Introduction 1-1

Chapter 1
Introduction
Adapted from Computer Networking: A Top Down Approach, 6th
edition, Jim Kurose, Keith Ross for ECE 6103
Introduction
Chapter 1: introduction
our goal:
get feel and
terminology
more depth, detail
later in course
approach:
use Internet as
example

overview:
whats the Internet?
whats a protocol?
network edge; hosts, access net,
physical media
network core: packet/circuit
switching, Internet structure
performance: loss, delay,
throughput
security
protocol layers, service models
history

1-2
Introduction
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
packet switching, circuit switching, network
structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models
1.6 networks under attack: security
1.7 history

1-3
Introduction
Whats the Internet: nuts and bolts
view
millions of connected
computing devices:
hosts = end systems
running network apps
communication links
fiber, copper,
radio, satellite
transmission rate:
bandwidth
Packet switches:
forward packets (chunks
of data)
routers and switches

wired
links
wireless
links
router
mobile network
global ISP
regional ISP
home
network
institutional
network
smartphone
PC
server
wireless
laptop
1-4
Introduction
Fun internet appliances
IP picture frame
http://www.ceiva.com/
Web-enabled toaster +
weather forecaster
Internet phones
Internet
refrigerator
Slingbox: watch,
control cable TV remotely
1-5
Tweet-a-watt:
monitor energy use
Introduction
Internet: network of networks
Interconnected ISPs
protocols control sending,
receiving of msgs
e.g., TCP, IP, HTTP, 802.11
Internet standards
RFC: Request for comments
IETF: Internet Engineering Task
Force
Whats the Internet: nuts and bolts
view
mobile network (3G)
global ISP
regional ISP
home
Network (Wifi)
institutional
network
1-6
Whats the Internet: a service view
Infrastructure that
provides services to
applications:
Web, VoIP, email,
games, e-commerce,
social nets,
provides programming
interface to apps
hooks that allow sending
and receiving app
programs to connect to
Internet
provides service options,
analogous to postal
service
mobile network
global ISP
regional ISP
home
network
institutional
network
Introduction 1-7
Introduction
Whats a protocol?
human protocols:
whats the time?
I have a question
introductions

specific msgs sent
specific actions taken
when msgs received,
or other events
network protocols:
machines rather than
humans
all communication
activity in Internet
governed by protocols
protocols define format,
order of msgs sent and
received among
network entities, and
actions taken on msg
transmission, receipt
1-8
Introduction
a human protocol and a computer network
protocol:

Q: other human protocols?
Hi
Hi
Got the
time?
2:00
TCP connection
response
Get http://www.awl.com/kurose-ross
<file>
time
TCP connection
request
Whats a protocol?
1-9
Introduction
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
packet switching, circuit switching, network
structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models
1.6 networks under attack: security
1.7 history

1-10
Introduction
A closer look at network
structure:
network edge:
hosts: clients and
servers
servers often in data
centers

access networks,
physical media:
wired, wireless
communication links
network core:
interconnected
routers
network of networks

mobile network
global ISP
regional ISP
home
network
institutional
network
1-11
Introduction
Access networks and physical media
Q: How to connect end
systems to edge
router?
residential access nets
institutional access
networks (school,
company)
mobile access networks
keep in mind:
bandwidth (bits per
second) of access
network?
shared or dedicated?
1-12
Introduction
Access net: digital subscriber line
(DSL)
central office
ISP
telephone
network
DSLAM
voice, data transmitted
at different frequencies over
dedicated line to central office

use existing telephone line to central office DSLAM
data over DSL phone line goes to Internet
voice over DSL phone line goes to telephone net
< 2.5 Mbps upstream transmission rate (typically < 1 Mbps)
< 24 Mbps downstream transmission rate (typically < 10
Mbps)
DSL
modem
splitter
DSL access
multiplexer
1-13
Introduction
Access net: cable network
cable
modem
splitter

cable headend
Channels
V
I
D
E
O
V
I
D
E
O
V
I
D
E
O
V
I
D
E
O
V
I
D
E
O
V
I
D
E
O

D
A
T
A

D
A
T
A

C
O
N
T
R
O
L
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
frequency division multiplexing: different channels transmitted
in different frequency bands
1-14
Introduction
data, TV transmitted at different
frequencies over shared cable
distribution network
cable
modem
splitter

cable headend
CMTS
ISP
cable modem
termination system
HFC: hybrid fiber coax
asymmetric: up to 30Mbps downstream transmission
rate, 2 Mbps upstream transmission rate
network of cable, fiber attaches homes to ISP router
homes share access network to cable headend
unlike DSL, which has dedicated access to central
office

