Computer Forensics

Hard Drive Format

Hard Drive Partitioning
Boot process starts in ROM.
Eventually, loads master boot record
from booting device.
MBR located at well-known location.
Hard Drive Partitioning
(Windows Only)
MBR located always in the first sector of
booting device.
Cylinder 0, Head 0, Sector 1

MBR Structure
First part bootstrap program.
Is loaded into memory, then relocates
itself in order to make room for another
copy.
Starting at offset 0x1be 16B partition
table
Last two bytes of sector are 0x55 and
0xaa.
Partition Table Entry
Byte 0: active (0x80) or inactive (0x00)
Bytes 1-3: Start of Partition
Byte 4: Partition Type
Bytes 5-7: End of Partition
Bytes 8-12: LBA address of start sector
relative to start of disk in little endian
Bytes 13-16: Number of sectors in the
partition
Partition Table Example
00 01 01 00 DE FE 3F 04 3F 00 00 00 86 39 01 00
Byte 1: 00 = inactive (not bootable)

Only one partitions on a windows system
should be bootable.
Partition Table Example
00 01 01 00 DE FE 3F 04 3F 00 00 00 86 39 01 00
Bytes 1-3: Split up as
| h7-h0 | c9 c8 s5-s0 | c7-c0 |
In binary, we have
0000 0001 0000 0001 0000 0000
h7h6h5h4 h3h2h1h0 c9c8s5s4 s3s2s1s0 c7c6c5c4 c3c2c1c0
So: H=1, C = 0, S = 0x1 = 1.

Partition Table Example
00 01 01 00 DE FE 3F 04 3F 00 00 00 86 39 01 00
Byte 4: Partition Type 0xDE.
Look this one up in a table. It is a Dell
PowerEdge Server utilities (FAT fs)


0x01 12b FAT Partition
0x04 16b FAT Partition
0x05 Extended Partition
0x06 BIGDOS FAT
0x07 NTFS
Partition Table Example
00 01 01 00 DE FE 3F 04 3F 00 00 00 86 39 01 00
Bytes 5-7: End of Partition
Split up as | h7-h0 | c9 c8 s5-s0 | c7-c0 |
1111 1110 0011 1111 0000 0100
So: h=0xE, c=0x04, s = 0x3f
Partition Table Example
00 01 01 00 DE FE 3F 04 3F 00 00 00 86 39 01 00
Bytes 8-12: LBA 3F 00 00 00 in Little Endian
That is 00 00 00 3F is the real start LBA
Go to Sector 63 and find indeed the FAT boot
sector.

Partition Table Example
00 01 01 00 DE FE 3F 04 3F 00 00 00 86 39 01 00
Bytes 13-16: Number of Sectors in the
partition (in Little Endian).
Value is 0X 86 39 01 00.
Translate into true value:
0x 00 01 39 86 = 80,262 sectors
Partition Table Example
We have a Dell partition of size 40MB.
This partition is invisible to Windows
and could be used to hide data.
Dell uses this area to help with recovery
from OS disasters.

Master Boot Record
By creating a partition and then editing
the MBR I can create hidden
partitions.
The data on these hidden partitions is
not visible from Windows.
Master Boot Record
The partitions do not have to fill up the
disk completely, there can be unused
sectors (which could contain hidden
data.)
Extended Partitions
Overcome the four partition limit.
Extended Partitions
Marked by a partition code of 0x05 or
0x0f.
First sector of an extended partition
contains a partition table with up to two
entries.
Extended partition is a container for
secondary extended partition.

Extended Partitions
First sector contains partition table,
structured like MBR
Entries are 16B with the same structure
First entry is for primary extended
partition.
Optional second entry is for secondary,
extended partition.
Extended Partitions
Primary extended partition contains the
secondary extended partition.

Extended Partitions
Unassigned sectors
Many sectors on a disk are not assigned
to a partition.
Cannot be seen from OS.
Good hiding place for a virus.
GUID
GUID Partition
Table (GPT)
Part of the
Extensible
Firmware
Interface
GUID
EFI (Extensible Firmware Interface) is Intels
proposed replacement for the PC BIOS
Morphed into UEFI (Unified )
Is used in some BIOS systems to overcome
limitations of the MBR partition table
MBR uses 32 bits for storing LBA size information
Gives a maximum of 2.210
12
B
GUID

Partition Area
Protective
MBR
GPT
Header
Partition
Table
Backup
Area
GUID
Supported by most unix systems for RW
and boot
Only supported on Windows-32 for RW
since Windows Server 2003 SP1
Supported by Windows 64 for RW and
for boot with UEFI

GUID Partition Table
At LBA 0: traditional MBR
But protective of following GPT table
Single partition of type 0xEE spans whole
disk
If the OS boots through BIOS, the first
sector holds bootloader code
GUID Partition Table
LBA 1: Partition Table Header / GPT Header
0-7: Signature Value EFI PART
8-11: Version
12-15: Size of header
16-19: Checksum
24-31: LBA of current GPT header
32-39: LBA of alternative GPT header
40-47: Start of partition area
48-55: LBA of end of partition area
56-71: Disk GUID
72-79: Start of partition table
80:83: Number of entries in partition table
84-87: Size of entries in partition table
88-91: CRC of partition table


