2
A A
+ + + +

= + +

3
2
3 2
2
2 1
2
1
u d
4
u d
4
u d
4
t
=
t
=
t
3 3
2
3
2
1
3
1
u
4
1
u )
150
75
( u )
d
d
( u = = =
3 3
2
3
2
2
3
2
u
16
9
u )
100
75
( u )
d
d
( u = = =
Example 6.1
Substituting in equation (II)




u
3
= 8.314 m/s (velocity of the jet from the nozzle at C)




) 18 ( g 2 ] )
16
9
( x 12 )
4
1
( x 5 1 [ u
2 2 2
3
= + +
) 18 ( g 2 u 109 . 5
2
3
=
Example 6.1
(b) To find the pressure in the suction pipe at p
B
:
Applying Bernoullis equation to A and B:
Total energy/wt at A = Total energy/wt at B + Loss in inlet pipe








z
2
= 2 m, u
1
= (1/4)u
3
= 8.314//4 = 2.079 m/s
p
B
/g = - (2 + 6x2.079
2
/1000x9.81) = - (2 + 1.32) = -3.32 m


p
B
= - 1000x9.81x3.32 = - 32.569 kNm
-2
(or)
p
B
= 32.569 kNm
-2
below atmospheric pressure

g 2
u
5 ) z
g 2
u
g
p
( 0
2
1
2
2
1 B
+ + +

=
g 2
u
6 z
g
p
2
1
2
B
=

g 2
u
5 ) z
g 2
v
g
p
( ) z
g 2
v
g
p
(
2
1
B
2
B B
A
2
A A
+ + +

= + +

Pitot Tube
Fig. 6.10: Pitot tube
Pitot Tube
The pitot tube is used to measure the velocity of a stream and consists
of a simple L-shaped tube facing into the oncoming flow

Applying Bernoullis equation at A and B
Total energy/wt. at A = Total energy/wt. at B
u
2
/2g + p/g = u
0
2
/2g + p
0
/g
u
2
/2g + p/g = p
0
/g since u
0
= 0
u
2
/2g = p
0
/g - p/g
u
2
/2g = (h +z) z
u
2
/2g = h

Velocity at A u = (2gh)

Actual velocity u = C(2gh) where C is the coefficient of the
instrument
Changes of Pressure in a tapering Pipe
Example 6.2
A pipe inclined at 45 to the horizontal (Fig. 6.12) converges over a length l of 2m from a
diameter d
1
of 200 mm to a diameter of d
2
of 100 mm at the upper end. Oil of relative
density 0.9 flows through the pipe at a mean velocity v
1
at the lower end of 2 m/s.
Find the pressure difference across the 2 m length ignoring any loss of energy, and the
difference in level that would be shown on a mercury manometer connected across this
length. The relative density of mercury is 13.6 and the leads to the manometer are filled
with oil.







Fig. 6.12: Pressure change in a tapering pipe
Changes of Pressure in a tapering Pipe
Example 6.2






Fig. 6.12: Pressure change in a tapering pipe
Example 6.2
(a) To determine pressure difference across the length (p
1
- p
2
):
From continuity equation, Q
1
= Q
2
and v
1
= 2 m/s




Applying Bernoullis equation to section 1 and 2 and ignoring losses:



z
2
- z
1
= l sin45 = 2x0.707 = 1.414 m
o
= 0.9x1000 = 900 kg/m
3




p
1
- p
2
= 4.472x900x9.81 = 39484 N/m
2
= 39.484 kN/m
2


2
2
2
o
2
1
2
1
o
1
z
g 2
v
g
P
z
g 2
v
g
P
+ +

= + +

2
2
2 1
2
1
v d
4
v d
4
t
=
t
s / m 8 2 x )
1 . 0
2 . 0
( v )
d
d
( v
2
1
2
2
1
2
= = =
m 472 . 4 414 . 1
81 . 9 x 2
2 8
) z z ( )
g 2
v v
(
g
P
g
P
2 2
1 2
2
1
2
2
o
2
o
1
= +

= +

Example 6.2
(b) To determine the manometer reading h:
) 1 ( h z z
g
p p
o
m
2 1
o
2 1