Access net: cable network
1-15
Introduction
Access net: home network
to/from headend or
central office
cable or DSL modem
router, firewall, NAT
(network address translation)
wired Ethernet (100 Mbps)
wireless access
point (54 Mbps)
wireless
devices
often combined
in single box
1-16
Introduction
Enterprise access networks
(Ethernet)
typically used in companies, universities, etc
10 Mbps, 100Mbps, 1Gbps, 10Gbps transmission rates
today, end systems typically connect into Ethernet
switch

Ethernet
switch
institutional mail,
web servers
institutional router
institutional link to
ISP (Internet)

1-17
Introduction
Wireless access networks
shared wireless access network connects end system to
router
via base station aka access point
wireless LANs:
within building (100ft / 30.48m)
802.11b/g (WiFi): 11, 54
Mbps transmission rate

wide-area wireless access
provided by telco (cellular)
operator, 10s km
between 1 and 10 Mbps
3G, 4G: LTE (Long Term
Evolution)
to Internet
to Internet
1-18
Host: sends packets of data
host sending function:
takes application
message
breaks into smaller
chunks, known as
packets, of length L bits
transmits packet into
access network at
transmission rate R
link transmission
rate, aka link
capacity, aka link
bandwidth
R: link transmission rate
host
1 2
two packets,
L bits each
packet
transmission
delay
time needed to
transmit L-bit
packet into link
L (bits)
R (bits/sec)
=
=
1-19
Introduction
Physical media
bit: propagates between
transmitter/receiver pairs
physical link: what lies
between transmitter &
receiver
unguided media:
signals propagate freely,
e.g., air, vacuum, water
guided media:
signals propagate in
solid media: copper,
fiber, coax
twisted pair (TP)
two insulated copper
wires
Category 5: 100 Mbps, 1
Gpbs Ethernet
Category 6: 10Gbps
1-20
Introduction
Physical media: radio
signal carried in
electromagnetic
spectrum
no physical wire
bidirectional
propagation environment
effects:
reflection
obstruction by objects
Interference


Earth-moon: 384,400,000 meters
Earth-sun: 149,600,000,000
meters
Earth-satellites: 36,000,000
meters

radio link types:
terrestrial microwave
e.g. up to 45 Mbps channels
LAN (e.g., WiFi)
11Mbps, 54 Mbps
wide-area (e.g., cellular)
3G cellular: ~ few Mbps
satellite
Kbps to 45Mbps channel (or
multiple smaller channels)
240 msec end-end delay (why)
geosynchronous versus low
altitude
1-21
Introduction
Physical media: coax, fiber
coaxial cable:
two concentric copper
conductors
bidirectional
broadband:
multiple channels on
cable
HFC (Hybrid Fiber Coax)
fiber optic cable:
glass fiber carrying light
pulses, each pulse a bit
high-speed operation:
high-speed point-to-point
transmission (e.g., 10s-
100s Gpbs transmission
rate)
low error rate:
repeaters spaced far apart
immune to electromagnetic
noise
1-22
Introduction
Physical media: coax, fiber
More reading:
Fibre optic cable headed for Canadian Arctic?
Without it, the economic divide (between north and south) will only
grow wider. Sarah Rogers.
http://www.nunatsiaqonline.ca/stories/article/65674is_fibre_optic_cable_on_its_way
_to_the_canadian_arctic
1-23
Introduction
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
packet switching, circuit switching, network
structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models
1.6 networks under attack: security
1.7 history

1-24
Introduction
mesh of interconnected
routers
packet-switching: hosts
break application-layer
messages into packets
forward packets from
one router to the next,
across links on path
from source to
destination
each packet transmitted
at full link capacity
The network core
1-25
Introduction
Packet-switching: store-and-
forward
takes L/R seconds to
transmit (push out) L-bit
packet into link at R bps
store and forward: entire
packet must arrive at
router before it can be
transmitted on next link
one-hop numerical
example:
L = 7.5 Mbits
R = 1.5 Mbps
one-hop transmission
delay = 5 sec
more on delay shortly
1-26
source
R bps
destination
1 2 3
L bits
per packet
R bps
end-end delay = 2L/R
(assuming zero propagation
delay)
Introduction
Packet Switching: queueing delay, loss
A
B
C
R = 100 Mb/s
R = 1.5 Mb/s
D
E
queue of packets
waiting for output link
1-27
queuing and loss:
If arrival rate (in bits) to link exceeds transmission rate
of link for a period of time:
packets will queue, wait to be transmitted on link
packets can be dropped (lost) if memory (buffer) fills
up
Network Layer 4-28
Two key network-core
functions
forwarding: move packets
from routers input to
appropriate router output