GUID Partition Table
GPT partition table entry
0-15: Partition type GUID
16-31: Unique partition GUID
32-39: Start (LBA) of partition
40-47: End of partition
48-55: Partition attributes
56-127: Partition name (Unicode)
Apple Partitions

File System
Partition 1

File System
Partition 2

File System
Partition 3
Partition
Map
Apple Partitions
Partition map structure located at
beginning of disk
Firmware contains boot code
Each entry (512B) describes starting
sector, size, type, and gives volume
name
First entry describes partition map itself
Other Partition Schemes
BSD partition
Can be located inside a DOS partition
Sun Solaris Slices
FILE SYSTEM ANALYSIS
Categories
File System Category
General file system information:
Sizes, performance tuning
Content Category
Actual content of a file
Metadata Category
Data that describes a file
Location, Size, Times & Dates,

Categories
File name category
Used for human-system interface
Application category
Data for special functions such as
Quota, file system journals
Essential & Non-Essential Data
Essential data are needed for the functioning
of the file system
Are trustworthy
Non-Essential data:
Example: Access times
Trustworthiness depends on OS
Example: Create time tunneling in Windows
If a file is deleted and a new file created within 15 sec,
then the new file obtains the create time of the original file
Wiping Techniques
Most wiping is for content only
Secure deletes wipe content
Most wiping software uses OS interface
Which can optimize away wiping writes
FAT
FAT
File Allocation Table gives the name.
3 different varieties, FAT12, FAT16,
FAT32 in order to accommodate
growing disk capacity
Tightly packed data structure
FAT Boot Sector
Occupies the first
sector in the
partition or on the
floppy.

FAT Boot Sector
Jump instruction (EB 34 90)
OEM Manufacturer name
BIOS Parameter Block (BPB)
Extended BPB
Bootstrap code
End of Sector Marker (in reality a
signature)
BPB
Learn how to read it.
Field Definition in Lecture Notes



http://www.ntfs.com/fat-partition-sector.htm

BPB
There are
utilities that
translate the
data
BPB
The data allows us to
draw a picture of
the partition:
FAT File System
File Allocation Table (FAT)
Resides at the beginning of the volume
Two copies of the table
Three variants
FAT12
FAT16
FAT32
Allocation in clusters.
Clusters number is a power of two < 2
16

FAT File System
Root directory
Maintains file names, location,
characteristics,
File Allocation Table (FAT)
Allows files longer than a single cluster
FAT Principle
Root
directory
gives first
cluster
FAT gives
subsequent
ones in a
simple table
Use FFFF to
mark end of
file.
Cluster Size
Large clusters waste disk space because
only a single file can live in a cluster.
Small clusters make it hard to allocate
clusters to files contiguously and lead to
large FAT.
FAT Table
To save space, limit size of entry.
That limits total number of clusters.
FAT 12: 12 bit FAT entries
FAT 16: 16 bit FAT entries
FAT 32: 32 bit FAT entries
FAT Table Entry
FAT 12 FAT 16 Meaning
000 0000 available
001 0001 not used
FF0 FFF0-FFF6 reserved
FF8-FFF FFF7 bad cluster
0xhhh 0xhhhh next cluster used by file
Root Directory
A fixed length file (in FAT16, FAT32)
Entries are 32B long.
Subdirectories are files of same format.
Root Directory Entries
Offset Length Meaning
0x00 8B File Name
0x08 3B Extension
0x0b 1B File Attribute
0x0c 10B Reserved:
(Create time, date, access date in FAT 32)
0x16 2B Time of last change
0x18 2B Date of last change
0x1a 2B First cluster
0x1c 4B File size.
Root Directory Example
This is a deleted file ?wrd0700.tmp
Size is 00 08 94 00
First cluster is 00 4E
Multiply with the cluster size to find the
sector.
Root Directory Entries
File Name: First character means
0x00: Entry never used, end of directory
0xe5: File deleted
0x2e: Directory

Root Directory Entries
File Attribute
Root Directory Entries
Hidden file: not displayed.
System file: special treatment for deletion.
Volume: Name of the volume if this bit is set.
Rest of the name is in the reserved portion.
Subdirectory: File is not a file but a directory
(looks like the root directory).

