Nervous System Function

Neurons
Base unit that has very simple function decide whether to
transmit signal or not
Organization
Billions of Neurons (estimates of 100 billion)
Very complex interconnections
Create systems/circuits that can function independently (parallel
processing)
Simple decisions passed to higher levels for that add
additional information to create generate more complex
decisions (hierarchical processing)
Very expensive - less than 2% of weight but uses 20% of
energy
Neuron Structure
Cell Body
Nucleus genetic information
Dendrites
Receive information
Axon
Carry information long distances
Myelin (Multiple Sclerosis)
Axon Terminals
Transmit information
Neuron - Structure
Neuron Function
Electrical Activity
Used to transmit signal within neuron
Chemical Activity
Used to transmit signal between neurons
Synapse small gap that physically separates
neurons
Neurotransmitters special chemicals that
neurons use to transmit message across the
synapse
Neuron Function
Electrical Activity
Resting Potential
Inside negative (-70 mV) compared to outside
Inside has high K
+
(negativity comes from proteins
& other negative ions)
Outside has high Na
+
Forces at work
Electrical
Diffusion
Neuron Function
Electrical Activity
Graded Potential
Depolarization Inside less negative (e.g., Na
+
enters)
Hyperpolarization Inside more negative (e.g., Cl
-
enters)

Action Potential
When graded reaches approximately -55mV
Electrical impulse that travels down cell axon to axon
terminals
Axon terminals release neurotransmitter
Neuron Function
Electrical Activity
Restoring Resting Potential
Sodium-Potassium Pump moves Na
+
out of cell
and K
+
into cell
This requires cell to use energy
Neuron Function
Chemical (Neurotransmitter) Activity
Leads to graded potentials in neuron
Excitatory NTs causes depolarization in neuron
Initiatory NTs causes hyperpolarization in
neuron


Neuron Excitation & Inhibition
Neuron - Synapse
Synapse Types
Multiple ways of connecting
Examples
Axon to Dendrite excite or inhibit neuron
Axon to Axon Terminal moderate NT release
Axon to Extracellular Space or blood potential
for diffuse effects

Synapse Types
Synapse Function
Neurotransmitter cycle in Axon Terminals
Synthesis
Storage
Release
Inactivation
Reuptake
Degradation
Neural transmission problems if cycle disrupted
(e.g., drugs) at any step
Synapse Function
Synapse Function
Neurotransmitter Types
Small Molecules
Nine Acetylcholine (ACh), dopamine (DA),
norepinephrine (NE), epinephrine (adrenaline), serotonin
(5-HT), histamine, GABA, glycine, glutamate
Simple (or no) alterations to basic food components
Glutamate & glycine are amino acids
DA and NE from tyrosine & 5-HT made from tryptophan
Manufactured in axon terminals
Large quantity and have short duration
Neurotransmitter Types
Peptides
50+ and grouped into families depending on function
Opoids (enkephalins, dynorphin) pain
Gastrins (gastrin, cholocystokinin) food digestion
2 or more amino acids and made in cell body (ribosomes)
from DNA instruction
Slower to manufacture & transport
Small concentrations and longer durations
Gases
At least 2 nitric oxide (NO) & carbon monoxide (CO)
Can work on releasing cell
Neurotransmitter Function
No one to one relation between type and
function
Same NT can be used in different places with
very different effects
Acetylcholine contracts muscles, used in
autonomic nervous system, and brain
Neurotransmitter Receptor Proteins
Channel Proteins
NT binding site and channel trough membrane
NT opens a channel to allow chemical flow (Na
+
) across
membrane
Second Messengers
NT binding site NT activates a second messenger (1
st

is the NT) inside the cell
Change function of cell (e.g., change protein production to
permanently alter cell function for learning)
Neurotransmitter Receptor Proteins
Neurotransmitter Receptor Proteins
Usually multiple receptors for a given NT
Acetylcholine
Nicotinic receptor found a junction between
neuron and muscle
Muscarinic receptor more prevalent in brain
Acetylcholine affects both
Drugs can have more specific effects (or not
depending on the drug)
Nicotine & curare affect nicotinic but not muscarinic
Neurotransmitter Receptor Proteins
Usually multiple receptors for a given NT
Serotonin (5-HT)
13 known receptors grouped into 6 families
People with schizophrenia have an excess of one
type
Demonstrates how genetic differences can influence
motivational temperaments
Dopamine
5 known receptors grouped into 2 families

Psychoactive Drug Overview
Two Broad effects on NT function
Facilitate or increase function of a specific NT
Inhibit or Decrease function of a specific NT
2 Broad effects accomplished by altering
any of the 7 synapse functions (previous
slide)
Acetylcholine
Psychoactive Drug Overview
Acetylcohine Example
Axon Release
Black widow spider venom released from axon terminals
Botulinum toxin (Botox) blocks release from axon
terminals
Synapse Stimulation
Nicotine mimics ACh
Curare blocks ACh from getting to terminals
Inactivation
Physostigmine blocks effect of enzyme that destroys ACh

Psychoactive Drug Overview
Psychoactive Drug Overview
Nervous System adapts drug presence
Inhibitory drug may create more protein
receptors to detect smaller amounts of NTs that
are getting to postsynaptic cell
Excitatory drug may remove protein receptors
NS now requires drug for functioning
Inhibitory drug normal signals are too strong
Excitatory drug normal signals not strong
enough
Nervous System Organization
Nervous System Organization
Central Nervous System (CNS)
Spinal Cord simple decisions & information transmission
Brain complex decisions
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Somatic sensory information & voluntary movement
Autonomic
Sympathetic increases support increased physical activity
Parasympathetic increases support decreased physical
activity
Enteric gastrointestinal system

Autonomic Nervous System
Nervous System Organization
Neuron Groups
Peripheral NS
Nerve collection of axons in PNS
Ganglia collection of cell bodies & dendrites
Central NS
Tract collection of axons in CNS (White Matter)
Nuclei collection of cell bodies (Grey Matter)
Glial Cells
Support and assist neurons (many types)
Produce myelin, nourishment, repair, waist disposal, etc.
Spinal Cord
31 segments with pairs (left & right) nerves
carrying sensory and efferent information
Functions
Ascending and descending neural tracts
Interneurons responsible for spinal reflexes
(relatively simple decisions)
Link sensory information (e.g., pain) with motor
response (e.g., muscle contraction)
Brain
Structure
Very Complex
Many different ways of describing brain
structures (location, function, etc.)
General Principles
Layered
Lateralized
Brain
Neural Systems
Brain circuits responsible for brain function
E.g., - vision, hearing, movement, reward
System could be
Localized (vision) or diffuse (arousal)
General (vision) or specific (color vision)
Broad Divisions
Sensory
Motor
Association
Brain
Complex behaviors (fear/defensive learning)
depend on many systems
Sensory
Learning
Memory
Output
Differences in a function (e.g., motivation) might
be due to different reasons (e.g., sensory,
learning, etc.)
Studying Brain Function
Gross lesions
Structural assessments
Selective lesions
specific neurotoxins
transient lesions
Local functioning
Single-cell recording
Neurotransmitter measurement & manipulation
Gene expressions
Non-invasive measures
Functional MRI
EEG & ERP