routing: determines source-
destination route taken by
packets
routing algorithms

routing algorithm
local forwarding table
header value output link
0100
0101
0111
1001
3
2
2
1
1
2
3
dest address in arriving
packets header
Introduction
Alternative core: circuit switching
end-end resources
allocated to, reserved for
call between source &
dest:
In diagram, each link has
four circuits.
call gets 2
nd
circuit in top
link and 1
st
circuit in right
link.
dedicated resources: no
sharing
circuit-like (guaranteed)
performance
circuit segment idle if not
used by call (no sharing)
Commonly used in traditional
telephone networks
1-29
Introduction
Circuit switching: FDM versus TDM
FDM
frequency
time
TDM
frequency
time
4 users
Example:
1-30
Introduction
Packet switching versus circuit
switching
example:
1 Mb/s link
each user:
100 kb/s when active
active 10% of time

circuit-switching:
10 users
packet switching:
with 35 users, probability >
10 active at same time is
less than .0004 *
packet switching allows more users to use network!
N
users
1 Mbps link
Q: how did we get value 0.0004?
Q: what happens if > 35 users ?
1-31
* Check out the online interactive exercises for more examples
Introduction
Solution:
Q: how did we get value 0.0004?
Q: what happens if > 35 users ?
1-32
* Check out the online interactive exercises for more examples
P(X>10) = 1 - P(X<=10) = 1- { P(X=10) + P(X=9) + P(X=8) + P(X=7) +
P(X=6) + P(X=5) + P(X=4) + P(X=3) + P(X=2) + P(X=1) + P(X=0) }
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
25 25
10 10
26 26
9 9
34 34
1 1
!
1 1
! !
35
35!
10 0.1 0.9 0.1 0.9 0.001318
10 10!25!
35
35!
9 0.1 0.9 0.1 0.9 0.004562
9 9!26!
35
35!
1 0.1 0.9 0.1 0.9 0.097345
1 1!34!
3
0
N k N k
k k
N
N
P X k p p p p
k k N k
P X
P X
P X
P X
| |
= = =
|

\ .
| |
= = = =
|
\ .
| |
= = = =
|
\ .
| |
= = = =
|
\ .
= =
( ) ( )
35 35
0 0
5
35!
0.1 0.9 0.1 0.9 0.025032
0 0!35!
| |
= =
|
\ .
Introduction
great for bursty data
resource sharing
simpler, no call setup
excessive congestion possible: packet delay and loss
protocols needed for reliable data transfer,
congestion control
Q: How to provide circuit-like behavior?
bandwidth guarantees needed for audio/video apps
still an unsolved problem (chapter 7)
is packet switching a slam dunk winner?
Q: human analogies of reserved resources (circuit
switching) versus on-demand allocation (packet-
switching)?
Packet switching versus circuit
switching
1-33
Introduction
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
packet switching, circuit switching, network
structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models
1.6 networks under attack: security
1.7 history

1-34
Introduction
How do loss and delay occur?
packets queue in router buffers
packet arrival rate to link (temporarily) exceeds output link
capacity
packets queue, wait for turn
A
B
packet being transmitted (delay)
packets queueing (delay)
free (available) buffers: arriving packets
dropped (loss) if no free buffers
1-35
Introduction
Four sources of packet delay
d
proc
: nodal processing
check bit errors
determine output link
typically < msec
A
B
propagation
transmission
nodal
processing
queueing
d
queue
: queueing delay
time waiting at output
link for transmission
depends on congestion
level of router
d
nodal
= d
proc
+ d
queue
+ d
trans
+ d
prop

1-36
Introduction
d
trans
: transmission delay:
L: packet length (bits)
R: link bandwidth (bps)
d
trans
= L/R
d
prop
: propagation delay:
x : length of physical link
c : propagation speed in
medium (~2x10
8
m/sec)
d
prop
= x / c
d
trans
and d
prop
very different
Four sources of packet delay
propagation
nodal
processing
queueing
d
nodal
= d
proc
+ d
queue
+ d
trans
+ d
prop

1-37
A
B
transmission
* Check out the Java applet for an interactive animation on trans vs. prop delay
Introduction
Caravan analogy
cars propagate at
100 km/hr
toll booth takes 12 sec to
service car (bit
transmission time)
car~bit; caravan ~ packet
Q: How long until caravan
is lined up before 2nd toll
booth?

time to push entire
caravan through toll
booth onto highway =
12*10 = 120 sec
time for last car to
propagate from 1st to
2nd toll both:
100km/(100km/hr)= 1
hr
A: 62 minutes
toll
booth
toll
booth
ten-car
caravan
100 km 100 km
1-38
Introduction
Caravan analogy (more)
suppose cars now propagate at 1000 km/hr
and suppose toll booth now takes one min to service a
car
Q: Will cars arrive to 2nd booth before all cars serviced at
first booth?