Root Directory Entries

Time and Date of Access

FAT
Deleted files / directories with entries
intact can be easily reconstructed.
If entry is overwritten, then pieces
might be found in the FAT.
Large storage devices make it
impossible to do it without a tool.
FAT 32 Root Directory
Uses 4B to store the files first cluster.
Adds access date and modification date
and time
Modification, Access, Creation (MAC)
give important hints during an
investigation
FAT 32 Root Directory
0x00 8B File Name, padded with zeroes
0x08 3B 3 byte extension
0x0b 1B File attribute
0x0c 1B Reserved
0x0d 1B Millisecond stamp at file creation time.
0x0e 2B File creation time.
0x10 2B File creation date.
0x12 2B File access date.
0x14 2B High word of files first cluster
0x16 2B Last write time.
0x18 2B Last write date.
0x1a 2B Low word of the files first cluster
0x1c 4B File size in bytes.
Long File Names
Support for long file names needs to be
backwards compatible.
Long file names should be stored next
to the corresponding short entry.
Disk utilities should not misdiagnose
long file name entries as faulty
Unicode support
Long File Name Entries
Encode long file name in several long
entries
Precede immediately short entry
Have entry order number.
Last entry order number is ord with
0x40 to mark it.
Long File Name Support
Create a 8B short file name from long
one.
Calculate checksum from short name
and store in all long records
Long File Name Entries
0x00 1B Entry order number.
0x01 10B Characters 1-5 of name entry.
0x0b 1B File Attribute. MUST be 0F.
0x0c 1B Should be 00.
0x0d 1B Checksum of short file name.
0x0e 12B Characters 6-11 of name entry.
0x1a 2B MUST be 00 00 to be compatible.
0x1c 4c Characters 12-13 of name entry.
Long File Name Entries
Entry Order Number Attribute
Subdirectories
Are files with the same structure as root
directory.
Contain two special entries
.. Has name .. and refers to parent
directory
. Has name . and refers to itself.

FAT EXAMPLE
Computer Forensics
Investigation
of a
USB Storage Device
(FAT16)
USB Storage Example
Identify FAT Boot Sector (Sector 0)
Find BPB
USB Storage Example
0B-0C: Bytes per Sector (little endian)
00 02 02 00 = 512
decimal

0D: Sectors per Cluster: 04
10: Number of FATs: 02
USB Storage Example
06-07: Size of FAT is 00 7B sectors
There are two FATs
Conclusion:
Root Directory starts at sector 1+7B+7B
Go to sector 247

USB Storage Root Directory
Three entries.
Top: a short entry.
Then a long followed by the associated
short entry.

USB Storage Root Directory
First Entry
File attribute is 28 -> 0010 1000 b
Volume marker is set
Archive marker is set
Volume Label
Name is Lexar Media

USB Storage Root Directory
Time field is 7D 6F.
Translated from little endian 6F 7D.
Binary 0100 1111 0111 1101.
Hour is 01001 -> 13.
Minute is 111011 -> 51.
Creation time is 13:51.

USB Storage Device
Root Directory
Date field is 6B 2F.
Translated from little endian 2F 6B.
In binary 0010 1111 0110 1011.
Year is 001 0111 = 23 after 1980 ->2003
Month is 1011 = 11 = November
Day is 01011 = 11.
Formatted on the 11/11/2003.
USB Storage Device
Root Directory
First cluster is 00 00, obviously.
File size is 00 00 00 00.
USB Storage Device
Root Directory
Next two entries: a deleted long and short
record.
File attribute 0F (long entry)
File attribute 10 (directory)
Leading byte 0xE5 (deleted)
USB Storage Device
Root Directory
Long entry file name: .Trashes
Short entry file name: TRASHE~1
Created by MACs
Deleted on 10/24/2003
582F -> 2F 58 -> 0010 1111 0101 1000
USB Storage Device
Root Directory
First cluster is 04 59 -> 0x 5904 -> 22788
Size is 00 00 08 00 -> 0x 00 08 00 00 =
2048.

USB Storage Device
Root Directory
Go through the directory to find interesting
entries.
At the end, a deleted directory called My
Pictures.
Starts at cluster 0x0846

USB Storage Device
Directory
Go to this sector:
Two deleted directories kittieporn and adultporn
First starts at cluster 0x4708
USB Storage Device
Directory
Sounds interesting: Go to sector 0x0849
USB Storage Device
Directory Entry
File is called CAT55.304438-1-t
Size is 0x07C1 = 1985, fits into 1 cluster
Starts at cluster 0x849.
USB Storage Device
Deleted File
Go to file

Magic number JFIF tells us that this is a JPEG file.
USB Storage Device
Deleted File
Most files have these magic markers.
Learn how to identify them.
USB Storage Device
Deleted File
Use Winhex to save this block into a
file.
Change file extension to JPG.
Now we can look at it.
Indeed, minors in a seductive position
and completely naked!
USB Storage Device
Deleted File

Recovering Files
This was easy because we just followed
directory entries.
WinHex actually calculates a lot of the
values that we distilled by hand.
Reconstructs directory entries on its
own.
But has no generic file previewer
Recovering Files
If directory entry is overwritten:
Look for sectors in slack space.
Look for files that have not been overwritten.
Try to splice pieces of the file together from the
FAT.
Use pattern recognition software to guess file
type.
Result is frequently useful.
Recovering Files
Text files:
Search for Words in the Duplicate.
Learn how word processors store files.
Interesting finds, especially in old MS Word
formats.
NTFS FILE SYSTEM
NTFS Concepts
Everything is a file
Master File Table (MFT) is the heart of NTFS
Each file and directory has an (at least) 1KB
entry in the MFT
MFT
Entry
Header