= +

) )]( z z (
g
p p
[ h
o m
o
2 1
o
2 1


+

=
)
10 x 9 . 0 10 x 6 . 13
10 x 9 . 0
]( 414 . 1 472 . 4 [ h
3 3
3

=
gh ) h z ( g p gz p
m 2 o 2 1 o 1
+ + = +
) ( gh gh gh ) z z ( g p p
o m o m 2 1 o 2 1
= = +
mm 217 m 217 . 0 h = =
Venturi meter







Fig. 6.13: Inclined Venturi meter and U-tube
Venturi meter
Assuming that there is no loss of energy, and applying Bernoullis equation to
section 1 and 2
p
1
/g + v
1
2
/2g + z
1
= p
2
/g + v
2
2
/2g + z
2

v
2
2
v
1
2
= 2g[(p
1
- p
2
)/g + (z
1
- z
2
)]

For continuity of flow
A
1
v
1
= A
2
v
2
or v
2
= (A
1
/A
2
)v
1


Substituting in the energy equation
v
1
2
[(A
1
/A
2
)
2
1] = 2g[(p
1
- p
2
) /g + (z
1
z
2
)]
v
1
2
[(A
1
2

- A
2
2
)/A
2
)
2
] = 2g[(p
1
- p
2
) /g + (z
1
z
2
)]
)] z z
g
p p
( g 2 [
) A A (
A
v
2 1
2 1
2 / 1 2
2
2
1
2
1
+

=
Venturi meter
Discharge Q = A
1
v
1
= [A
1
A
2
/(A
1
2
A
2
2
)
1/2
]\(2gH)
where H = (p
1
-p
2
) /g + (z
1
z
2
) or, if m = area ratio = A
1
/A
2


(6.15)

Actual discharge, Q
actual
= C
d
Q
theoretical

Pressure at level X-X must be the same
P
x
= p
1
+ g(z
1
- z) = p
2
+ g(z
2
z - h) +
man
gh
p
1
- p
2
+ g(z
1
- z
2
) = -gh +
man
gh
H = (p
1
-p
2
) /g + (z
1
z
2
) = h(
man
/ - 1)

Discharge (6.16)
)] 1 ( gh 2 [ ]
) 1 m (
A
[ Q
man
2
1

=
gH 2 ]
) 1 m (
A
[ Q
2
1

=
Example 6.3
)] 1 ( gh 2 [ ]
) 1 m (
A
[ Q
man
2
1

= Discharge (6.16)
Venturi meter








Fig. Venturi meter with a U tube manometer
)] 1 ( gh 2 [ ]
) 1 m (
A
[ Q
man
2
1

=
p
1
/g + V
1
2
/2g + z
1
= p
2
/g + V
2
2
/2g + z
2

A
1
V
1
= A
2
V
2

Venturi meter
Fig. Venturi meter with piezometers
p
1
- p
2
= gh
p
1
/g + V
1
2
/2g + z
1
= p
2
/g + V
2
2
/2g + z
2

A
1
V
1
= A
2
V
2

Bourdon Gauge
Pipe Orifices
Fig. 6.14: Pipe orifice meter
where H = (p
1
-p
2
) /g + (z
1
z
2
)
(6.15) Discharge gH 2 ]
) 1 m (
A
[ Q
2
1

=
)] 1 ( gh 2 [ ]
) 1 m (
A
[ Q
man
2
1

= (6.16)
Theory of Small Orifices










Fig. 6.15: Flow through a small orifice
Theory of Small Orifices
Applying Bernoullis equation to A and B, assuming that there is no loss of
energy,
Total energy/wt at A = Total energy/wt at B
p
A
/g + v
A
2
/2g + z
A
= p
B
/g + v
B
2
/2g + z
B


Putting z
A
z
B
= H, v
A
= 0, v
B
= V and
p
A
= p
B
= p
atm
= 0

Velocity of jet, V = \(2gH) (6.17)

This is called Torricellis theorem, that the velocity of the issuing jet is
proportional to the square root of the head producing flow.

Discharge, Q = AV = A\(2gH) (6.18)
Theory of Small Orifices
In practice, the actual discharge is less than the theoretical discharge, which
must be modified by introducing a coefficient of discharge C
d


Actual discharge, Q
actual
= C
d
Q
theo.
= C
d
A\(2gH) (6.19)

There are two reasons for the difference between the theoretical and actual
discharges.

