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Object-oriented modeling and

design
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Introduction
It is a new way of thinking about problems
using models based on real world concepts.
The basic construct is object which combines
both data structure and behavior in a single
entity.
Rambaugh presents an object oriented
software development methodology, the
Object Modeling Technique (OMT) which
extends from analysis through design to
implementation.
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Analysis model is built to abstract essential
aspects of application domain which contains
objects found in application, their properties
and behavior.
Then design model is made to describe and
optimize the implementation.
Finally the design model is implemented in a
programming language, database or
hardware.
Graphical notation is used for expressing
object-oriented models.
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What is object-oriented?
Software is organized as a collection of
discrete objects that incorporate both data
structure and behavior.
In general it includes- identity, classification,
polymorphism and inheritance.
Object Oriented Programming Language
= Object Based Programming Language(e.g.
'83 Ada and Modula-2)
+ Inheritance + Dynamic Binding
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Identity
Identity means that data is organized into
discrete, distinguishable entities called objects.
Objects can be concrete or conceptual.
In real world an object simply exist but within a
programming language each object has a
unique handle by which it can be uniquely
referenced.
The handle can be implemented by address,
array index or unique value of an attribute.
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Classification
It means that objects with same data
structure (attribute) and behavior
(operations) are grouped into a class.
A class is an abstraction that describes
important properties and ignores the
rest.
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Polymorphism
It means that the same operation (i.e.
action or transformation that the object
performs) may behave differently on
different classes.
Specific implementation of an operation
by a certain class is called a method.
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Inheritance
It is the sharing of attributes and
operations among classes based on a
hierarchical relationship.
Subclasses can be formed from broadly
defined class.
Each subclass incorporates or inherits all
the properties of its super class and adds
its own unique properties.
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Object-oriented development?
The theme is the identification and
organization of application concepts rather
than final representation in a prog. Language.
OOD approach encourages software
developers to work and think in terms of the
application domain through most of the
software engineering life cycle.
It is a conceptual process independent of a
programming language until the final stage.
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Object-oriented methodology
Stages-
Analysis
System design
Object design
implementation
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3 models
Object model
Dynamic model
Functional model
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Object model
Describes basic structure of objects and
their relationship
Contains object diagram
Object diagram is a graph whose nodes
are object classes (Classes) and whose
arcs are relationships among classes.
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Dynamic model
Describes the aspects of a system that
change over time.
It specifies and implement control
aspects of a system.
Contains state diagram.
State diagram is a graph whose nodes
are states and whose arcs are data-
flows.
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Functional Model
Describes data value transformation
within a system.
Contains data flow diagram.
Data Flow Diagram is a graph whose
nodes are processes and whose arcs
are data flows.
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Object-Oriented concepts
Abstraction
Encapsulation
Combining data and behavior
Sharing
Object structure, not Procedure Structure
Synergy
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Abstraction
It consists of focusing on essential aspects of an entity and
ignoring accidental properties.
The goal is to isolate those aspects that are important for some
purpose and suppress those aspects that are unimportant.
Abstraction must always for some purpose because the purpose
determines what is and what is not important.
Many different abstractions of same thing are possible,
depending on the purpose for which they are made.
In building models, one must not search for absolute truth but for
adequacy for some purpose.
A good model captures the crucial aspects of a problem and
omits the others.
Focus on what an object is and does, not how to implement.

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Encapsulation
Information hiding
Separating external aspects of an object
which are accessible to other objects,
from the internal implementation details
of the object, which are hidden from
other objects.
The implementation of an object can be
changed without affecting the
applications that use it.
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Synergy
Identity, Classification, polymorphism
and inheritance can be used in isolation
but together they complement each other
synergistically.
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Advantages of OOD
Used in developing Compilers, Graphics, UI,
databases, Object oriented languages, CAD
systems, simulations, etc.
Used to document existing programs that are
ill-structured and difficult to understand.
Not reduces development time; it may take
more time than conventional development
because it is intended to promote future reuse
and reduce downstream errors and
maintenance.
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Modeling
A model is an abstraction of something
for the purpose of understanding it
before building it.
The word model has 2 dimensions- a
view of a system ( object, dynamic or
functional) and a stage of development (
analysis, design or implementation)
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Purpose
Testing a physical entity before building
it
Communication with customers
Visualization
Reduction of complexity

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Object Modeling
Captures static structure of a system-
Objects in the system
Attributes
operations
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Objects
Define objects as a concept, abstraction
or thing with purposeful meaning.
Two purpose of objects-
Promote understanding of the real world
Provide a practical basis for computer
implementation.
All objects have identity and are
distinguishable.
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Classes
An object class describes a group of
objects with similar properties
(attributes), common behavior
(operations), common relationships to
other objects and common semantics.
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Object diagram
It provides a formal graphic notation for
modeling objects, classes and their
relationships to one another.
Types-
Class diagram
Instance diagram
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Class diagram
A class diagram is a schema, pattern or
templates for describing many possible
instances of data.
Describes classes.