Attribute

Attribute

Attribute

Unused
Space
NTFS Concepts
First entry in the MFT is called $MFT and describes
itself
Starting address of MFT is in the boot sector
Everything else is in the $MFT entry
Allocation is in clusters
Size of clusters is defined in the boot sector
MFT entry
MFT Entry
Size is given in the boot sector
But in all windows systems equal to 1KB
First 42B contain 12 fields
Rest is unstructured and used for attributes
First entry is the signature:
FILE for a valid entry
BAAD for an erroneous entry
Flag field ($BITMAP) tells whether entry is used
and a directory
MFT Entry
A file with too many attributes can take
up more than one entry
First entry is the base file record
Rest contains the base file record address
in their contents
MFT Entry
Addresses:
48b address for each entry File Number
Maximum address is size of MFT / size of entry
16b sequence number
Incremented whenever the entry is reused
16b sequence number followed by file
number gives 64 b file-reference address

MFT Entry
(File System) Metadata Files
Store systems administrative data
First 16 entries reserved for them
$MFT: Entry for MFT
$MFTMirr: Backup MFT
$LogFile: Journal for metadata transactions
$Volume: Volume information
$AttrDef: Definitions used for attributes
-: Root directory
$Bitmap: Allocation status of clusters
$Boot: Boot sector and boot code
$BadClus: Clusters with bad sectors
$Secure: Info on security and access control
$Upcase: Uppercase versions of Unicode characters
$Extend: Directory containing files for optional extensions
MFT Entry
MFT
Entry
Header
Attr.
Header
Attr.
Header
Attr.
Header Attribute

Attribute

Attribute

Unused
MFT Entry
Attribute Headers
Identifies type of attribute, size, name
Flags to tell whether value is compressed
or encrypted

MFT Entry
Attributes
Can be resident
Inside the entry
Can be non-resident
Stored in external clusters
Header will give the cluster addresses
Stored in Cluster Runs
Sets of consecutive clusters
Virtual Cluster Numbers start with end of MFT
Logical Cluster Numbers correspond to LBA
MFT Entry
Since attributes have a 16b identifier,
there can be 2
16
of them
If there is an overflow, can use
additional MFT entries
Main MFT entry becomes the base entry
Others have the base entrys address in
their MFT entry field
MFT Entry
Sparse attributes
Non-resident $DATA can be flagged as a
sparse attribute
Zero clusters are replaced with zero runs
MFT Entry
Compressed attributes
Non-resident $DATA can be compressed by
the file system
Attribute header flag identifies compression
$STANDARD_INFORMATION and
$FILE_NAME attributes also give that
information
MFT Entry
Encrypted attributes
Windows allows $DATA to be encrypted
Only the contents are encrypted, not the attribute header
A directory chosen to be encrypted only has the files
encrypted
$LOGGED_UTILITY_STREAM attribute is created for the file,
which contains the key
Algorithm is DESX
Each MFT entry has its own key, the file encryption key (FEK)
File encryption key is stored in encrypted form
For each user, FEK is encrypted with public key in the data
decryption fields of $LOGGED_UTILITY_STREAM
NTFS Analysis
$MFT file contains the Master File Table
$MFTMIRR is its backup copy
With entries for, at least
$MFT, $MFTMIRR, $LogFile, $Volume
Recovery tool can determine MFT layout
and size, use the $LogFile to recover file
system, and obtain version and status from
$Volume
NTFS
Architecture
NTFS Layout
NTFS Boot Sector
Notice that the end of sector marker is 55 AA.
You can look for this to find boot sectors for NTFS and DOS.
NTFS Boot Sector
0x00 3B Jump Instruction
0x03 8B OEM ID
0x0B 25B BPB
0x24 48B Extended BPB
0x54 426B Bootstrap Code.
0x1FE 2B End of Sector Marker



NTSF Boot Sector
NTSF Boot Sector
Many fields are not important, but:
0x0B, Bytes per sector.
0x0D Sectors per Cluster
0x15 Media descriptor. F8: HD; F0: HD Floppy
0x28 Total sectors.
0x30 Logical cluster number for the MFT
0x38 Logical cluster number copy of the MFT
0x40 Clusters per MFT Record.
0x48 Volume serial
NTFS Boot Sector
WinHex allows
access to an
interpreted NTFS
Boot Sector.
Use the Access Tab.
NTFS BPB
0x0B Bytes per sector: 00 02 0200 = 512 decimal
0x0D Sectors per cluster: 0x 08
0x0E Reserved sectors 0x 00 00


NTFS BPB
0x15: Media Descriptor: F8 is hard drive, F0 is
floppy.
0x28 Total number of sectors:
F7AF4E0900000000 000000094EAFF7
156,151,799 sectors, i.e. ~80GB
NTFS BPB
0x30: Logical cluster number for MFT copy 1:
cluster C07FE9 (File $MFT)
0x38: Logical cluster number for MFT copy 2:
cluster 40029D
NTFS BPB
0x40: Clusters per MFT record: F6
0x48: Volume Serial Number
NTFS Master File Table
First four entries are replicated, so that
MFT can be repaired
First 16 records are reserved for
metadata files, their name begins with a
dollar sign ($)
NTFS Master File Table
1. Master file table $MFT.
2. Master file table mirror $MftMirr.
3. Log file $LogFile.
4. Volume $Volume Attribute definitions $AttrDef.
5. The root folder .
6. Cluster bitmap $Bitmap
7. Boot sector $Boot (located at the beginning of
partition)
8. Bad cluster file $BadClus
9. Security file $Secure
10. Upcase table $Upcase
11. NTFS extension file $Extend, that is used for future
use.
NTFS Master File Table
MFT Record Structure
Entries are 1KB each
Entries contain
File Attributes
Location Data