(1) velocity of the jet V is less than \2gH because there is a loss of energy
between A and B:

Actual velocity at B, V
actual
= C
v
V = C
v
\(2gH) (6.20)

where C
v
= coefficient of velocity.
Theory of Small Orifices
(2) The paths of the fluid particles converge on the orifice, and the area of the
issuing jet at B is less than the area of the orifice at C.






Fig. 6.16: Contraction of issuing jet

In the plane of the orifice, the pressure at C is greater than atmospheric
pressure. At B, the paths of the particles have become parallel. This section is
called the vena contracta.

Actual area of jet at B = C
c
A (6.21)
where C
c
= coefficient of contraction and A = area of the orifice.

Theory of Small Orifices
Actual discharge = Actual area at B x Actual velocity at B
Actual Q = C
c
A x C
v
\(2gH)
Q
actual
= C
c
C
v
A \(2gH) (6.22)

Also, Q
actual
= C
d
Q
theo.
= C
d
A\(2gH)

Therefore the relation between the coefficients is
C
d
= C
c
.C
v




To determine the coefficient of discharge, it is necessary to measure the actual
volume discharged from the orifice in a given time and compare this with the
theoretical discharge given by equation, Q = A\2gH

e arg disch l Theoretica
e arg disch Actual
C , e arg disch of t coefficien
d
=
Theory of Small Orifices
Similarly, the actual area of the jet at the vena contracta can be measured,




In the same way, if the actual velocity of the jet at the vena contracta can be
found,




If the orifice is not in the bottom of the tank, one method of measuring the actual
velocity is to measure the velocity profile. See Example 6.4

orifice of Area
contracta vena at jet of Area
C , n contractio of t coefficien
c
=
velocity l Theoretica
contracta vena at Velocity
C , velocity of t coefficien
v
=
Theory of Small Orifices
Example 6.4

A jet of water discharges horizontally into the atmosphere from an orifice in the vertical
side of a large open-topped tank (Fig. 6.17). Derive an expression for the actual velocity v
of a jet at the vena contracta if the jet falls a distance y vertically in a horizontal distance x,
measured from the vena contracta. If the head of water above the orifice is H, determine
the coefficient of velocity.

Express velocity profile of a jet ( in x and y ordinates)
Use equations of motion: x = vt and y = gt
2






Fig. 6.17: Determination of the coefficient of velocity
Theory of Small Orifices
Example 6.4
Let t be the time taken for a fluid particle to travel from the vena contracta A to
the point B. Then
x = vt and y = gt
2

or v = x/t and t = (2y/g)
0.5


Eliminating t, v = x/(2y/g)
0.5
= \(gx
2
/2y)

Actual velocity of the jet (at the vena contracta), v
actual
= \(gx
2
/2y).
Theoretical velocity of the jet, v
theo.
= \(2gH) (6.17)





yH 4
x
gH 2
y 2
gx
velocity l Theoretica
velocity Actual
C , velocity of t Coefficien
2
2
v
= = =
yH 4
x
C , velocity of t Coefficien
2
v
=
Theory of Small Orifices
Example 6.4
If the orifice has an area of 650 mm
2
and the jet falls a distance y of 0.5 m in a horizontal
distance x of 1.5 m from the vena contrata, calculate the values of the coefficients of
velocity , discharge and contraction, given that the volume rate of flow is 0.117 m
3
/min
and the head H above the orifice is 1.2m.





Putting x = 1.5 m, y = 0.5 m, H = 1.2 m, A = 650x10
-6
m
2
, Q = 0.117 m
3
/min,
Coefficient of velocity, C
v
= (x
2
/4yH) = (1.5
2
/4x0.5x1.2) = 0.968

Coefficient of discharge, C
d
= Q
actual
/A\(2gH)
= (0.117/60)/[650x10
-3
(2x9.81x1.2)] = 0.618

Coefficient of contraction, C
c
= C
d
/C
v
= 0.618/0.968 = 0.639
yH 4
x
C , velocity of t Coefficien
2
v
=
Theory of Small Orifices






Fig. 6.16: Contraction of issuing jet

Continuity equation > Applying Bernoullis eqn. at C and B:
Q = A
C
V
C
= A
B
V
B

p
B
/g = 0


V
B
= \(2gh)
V
C
= C
C
V
B
= C
C
\(2gh)
C
C
B
B
C
C
A
A
v
v
= =
B
2
B B
C
2
C C
z
g 2
v
g
p
z
g 2
v
g
p
+ +

= + +

g 2
v
g 2
v
g
p
2
B
2
C C
= +

Theory of Large Orifices

If the vertical height of an orifice is large, the head producing flow is substantially
less at the top of the opening than at the bottom.
The discharge calculated from the formula for a small orifice , using the head h
measured to the centre of the orifice, will not be the true value, since the velocity
will vary very substantially from the top to bottom of opening.