A: Yes! after 7 min, 1st car arrives at second booth;
three cars still at 1st booth.
toll
booth
toll
booth
ten-car
caravan
100 km 100 km
1-39
Introduction
R: link bandwidth (bps)
L: packet length (bits)
a: average packet
arrival rate
traffic intensity
= La/R La/R ~ 0: avg. queueing delay small
La/R -> 1: avg. queueing delay large
La/R > 1: more work arriving
than can be serviced, average delay
infinite!

a
v
e
r
a
g
e


q
u
e
u
e
i
n
g

d
e
l
a
y

La/R ~ 0
Queueing delay (revisited)
La/R -> 1
1-40
* Check out the Java applet for an interactive animation on queuing and loss
Introduction
Packet loss
queue (aka buffer) preceding link in buffer has
finite capacity
packet arriving to full queue dropped (aka lost)
lost packet may be retransmitted by previous
node, by source end system, or not at all
A
B
packet being transmitted
packet arriving to
full buffer is lost
buffer
(waiting area)
1-42
* Check out the Java applet for an interactive animation on queuing and loss
Introduction
Throughput
throughput: rate (bits/time unit) at which bits
transferred between sender/receiver
instantaneous: rate at given point in time
average: rate over longer period of time
server, with
file of F bits
to send to client
link capacity
R
s

bits/sec
link capacity
R
c

bits/sec
server sends bits
(fluid) into pipe

pipe that can carry
fluid at rate
R
s

bits/sec)
pipe that can carry
fluid at rate
R
c

bits/sec)
1-43
Introduction
Throughput (more)
R
s
< R
c
What is average end-end throughput?
R
s

bits/sec R
c

bits/sec
R
s
> R
c
What is average end-end throughput?
link on end-end path that constrains end-end
throughput
bottleneck
link
R
s

bits/sec
R
c

bits/sec
1-44
Introduction
Throughput: Internet scenario
10 connections (fairly)
share backbone
bottleneck link R

bits/sec
R
s

R
s

R
s

R
c

R
c

R
c

R
per-connection
end-end
throughput: min(R
c
,
R
s
, R/10)
in practice: R
c
or
R
s
is often
bottleneck
1-45
Introduction
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
packet switching, circuit switching, network
structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models
1.6 networks under attack: security
1.7 history

1-46
Introduction
Protocol layers
Networks are
complex,
with many pieces:
hosts
routers
links of various
media
applications
protocols
hardware,
software
Question:
is there any hope of
organizing structure of
network?

. or at least our
discussion of
networks?
1-47
Introduction
Organization of air travel
a series of steps
ticket (purchase)

baggage (check)

gates (load)

runway takeoff

airplane routing
ticket (complain)

baggage (claim)

gates (unload)

runway landing

airplane routing
airplane routing
1-48
Introduction
ticket (purchase)

baggage (check)

gates (load)

runway (takeoff)

airplane routing
departure
airport
arrival
airport
intermediate air-traffic
control centers
airplane routing airplane routing
ticket (complain)

baggage (claim

gates (unload)

runway (land)

airplane routing
ticket
baggage
gate
takeoff/landing
airplane routing
Layering of airline functionality
layers: each layer implements a service
via its own internal-layer actions
relying on services provided by layer
below

1-49
Introduction
Why layering?
dealing with complex systems:
explicit structure allows identification,
relationship of complex systems pieces
layered reference model for discussion
modularization eases maintenance, updating
of system
change of implementation of layers service
transparent to rest of system
e.g., change in gate procedure doesnt affect rest
of system
layering considered harmful?
1-50
Introduction
Internet protocol stack
application: supporting network
applications
FTP, SMTP, HTTP
transport: process-process data
transfer
TCP, UDP
application

transport

network

link

physical
1-51
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is an Internet standard for electronic
mail (e-mail) transmission across Internet Protocol (IP) networks

The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is an application protocol for
distributed, collaborative, hypermedia information systems

File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a standard network protocol used to transfer
files from one host to another host over a TCP-based network