MFT Records
Small Files
(<900B) are
contained
completely in
the MFT entry.
MFT Records
Folders contain index data.
Small folders reside within the MFT
record
Larger folders have an index structure
to other data blocks. They use a B-tree
structure.

MFT Record
Each MFT record is addressed by a 48 bit
MFT entry value.
First entry has address 0.
Each MFT entry has a 16 bit sequence
number that is incremented when the entry is
allocated.
MFT entry value and sequence number
combined yield 64b file reference address.
MFT Record
NTFS uses the file reference address to
refer to MTF entries.
When the system crashes during allocation,
then the sequence number describes
whether the MTF entry belonged to the
previous file or to the current one.
MFT Record
MFT entry attributes are loosely
defined.
Each attribute is preceded by the
attribute header.
The attribute header identifies
Type of attribute.
Size.
Name.
MFT Record Structure
The attribute header gives basic information
about the attribute.
A resident attribute is stored in the MFT
entry.
A non-resident entry is stored in a cluster
outside the MFT.
MFT Record Structure
Resident attributes are stored in MFT record.
Non-resident attributes are stored in cluster
runs.
Cluster run consists of consecutive clusters and
are identified by starting cluster and run length.
NTFS distinguishes between Virtual Cluster
Numbers and Logical Cluster Numbers.
LCN * (#sectors in cluster) = sector number
LCN 0 is first cluster in the volume (boot sector).
VCN 0 refers to the first cluster in a cluster run.
MFT Record Structure
MFT entry header has a fixed structure
MFT Record Structure
0x00 - 0x03: Magic Number: "FILE"
0x04-0x05: Offset to the update sequence.
0x06-0x07: Number of entries in fixup array
0x08-0x0f: $LogFile Sequence Number (LSN)
0x10-0x11: Sequence number
0x12 - 0x13: Hard link count
0x14-0x15: Offset to first attribute
MFT Record Structure
0x16 - 0x17: Flags: 0x01: record in use, 0x02
directory.
0x18-0x1b: Used size of MFT entry
0x1c-0x1f: Allocated size of MFT entry.
0x20-0x27: File reference to the base FILE
record
0x28-0x29: Next attribute ID
0x2a-0x2b: (XP) Align to 4B boundary
0x2c-ox2f: (XP) Number of this MFT record
0x30-0x100: Attributes and fixup value

MFT Record Structure
EXAMPLE 1:
A directory entry
MFT Record
MFT records start with FILE. A bad cluster would start with BAAD
MFT Record
Bytes 4-5: Offset to update sequence.
Bytes 6-7: Number of entries in fixup array
Bytes 8-f: Log file sequence number
Bytes 0x10-0x11: Sequence number: 59 00
MFT Record
Bytes 0x12-0x13: 2 hard link count
Bytes 0x14-0x15: Offset to first attribute: 0x 38
Bytes 0x16-0x17: Flags: In use and contains a directory 0x 0001 | 0x 0002

MFT Record
Bytes 0x14 0x15: First attribute starts at 0x 38 00 0x 00 38
MFT List of possible attributes
Defined in $AttrDef entry of MFT, but default is:
0x10 STANDARD_INFORMATION
0x20$ATTRIBUTE_LIST
0x30$FILE_NAME0
X40 (NT) $VOLUME_VERSION (2K) $OBJECT_ID
0x50 $SECURITY_DESCRIPTOR
0x60$VOLUME_NAME
0x70 $VOLUME_INFORMATION
0x80$DATA
0x90$INDEX_ROOT
0xA0$INDEX_ALLOCATION
0xB0$BITMAP
0xC0 (NT) $SYMBOLIC_LINK, (2K) $REPARSE_POINT
0xD0$EA_INFORMATION
0xE0$EA0xF0NT$PROPERTY_SET
0x100 (2K) $LOGGED_UTILITY_STREAM
MFT Attribute Layout
Attributes can be resident or non-resident.
Beginning is always the same:
0x00 Attribute Type Identifier
0x04 Length of Attribute
0x08 non-resident flag
0x09 length of name
0x0a offset to name
0x0c flags
MFT Attribute Example
Attribute is of type 00 00 00 10.
Standard Information
Attribute is 0x 00 00 00 60 bytes long.
Attribute is resident (0x00)
Contents are 0x 00 00 00 48 bytes long and
start at offset 0x 00 18.
MFT Attribute Example
0x00 8 File Creation Time
0x08 8 File Alteration Time
0x10 8 MFT Change
0x18 8 File Read Time
0x20 4 DOS File Permissions
0x24 4 Maximum number of versions
0x28 4 Version number
0x2C 4 Class ID
0x30 4 2K Owner ID
Standard Info Attribute Layout
MFT Attribute Example
This allows us to extract the file access
times just as for DOS.
Time values are in 100 nanoseconds
since January 1, 1601 UTC.
MFT Attribute Example
Second entry has attribute number 00
00 00 03 300000.
$FILE_NAME attribute
Total attribute length is 70 B.
Contents start at offset 18B
MFT Attribute Example
The content layout for the $FILE_NAME
attribute is:
0x00 File reference to parent directory
0x08 File creation time
0x10 File modification time
0x20 File access time
0x28 Allocated size of file
0x30 Real size of file
0x38 Flags
0x40 File name length in unicode characters
0x42 File name in unicode
MFT Attribute Example
Obviously, this is a short file name.
MFT Attribute Example
Third attribute is also a file name, but
this time the complete entry