Fig. 6.18: Flow through a large orifice
Theory of Large Orifices
Example 6.5
A reservoir discharges through a rectangular sluice gate of width B and height D
(Fig. 6.18). The top and bottom of the opening are at depths H
1
and H
2
below the
free surface. Derive a formula for the theoretical discharge through the opening.






Fig. 6.18: Flow through a large orifice
Theory of Large Orifices
Consider a horizontal strip across the opening of height oh at a depth h below
the free surface:

Area of strip, oA= Boh
Velocity of flow through strip, v = \(2gh)



Discharge through strip, oQ = Area x velocity = B\(2g)h
1/2
oh
For the whole orifice opening, integrating from h = H
1
to h = H
2
,

dh h g 2 B Q , e arg Disch
2
1
H
H
2
1
}
=
] H H [ ) g 2 ( B
3
2
Q , e arg Disch
2 3
1
2 3
2
=
Example 6.5: Large Orifice
Putting B = 0.7 m, D = 1.5 m, H
1
= 0.4 m, H
2
= 0.4 + 1.5 =1.9 m

Theoretical discharge


Q= (2/3)x0.7x(2x9.81)
1/2
(1.9
3/2
0.4
3/2
)
= 4.891 m
3
/s

For a small orifice, Q = A\(2gh)
where A = area of orifice and h = head above centreline of orifice.

A =BD = 0.7x1.5 = 1.05 m
2

h = (H
1
+ H
2
) = (0.4 + 1.9) = 1.15 m
Q = 1.05x(2x9.81x1.15)

= 4.988 m
3
/s

% error = (4.988 4.891)/4.891 = 0.0198 = 1.98%

] H H [ ) g 2 ( B
3
2
Q
2 3
1
2 3
2
=
Flow under varying head
Time required to empty a Reservoir

Diameter D, Surface Area A

oh


h h oh



orifice diameter d, area a
Q
Time required to empty a Reservoir
At time t, let the head is h
At time (t+ ot), let the level fallen oh

Change in volume of tank = Amount discharge through the orifice
A(h oh) Ah = Q {(t + ot) t}
- Aoh = Qot



Discharge from an orifice, Q = C
d
a\(2gh)



dh
Q
A
dt =
dh h
g 2 a C
A
dh
gh 2 a C
A
dt
2 / 1
d d

= =
h - dh
dh
Q
h
Area A
area a
Time required to empty a Reservoir
If H
1
and H
2
are initial and final values of h, then the time required to empty
the reservoir is,







where T = time required to empty a reservoir (sec)
H
1
= initial head and H
2
= final head in m
A = surface area of reservoir (m
2
)
a = orifice area (m
2
)
C
d
= coefficient of discharge
) H H (
g 2 a C
A 2
T
2 / 1
2
2 / 1
1
d
=
dh h )
g 2 a C
A
( dt
2 / 1
d
H
H
2
1

}
= }
Theory of Notches and Weirs
dh bh g 2 Q
H
0
2 / 1
}
=





Fig 6.19 Discharge from a notch

Area of strip, oA = boh
Velocity through strip, v = \(2gh)
Discharge through strip, oQ = Area x Velocity = boh \(2gh)
Integrating from h = 0 at the free surface to h = H at the bottom of the notch,
the total theoretical discharge,
Rectangular Notch (or) Weir





Theoretical discharge,

For a rectangular notch (Fig. a), put b = constant = B gives,




Theoretical discharge (6.25)

dh h g 2 B Q
H
0
2 / 1
}
=
dh bh g 2 Q
H
0
2 / 1
}
=
2 / 3
H ) g 2 ( B
3
2
Q=
V - notch (or) Triangular Weir




Theoretical discharge,

For a V-notch with an included angle u (Fig. b), put b = 2(H-h) tanu/2 in
the equation,