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Instance diagram
Describes how a particular set of objects
relate to each other.
Describes objects
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Person
Class Diagram
(Person)
Ram
(Person)
Jai
(Person)

Instance Diagram
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Attribute
An attribute is a data value held by the
objects in a class.
Each attribute name is unique within a
class.
An attribute should be a pure data value,
not an object.
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Object Modeling Notations
Person
name: string
age: integer
Class with Attributes
(Person)
Ram
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(Person)
Jai
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Objects with Values
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Operations and Methods
An operation is a function or transformation
that may be applied to or by objects in a class.
All objects in a class share the same
operations.
The same operation may apply to many
different classes.
Such an operation is polymorphic i.e. the
same operation takes on different forms in
different classes.
A method is the implementation of an
operation for a class.
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Person
name
age
change-job
change-add
Person
name
age
change-job
change-add
Person
name
age
print

File
name
size
Operations
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Links and Association
Links and associations are the means for establishing
relationships among objects and classes.
A link is a physical or conceptual connection between objects.
A link is an instance of an association.
An association describes a group of links with common structure
and semantics.
All the links in an association connect objects from the same
classes.
Association and links often appear as verbs in a problem
statement.
An association describes a set of potential links in the same way
that a class describes a set of potential objects.
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Associations are bidirectional.
In real, both directions of traversal are equally
meaningful and refer to same association.
Associations are often implemented in
programming languages as pointers from one
object to another.
A pointer is an attribute in one object that
contains an explicit reference to another
object.
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A link shows a relationship between two
or more objects.
All connections among classes should
be modeled as association.
One-to-one association
Many-to-many association
Ternary association

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Country
name
City
name
Has-capital
(Country)
India
(City)
Delhi
Has-capital
Has-capital
Class Diagram
Instance Diagram
One-to-One Association and links
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Line
name
Point
name
intersects
2+
(Line)
L1
(Line)
L2
(Line)
L3
(Point)
P1
(Line)
L4
(Line)
L5
(Point)
P2
Many-to-many Association and links
Class Diagram
Instance Diagram
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Project
Language
Person
(Project)
MIS
(Language)
.Net
(Project)
CAD
(Language)
C
(Person)
Jai
Ternary Association and Links
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Multiplicity
It specifies how many instances of one
class may relate to a single instance of an
associated class.
In OMT solid ball -> zero or more
Hollow ball -> optional (zero or one)
Multiplicity depends upon assumptions
and how you define the boundaries of a
problem.
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Link attributes
An link attribute is a property of the links
in an association.

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File User
Accessible By
Access permission
/etc/temp read Ram
/etc/temp read-write Mohan
/usr/lgn read-write Shyam
Link Attributes for a many-to-many association
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Person
name
ssn
address
Company
Name
address
Works-for
Salary
Job-title
Performance rating
boss
manages
worker
Link attributes for one-to-many associations
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Modeling an Association as a Class
Each link becomes one instance of the
class.
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User Workstation
Authorized on
Authorization
Priority
Privileges
Start session
Directory
Home directory
Modeling an association as a class
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Role Names
A role is one end of an association.
A binary association has 2 roles, each of
which may have a role name.
A role name is a name that uniquely identifies
one end of an association.
Roles often appear as nouns in problem
descriptions.
Use of role name is optional.
Role names are necessary for associations
between two objects of the same class.
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person company
employee
employer
Works-for
Employee Employer
Ram TCS
Mohan Wipro
Role names for an association
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ordering
If order of objects required
Indicated by writing {ordered} next to
multiplicity dot for the role.

window screen
{ordered}
Visible-on
Ordered sets in an association
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Qualification
It relates two classes and a qualifier.
Qualifier is a special attribute that reduces the
effective multiplicity of an association.
One-to-many or many-to-many may be
qualified that can be reduced to one-to-one. (
but not always)
It distinguishes among the set of objects at the
many end of an association.
A qualified association can also be considered
a form of ternary association.