NTFS EXAMPLE
NTFS Example
Use WinHex to go directly to the
partition.
WinHex will read the boot sector and
allow easier navigation.
NTFS Example
Disassembling MFT entries by hand is
difficult.
Use tools.
WinHex allows you to look at the file
structure.
NTFS Example
WinHex allows to
search for strings
NTFS Example
But string searches can take a long
time.

UNIX FILE SYSTEMS
Unix File System
Increasingly important
Linux
MacOS X
Bewildering variety on a laptop
Linux versions
Free BSD
Open BSD
Mac

Unix File Systems
Almost everything is a file.
File has properties such as
File type and access permissions.
Link count.
Ownership & group membership.
Date and time of last modification.
File name.
Unix File System
Owners can change many of these data
Including modification time.
Unix File System
Based on Inodes.
More flexible than tables.

Inodes
i_mode (directory IFDIR, block special file (IFBLK),
character special file (IFCHR), or regular file (IFREG)
i_nlink
i_uid (user id)
i_gid (group id)
i_size (file size in bytes)
i_addr (an array that holds addresses of blocks)
i_mtime (modification time & date)
i_atime (access time & date)
Inodes
Inodes
Unix File System
Classical Unix used a file table to
mediate between users and their open
files.
File table had references to the inodes
of open files.
Unix File System
On-Disk Layout.
Superblock contains
data on the file
system.
Unix File System
Unix File Systems
First versions of Unix had a single file
system.
Unix System V Release 3.0 introduced
File System Switch architecture.
No longer a tight coupling between
kernel and file system.
Unix File Systems
SunOS elaborated on this idea.
Clear split between file system-
dependent and file system-independent
kernel.
Intermediary layer is the VFS / VOP /
veneer layer.
Allows disk file systems such as 4.2 BSD
FFS, MS-DOS, NFS, RFS.
Unix File Systems
Disk Layout not uniform.
Ext2 (Linux) file system layout.

Journaling File Systems
File systems use caching in order to
speed up operations.
An unclean dismount can leave the file
system in an unclean state.
Journaling file system can keep a log,
so that they can simply replay the log in
order to bring the file system into a
consistent state.
Journaling File Systems
Log can contain
Only records of changes to metadata.
Records of changes to metadata and client
data.
New values of blocks.
Research Effort.
Not successfully implemented.
Journaling File Systems
ext3 (adds journal to ext2) for Linux
JFS
ReiserFS
XFS

Journaling File Systems
Interesting opportunity for forensic
investigation.
Unfortunately, log entries get purged if
too old.
EXT Details
Ext2
Ext3
EXT Details
Overview
EXT Details
Ext superblock:
Located 1024 B from start of the file
system.
Backups of superblock are usually stored in
the first block of each block group.
Contains basic information:
Block size
Total number of blocks
Number of reserved blocks
EXT Details: EXT SuperBlock
Byte Description
0-3B Number of inodes in file system
4-7B Number of blocks in file system
8-11B Number of blocks reserved to prevent file system from filling up
12-15B Number of unallocated blocks.
16-19B Number of unallocated inodes.
20-23B Block where block group 0 starts
24-27B Block size. (Saved as the number of places to shift 1,024 to the left).
28-31B Fragment size. (Saved as the number of places to shift 1,024 to the left).
32-35B Number of blocks in each group.
36-39B Number of fragments in each block group
40-43B Number of inodes in each block group.
44-47B Last mount time.
48-51B Last written time.
52-53B Current mount time.
54-55B Maximum mount count
EXT Details: EXT SuperBlock
Byte Description
56-57B Signature 0xef53
58-59B File system state
60-61B Error handling method
62-63B Minor Version
64-67B Last consistency check time.
68-71B Interval between forced consistency checks
72-75B Creator OS
76-79B Major version
80-81B UID that can use reserved blocks.
82-83B GID that can use reserved blocks.
84-87B First non-reserved inode in file system
88-89B Size of each inode structure
90-91B Block group that this superblock is part of (if this is the backup copy)
92-95B Compatibility feature flags
96-99B Incompatbile feature flags
EXT Details: EXT SuperBlock
Byte Description
100-103 Read only feature flags
104-119 File system ID
120-135 Volume name
136-199 Path were last mounted on
200-203 Algorithm usage bitmap
204 Number of blocks to preallocate for files.
205 Number of blocks to preallocate for directories
208-223 Journal ID
224-227 Journal Inode
228-231 Journal device
232-235 Head of orphan inode list
236-
1023
Unused
EXT Details
Group Descriptor Table
In the block following superblock
Describes all block groups in the system
EXT Details
Group Descriptor Table Entries
0-3 starting block address of block bitmap
4-7 starting block address of inode bitmap
8-11 starting block address of inode table
12-13 number of unallocated blocks in group
14-15 number of unallocated inodes in group
16-17 number of directories in group
EXT Details
Total number of blocks includes
Reserved area and all groups.
Blocks per group determines size of
group.
EXT Details
Block Group Descriptor Table
Located in block following the superblock
Basic layout of a block group:


Block bitmap takes exactly one block.
Inode bitmap manages allocation status of
inodes.

EXT Details
Number of blocks = bits in bitmap = bits in a block
(namely the bitmap block).
Size of block determines number of blocks in a block group!
Inode bitmap starting address contained in block
descriptor table.
Size of Inode bitmap given by #inodes per group
divided by 8.
Block group descriptor table gives starting block for
inode table.
Size of inode table = 128B * number of inodes.
EXT Details
Boot Code
If exists, will be in the 1024B before the
superblock.
Many Linux systems have a boot loader
in the MBR.
In this case, there will be no additional
boot code.
EXT Details
Data stored in blocks.
Typical block sizes are 1,024B; 2048B; or
4096B
Allocation status of a block determined
by the groups block bitmap

EXT Details
Analyzing content:
Locate any block
Read its contents
Determine its allocation status
First block starts in the first sector of
the file system. Block size is given by
superblock.
EXT Details
Determining allocation status:
Determine the block group to which the
block belongs.
Locate the groups entry in the group
descriptor table to find out where the block
bitmap is stored.
Process the block bitmap to find out
whether this block is allocated or not.
EXT Details
To find all unallocated blocks:
Systematically go through the block bitmap
and look for 0 bit entries.
Status of reserved sectors at the beginning
is less clear since there are no bitmap
entries for them.
EXT Details
Metadata is stored in the inode data
structure.
All inodes have the same size specified
in the superblock.
Inodes have addresses starting with 1.
Inodes in each group are in a table with
address given by the group descriptor.
group = (inode 1) / INODES_PER_GROUP
EXT Details
Inodes 1 10 are typically reserved.
Superblock has the value of the first
non-reserved inode.
Inode 1 keeps track of bad blocks.
Inode 2 contains the root directory
Journal uses Inode 8
First user file in Inode 11, typically for
lost+found
EXT Details
Inode can store the address of the first
12 data blocks of a file.
For larger files, we use double indirect
and triple indirect block pointers

EXT Details
Allocation Algorithms
Block group:
Non-directories are allocated in the same block group as
parent directory, if possible.
Directory entries are put into underutilized groups.
Contents of allocated inode are cleared and MAC
times set to the current system time.
Deleted files have their inode link value
decremented.
If the link value is zero, then it is unallocated.
If a process still has the file open, it becomes an orphan
file and is linked to the superblock.

EXT Details
Inode Structure
0-1 File Mode (type and permissions)
2-3 Lower 16 bits of user ID
4-7 Lower 32 bits of size in bytes
8-11 Access Time
12-15 Change Time
16-19 Modification Time
20-23 Deletion Time

EXT Details
Inode Structure
24-25 Lower 16 bits of group ID
26-27 Link count
28-31 Sector count
32-35 Flags
36-39 Unused
40 87 12 direct block pointers
88-91 1 single indirect block pointer
92-95 1 double indirect block pointer
EXT Details
Inode Structure
96-99 1 indirect block pointer
100 103 Generation number (NFS)
104 107 Extended attribute block
108 111 Upper 32 bits of size / Directory
ACL
112 115 Block address of fragment
116 Fragment index in block

EXT Details
Inode Structure
117 Fragment Size
118 119 Unused
120 121 Upper 16 bits of user ID
122 123 Upper 16 bits of group ID
124 127 Ununsed
EXT Details
Inode Structure
Permission flags of the file mode field
0x001 Other execute permission
0x002 Other write permission
0x004 Other read permission
0x008 Group execute permission
0x010 Group write permission
0x020 Group read permission
0x040 User execute permission
0x080 User write permission
0x100 User read permission
EXT Details
Inode Structure
Flags for bits 9 11 of the file mode field
0x200 Sticky bit (save text image)
0x400 Set Group ID
0x800 Set User ID
EXT Details
Inode Structure
File mode field
These are values not flags
0x1000 FIFO
0x2000 Character device
0x4000 Directory
0x6000 Block device
0x8000 Regular file
0xA000 Symbolic link
0xC000 Unix socket