The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is one of the core protocols of the
Internet Protocol Suite

The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is one of the core members of the
Internet protocol suite, the set of network protocols used for the Internet
Introduction
Internet protocol stack
network: routing of datagrams from
source to destination
IP, routing protocols
link: data transfer between
neighboring network elements
Ethernet, 802.111 (WiFi), PPP
physical: bits on the wire
application

transport

network

link

physical
1-52
The Internet Protocol (IP) is the principal communications protocol used for
relaying datagrams (also known as network packets) across an internetwork using
the Internet Protocol Suite

In networking, the Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) is a data link protocol
commonly used in establishing a direct connection between two networking nodes
Introduction
ISO/OSI reference model
presentation: allow applications to
interpret meaning of data, e.g.,
encryption, compression,
machine-specific conventions
session: synchronization,
checkpointing, recovery of data
exchange
Internet stack missing these
layers!
these services, if needed, must be
implemented in application
needed?
application

presentation

session

transport

network

link

physical
1-53
The Open System Interconnection (OSI) is a prescription of characterizing and standardizing
the functions of a communications system in terms of abstraction layers (at the International
Organization for Standardization)
Introduction
source
application
transport
network
link
physical
H
t
H
n
M
segment H
t
datagram
destination
application
transport
network
link
physical
H
t
H
n
H
l
M
H
t
H
n
M
H
t
M
M
network
link
physical
link
physical
H
t
H
n
H
l
M
H
t
H
n
M
H
t
H
n
M
H
t
H
n
H
l
M
router
switch
Encapsulation
message M
H
t
M
H
n
frame
1-54
Introduction
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
packet switching, circuit switching, network
structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models
1.6 networks under attack: security
1.7 history

1-55
Introduction
Internet history
1961: Kleinrock -
queueing theory
shows effectiveness of
packet-switching
1964: Baran - packet-
switching in military
nets
1967: ARPAnet
conceived by
Advanced Research
Projects Agency
1969: first ARPAnet
node operational

1972:
ARPAnet public demo
NCP (Network Control
Protocol) first host-host
protocol
first e-mail program
ARPAnet has 15 nodes
1961-1972: Early packet-switching principles
1-56
Introduction
1970: ALOHAnet satellite
network in Hawaii
1974: Cerf and Kahn -
architecture for
interconnecting networks
1976: Ethernet at Xerox
PARC
late70s: proprietary
architectures: DECnet, SNA,
XNA
late 70s: switching fixed
length packets (ATM
precursor)
1979: ARPAnet has 200
nodes
Cerf and Kahns
internetworking
principles:
minimalism, autonomy -
no internal changes
required to interconnect
networks
best effort service model
stateless routers
decentralized control
define todays Internet
architecture
1972-1980: Internetworking, new and proprietary nets
Internet history
1-57
Introduction
1983: deployment of
TCP/IP
1982: smtp e-mail
protocol defined
1983: DNS defined for
name-to-IP-address
translation
1985: ftp protocol
defined
1988: TCP congestion
control
new national networks:
Csnet, BITnet, NSFnet,
Minitel
100,000 hosts
connected to
confederation of
networks

1980-1990: new protocols, a proliferation of networks
Internet history
1-58
Introduction
early 1990s: ARPAnet
decommissioned
1991: NSF lifts restrictions on
commercial use of NSFnet
(decommissioned, 1995)
early 1990s: Web
hypertext [Bush 1945,
Nelson 1960s]
HTML, HTTP: Berners-Lee
1994: Mosaic, later
Netscape
late 1990s:
commercialization of the
Web


late 1990s 2000s:
more killer apps: instant
messaging, P2P file
sharing
network security to
forefront
est. 50 million host, 100
million+ users
backbone links running
at Gbps

1990, 2000s: commercialization, the Web, new
apps
Internet history
1-59
Introduction
2005-present
~750 million hosts
Smartphones and tablets
Aggressive deployment of broadband access
Increasing ubiquity of high-speed wireless access
Emergence of online social networks:
Facebook: soon one billion users
Service providers (Google, Microsoft) create their
own networks
Bypass Internet, providing instantaneous
access to search, emai, etc.
E-commerce, universities, enterprises running their
services in cloud (eg, Amazon EC2)
Internet history
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Introduction
Summary:
covered a ton of
material!
Internet overview
whats a protocol?
network edge, core, access
network
packet-switching versus
circuit-switching
Internet structure
performance: loss, delay,
throughput
layering, service models
security
history
you now have:
context, overview,
feel of networking
more depth, detail to
follow!
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