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Directory
File
File name
A qualified association
A directory plus a file name yields a file
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Company
office Person
organization
officer
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Aggregation
It is a part-of relationship
It has transitivity property i.e. A is part of
B and B is part of C then A is part of C.
It is anti symmetric i.e. if A is a part of B
then B is not a part of A.
Aggregation is a special form of
association.
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document paragraph sentence
Aggregation
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Aggregation
It is a form of association in which an
aggregate object is made of
components.
Components are part of aggregate.
Aggregate is inherently transitive i.e. an
aggregate has parts which may in turn
have parts.
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Aggregation vs. Association
Aggregation is a special form of
association.
If two objects are tightly bound by a part-
whole relationship, it is an aggregation.
If two objects are usually considered as
independent even though they may often
be linked, it is an association.
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A company is an aggregation of its
divisions which are in turn aggregations
of their departments; a company is
indirectly an aggregation of departments.
A company is not an aggregation of its
employees since the company and
person are independent objects of equal
structure and status.
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company division department
person
Work for
Aggregation and Association
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Generalization
It is a relationship between base class
and sub class.
It is is-a relationship because each
instance of a sub class is an instance of
super class as well.

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Figure
Color
Pos
Thickness
Move
Select
Display
rotate
0 D 1 D 2 D
Point Line Arc Spline circle Polygon
Inheritance for graphic figure
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Aggregation vs. Generalization
Aggregation relates instances.
Two distinct objects are involved; one of them
is a part of the other.
Generalization relates classes.
Aggregation is often called a part of
relationship; generalization is often called a
kind-of or is-a relationship.
Aggregation is sometimes called an and
relationship and generalization refers to or
relationship
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lamp
base cover switch wiring
incandescent fluorescent
part4 part3 part2 part1
Aggregation and generalization
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Aggregation can be fixed, variable or
recursive.
A fixed aggregate has a fixed structure;
the number and types of sub parts are
predefined e.g. lamp.
A variable aggregation has a finite
number of levels but number of parts
may vary e.g. company.
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A recursive aggregation contains directly
or indirectly an instance of the same kind
of aggregate; the number of potential
levels is unlimited e.g. computer
program.

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Simple Statement:
x=i;
Block(combination of more than one simple statements):
++i;
x=i;
Compound Statement(single statement combines work of multiple
statement optionally blocks):
x=++i;

program
block
Compound
statement
Simple
statement
Recursive aggregate
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Propagation of operations
Propagation (triggering) is automatic
application of an operation to a network
of objects when the operation is applied
to some starting object.
E.g. moving an aggregation moves its
parts; the move operation propagates to
the parts.

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A person owns multiple documents.
Each document is composed of
paragraphs that are in turn composed of
characters. The copy operation
propagates from documents to
paragraphs to characters. Copying a
paragraph copies all the characters in it.
The operation does not propagate in
reverse direction.

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Propagation can be possible for save,
destroy, print and lock.

Person



Document

copy

Paragraph

copy

Character

copy

owns
copy copy
Propagation of operations
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Abstract classes
An abstract class is a class that has no
direct instances but whose descendent
classes have direct instances.
A concrete class is a class that is
instantiable i.e. it can have direct
instances.
A concrete class may have abstract
subclasses but they must have concrete
descendents.
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only concrete classes may be leaf
classes in the inheritance tree.
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Abstract & concrete class

class
concrete
abstract
instance
Leaf class Non leaf class
subclass
1+
1+
subclass
Has subclasses
Has subclasses
superclass
superclass
Direct
instances
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Abstract classes organize features common to
several classes
Abstract classes are frequently used to define
methods to be inherited by subclasses.
An abstract class can define methods to be
inherited by subclasses.
An abstract operation defines the form of an
operation for which each concrete subclass
must provide its own implementation.
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Abstract class & abstract operation

Employee
Earning
Pay {abstract}

SLRD Employee
Earning
pay

HNRY Employee
Earning
pay


HRLY Employee
Earning
pay

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Overriding operations
Reasons to use overriding-
For extension
For restriction
For optimization
For convenience
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Extension
The new operation is same as inherited except it adds
some behavior usually affecting new attributes of the
subclass.
Restriction
The new operation restricts the inherited.
Optimization
The new method must have the same external protocol
(prototype) and results as the old one but its internal
representation and algorithm may differ completely.
Convenience
The new class is made a subclass of the existing class and
overrides the methods that are inconvenient.