EXT Details
Time Values
Are stored as seconds since January 1,
1970, Universal Standard Time
Get ready for the Year 2038 problem.
EXT Details
Linux updates (in general)
A-time, when the content of file / directory is
read.
For a file:
If a process reads the file.
When the file is copied.
When the file is moved to a new volume.
But not if the file is moved within a volume.
For a directory
When a directory listing is done.
When a file or subdirectory is opened.
EXT Details
Linux updates (in general)
M-time, when the content of file / directory is
modified.
For a file:
If file contents change.
For a directory
When a file is created or deleted inside the directory.
When a file is copied, the M-time is not changed.
However, when a file is copied to a network drive, the
network server might consider it a new file and reset the
M-time to the current time.
EXT Details
Linux updates (in general)
C-time corresponds to the last inode
change.
When file / directory is created.
When permissions change.
When contents change.
D-time is set only if a file is deleted.
When a file is created, then D-time is set to 0.
EXT Details
Unallocated inodes contain temporary
data.
M-, C-, D-time values might show when
the file was deleted.
Users can change A- and M-time with
the touch command.
EXT Details
Linux fills slack space (unused bytes of
block) with zeroes.
Data from deleted files will only exist in
unallocated blocks.
File size and allocated blocks will
probably be wiped from unallocated
inode entries.
EXT Details
Linux file hiding technique:
Have a process open a file for reading or
writing.
Delete the file name.
Link count for the inode is zero, but inode
is not unallocated.
The file system should add the orphan
inode to a list in the superblock.
EXT Details
Directory Structure
A directory entry consists of
A variable length name.
The inode number with the metadata of the entry.
The original byte allocation is as follows:
0-3 Inode value
4-5 Length of entry
6-7 Length of name
8- Name in ASCII
EXT Details
Directory Structure
The improved byte allocation is as follows:
0-3 Inode value
4-5 Length of entry
6 Length of name (up to 255 now)
7 File type
0 unknown
1 regular file
2 directory
3 character device
4 block device
5 FIFO
6 Unix Socket
7 Symbolic link
8- Name in ASCII
EXT Details
The record entry length allows the file system
to find the next entry in a directory.
If a directory entry is deleted, then the
previous entries length is increased.
EXT Details
When FS is created, a Linux user can
decide to use hash trees instead.
Directory entries are no longer in an
unsorted list.
A directory using a hash tree contains
multiple blocks, the nodes in the tree.
First block contains the . and .. directory
entries.
EXT Details
Links
Hard link: an additional file/directory name.
Implemented by another directory entry
pointing to the same inode.
Link count in inode is incremented.
Directory link count is 2 + number of
subdirectories
File system cannot distinguish between the first
and the second name of file.
EXT Details
Links
Soft link: an additional file/directory name.
Implemented by a directory entry pointing to
another inode.
Inode points to a file, that contains the path to
the original file.
EXT Details
Mount Point Example
FS1 has directory /dir1.
If FS2 is mounted on /dir1 and a user
changed into /dir1, then only FS2 is shown.
EXT Details
EXT hiding technique uses a directory
(containing the files to be hidden) as a
mount point.
Forensics tools tend to not give mount
points.
Consequentially, this hiding technique falls
flat for forensics tools.
EXT3
EXT3 journal located at inode 8
(typically)
Journal records transactions
Block updates about to occur.
Log of update after the fact.
Two modes:
Only metadata blocks are journaled.
Metadata and data blocks are journaled.

EXT Details
Ext3 Journal gives additional
information about recent events.

Links
http://www.nondot.org/sabre/os/files/Fi
leSystems/ext2fs/
http://www.nongnu.org/ext2-doc/

Antedating Evidence
Timestamp analysis
Central to intrusion and criminal
investigations
Interest is around time of incident
Timestamps are the most important
mean to order events (e.g. in the file
system)
But are attacked by anti-forensic tools
Resetting clock can be used for framing
Not in a big organization with time servers

Sequence Number Causality
Many digital systems use sequence numbers
Can be strictly increasing
Can wrap around
Example: NTFS
Journal file transactions are labeled with a Logical Sequence
Number
Functionality depends on LSN strictly increasing
Journal file has limited size
Entries are quickly overwritten
But: NTFS stores LSN in the file metadata
Since LSN is strictly increasing, this allows us to order
chronologically events
Independent of time stamps
Allocation Sequence Causality
First-fit allocation stores new item in
first available storage location
Data items can be deleted and space
becomes reusable
Overwritten data is irretrievable

Sometimes: Use of generation markers
Generation marker is increased with each
reuse
NTFS: MFT entry numbers

Allocation Sequence Causality
Can be used to generate
temporal sequence
between events

Willassen: Finding
Evidence of Antedating in
Digital Investigations,
ARES 2008
Allocation Sequence Causality
NTFS MFT uses first-fit storage with
generation markers (entry-sequence
number)

Implement a checker
Is (recovered) time consistent with
markers
Log Entries
Systems maintains many logs
Events are added in logs at the end
If logs can be trusted:
Order of two events in the log give order of events in
time
Logs can have time stamps on entries
Time stamps need to be consistent with entries
Probable Orderings
Inode numbers are usually allocated in
series
Allows using inode numbers to find file
creation events at the same time