Theoretical discharge (6.26)

dh h ) h H ( )
2
(tan g 2 2 Q
H
0
2 / 1
}

u
=
2 / 5
H )
2
(tan g 2
15
8
Q
u
=
dh bh g 2 Q
H
0
2 / 1
}
=
dh ) h Hh ( )
2
(tan g 2 2 Q
H
0
2 / 3 2 / 1
}

u
=
Example 6.6
Velocity of approach (to the weir)
in the rectangular channel
Consider flow over a weir at the end of a long rectangular channel
Velocity of approach to the weir will be substantial
Total head x = h + ov
2
/2g where o = K.E. correction factor = 1.1

energy line
free surface v
2
/2g


v weir


channel bed channel bed
H h
x
Considering Velocity of approach (to the weir)





Fig 6.19 Discharge from a notch

Total head x = h + ov
2
/2g ox = oh

Mean Velocity v = Q/A where A = cross-sectional area of the channel

Discharge through strip, oQ = oA. V
= b oh \2gx
= b ox \2g x
1/2

oQ = b \2g x
1/2
ox (6.28)
h
oh
v
2
/2g
Energy line
x

b
Considering Velocity of approach (to the weir)

Limits:
At the free surface, h = 0 and x = ov
2
/2g
At the sill level, h = H and x = H + ov
2
/2g

We have oQ = b \2g x
1/2
ox (6.28)

Integrating (6.28) between these limits


dx bx g 2 Q
g 2 / v H
g 2 / v
2 / 1
2
2
}
o +
o
=
Velocity of approach (to the weir)
in the rectangular channel
Considering velocity of approach to the weir, total discharge is,



where x = h + ov
2
/2g


For a rectangular notch, b = B = constant, and the discharge is,


(6.29)

dx bx g 2 Q
g 2 / v H
g 2 / v
2 / 1
2
2
}
o +
o
=
] )
gH 2
v
( )
gH 2
v
1 [( H ) g 2 ( B
3
2
Q
2 / 3
2
2 / 3
2
2 / 3
o

o
+ =
Example 6.7: Velocity of Approach





v
2
/2g energy line


v




H = 0.25 m
h
0.2 m
weir
1.2 m
x
0.9 m
Example 6.7
Example 6.7
Francis formula for rectangular weir
If L is the length of the weir and H the head over sill, the Francis formula for
the discharge is,

Q = 1.84(L 0.1nH)H
3/2


where n = number of end contractions.



Power of a stream of fluid
Total Energy/weight (or head) H of the fluid is

Total Head H = p/g + v
2
/2g + z

If the weight per unit time of fluid flowing is known, the power of the stream,

Power = Energy/time = (Weight/time)(Energy/weight)

If Q is the volume rate of flow, Weight /time = gQ

Power P = gQH = gQ (p/g + v
2
/2g + z) (6.30)

Example 6.8









z = 240 m Q = 0.13 m
3
/s Pelton wheel




Datum level
v = 66m/s bucket
Example 6.8
Power P = gQH = gQ (p/g + v
2
/2g + z) (6.30)

a) The jet issuing from the nozzle will be at atmospheric pressure and at the
datum level, so that in equation (6.30), p = 0 and z = 0.

Power of jet = (gQ)(v
2
/2g) = Qv
2


= x10
3
x0.13x 66
2
= 283140 W
= 283.14 kW

b) At the reservoir, the pressure is atmospheric and the velocity of the free
surface is zero, so that in equation (6.30), p = 0 and v = 0.

Power supplied from reservoir = gQz
=10
3
x9.81x0.13x 240 = 306072 W
= 306.07 kW

Example 6.8
c) If H
1
= total head at the reservoir, H
2
= total head at the jet and
h
f
= head lost in the pipeline, then

Power supplied from reservoir = gQH
1
= 306.07 kW
Power of issuing jet = gQH
2
= 283.14 kW
Power lost in pipeline = gQh
f
= 306.07 - 283.14 = 22.93 kW

Head lost, h
f
= Power lost / gQ
= 22.93x10
3
/(10
3
x9.81x0.13) = 17.98 m

d) Efficiency of transmission = Power of jet / Power supplied by reservoir
= 283.14/306.07 = 0.925 = 92.5%


The End