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Multiple inheritance
It permits to have more than one super class
and to inherit features from all parents.
A class with more than one super class is
called a join class.
A feature from the ancestor class found along
more than one path is inherited only once.
Conflicts among parallel definitions create
ambiguities that must be resolved in
implementation.
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vehicle
Watervehicle
Landvehicle
boat
amphibiousvehicle
car
Multiple inheritance from overlapping classes
[ join class ]
Overlapping Classes
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A hollow triangle indicates disjoint
subclasses while a solid triangle
indicates overlapping subclasses.
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Metadata
Metadata is data that describes other
data.
The definition of a class is metadata.
Models are metadata since they describe
the things being modeled.
RDBMS uses metadata.
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Patterns and metadata
A class describes a set of instances of a given
form.
Instantiation relates a class to its instances.
The dotted arrows connect the instances to
the class.
It is also useful for documenting examples and
test cases.
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Person
Name
Age
weight
(Person)
Name=ABC
Age=40
Weight=40

(Person)
Name=XYZ
Age=29
Weight=70

Notation for instantiation
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Class descriptors
Classes are meta objects and not real world objects.
Class descriptors have features and they have their
own classes which are called meta classes.
A class attribute describes a value common to an
entire class of objects rather than data particular to
each instance.
Class attributes are useful for storing default
information for creating new objects or summary
information about instances of the class.
A class operation is an operation on the class itself.
The most common is to create new instances.
Operations on class structure are class operations.
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Class descriptors

Window
Size:rectangle
Visibility:boolean
Default_size:rectangle

Display
New_window
Highest_priority_window
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Candidate keys
A candidate key is a minimal set of
attributes that uniquely identifies an
object or link.
A class may have one or more candidate
keys each of which may have different
combinations and numbers of attributes.
Each candidate key constrains the
instances in a class or the multiplicity of
an association.
Notation is {}
The object id is always a candidate key
for a class.
One or more combinations of related
objects are candidate keys for
associations
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Comparison of multiplicity with candidate keys for binary
associations
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constraints
These are functional relation between
entities of an object model.
Entity includes objects, classes,
attributes, links and associations.
A constraint restricts the values that
entities can assume.
Simple constraints may be placed in
object models and complex may be in
functional model.
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Employee

salary
boss
{ salary < = boss.salary }
Window

Length
width
{ 0.8 <= length / width < = 1.5 }
Constraints on objects
Constraints on Links
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Country
office
Person
{ordered}
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General constraints
It must be expressed with natural
languages or equations.
Draw a dotted line between classes
involved in the constraint and specify the
details with comments in braces.
Person Committee
Member_of
Chair_of
{subset }
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Derived objects, links and attributes
A Derived object is defined as a function of one or
more objects, which can be derived
The notation for a derived entity is a slash or diagonal
line on the corner of a class box (derived object), on
an association line(derived link) or in front of an
attribute(derived attribute)
You can show the constraint that determines the
derived value. (optional)

Person
Birthdate
/age
Current date
{ age = currentdate birthdate }
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Homomorphism
A mapping between mathematical structures of the same
type that preserves the structure.
similarity of form
Homos = same & morphe = structure
Eg: in a parts catalog for a automobile, a catalog item may
contain other catalog items.
Each catalog item is specified by a model number that
corresponds to number of individual manufactured items, each
with its own serial number.
The individual items are also composed of sub items.
The structure of each items parts has the same form as the
catalog items parts.
Thus the contains aggregation on catalog items is a
homomorphism of the contains aggregation on physical
items.
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Homomorphism
It maps between two associations.
catalogItem
Model#
Item
Sl#
contains
contains
Maps
Describes
{ item 1 contains item 2 => item1.model contains item2.model }

Homomorphism for a parts catalog
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In general, a homomorphism involves 4
relationships among 4 classes.
The homomorphism maps links of one general
association {u} into links of another general
association {t} as a many-to-one mapping.
Two instantiation relationships map elements
of one class into another:
r is a many-to-one mapping from class B to A and
s is a many-to-one mapping from class D to C.
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A
C
B
D
r
s
t u
{u ( b, d)=>t ( b.r, d.s ) }
General Homomorphism
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Homomorphism
catalogItem
Model#
Item
Sl#
contains
contains
Maps
Describes
{ item 1 contains item 2 => item1.model contains item2.model }

Homomorphism for a parts catalog
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In general where t is on a single class
and u is on a single class then A=C, B=D
and r=s.
Homomorphism is a special type of
relationship between relationships.