Physical Properties and Classification of Soil (UiTM)

ECG203
BASIC SOIL MECHANICS

CHAPTER 1: Physical Properties and
Classification of Soil
Learning outcome (WEEK ONE)

At the end of this lecture, students should be
able to understand:
1.1 Soil origin, soil minerals, engineering soil
terminology, soil composition, types and
methods of identification
1.2 Basic soil properties and soil phase
diagram, mass volume relationship, specific
gravity
2
INTRODUCTION
To design a foundation that will support a structure, an engineer
must understand the types of soils deposits that will support the
foundation
Engineers must remember that soil at any site frequently is nonhomogenous; that is the soil profile may vary
Soil mechanics theories involve idealized conditions, so the
application of the theories to foundation engineering problems
involves a judicious evaluation of site conditions and soil
parameters
To do this requires some knowledge of the geological process
by which the soil deposit at the site was formed by subsurface
exploration
Good professional judgment constitutes an essential part of
geotechnical engineering and it comes only with practice
3
1.1.1: Soil Origin

Geologist described soil as those layers of
loose unconsolidated material extending

from the surface to solid rock.
Soil have been formed by weathering and
disintegration of the rocks.
In engineering context, soil means material
that can be worked without drilling or
blasting.
4
Soils originate from solid rocks such as igneous,
metamorphic and sedimentary.

The process of soil formation are controlling by these
factors:
Nature and composition of the parent rock.

Climatic conditions (eg: temperature and humidity)
Topographic and general terrain conditions (eg:
exposure, density, type of vegetation)
Length of time related to particular prevailing
conditions.
Interference by other agencies (eg: earthquake).
Mode and conditions of transport.
Magma cools and crystallizes to form igneous rock.

Igneous rock undergoes weathering (or breakdown) to form
sediment. The sediment is transported and deposited

somewhere (such as at the beach or in a delta, or in the deep
sea).
The deposited sediment undergoes lithification (the processes
that turn it into a rock). These include cementation and
compaction.
As the sedimentary rock is buried under more and more
sediment, the heat and pressure of burial cause
metamorphism to occur. This transforms the sedimentary rock
into a metamorphic rock.
As the metamorphic rock is buried more deeply (or as it is
squeezed by plate tectonic pressures), temperatures and
pressures continue to rise. If the temperature becomes hot
enough, the metamorphic rock undergoes melting. The molten
rock is called magma. This completes the cycle.
7
Igneous rock
- formed by solidification of molten magma

ejected from deep within the earth mantle
- extrusive where magma is extruded onto
the earths surface to create volcano
- intrusive when magma solidifies below the
surface of the earth. May later be
exposed at the surface when the
cover rocks are eroded away
- e.g. granite, basalt
9
Sedimentary rock
- the deposits of gravel, sand, silt and clay formed by

weathering may become compacted by overburden pressure
and cemented agents like iron oxide, calcite, dolomite and
quartz
- can also be formed by chemical processes
- e.g. sandstone, clay
Metamorphic rock
- process of changing the composition and texture of rocks,

without melting by heat and pressure
- type depends on the original rock material that was
metamorphosed and the temperature and pressure conditions
which were imposed
- e.g. schist, hornfels
10
Natural soil deposits

Effects of weathering
- process of breaking down rocks by mechanical and chemical
processes into smaller pieces
- most of the soil that cover the earth formed by weathering of
various rocks.
- there are 2 general types of weathering
(1) mechanical weathering by physical forces including running
water, wind, ocean waves, glacier ice, frost and expansion and
contraction by the gain and loss of heat
(2) chemical weathering chemical decomposition of the original
rock. The original material may be changed to something
entirely different. e.g. the chemical weathering of feldspar can
produce clay minerals
- In hot climates, weathering may remove some minerals,
leaving others of a more resistant nature in a 11concentrated
deposit (eg laterite, bauxite)
Effects of transport
- soil produced by weathering of rocks can be

transported by physical processes to other places
- the resulting soil deposits are called transported
soils. In contrast, some soils stay where they were
formed and cover the rock surface from which they
derive; and this are called residual soils
- a fine wind blown dust may be carried considerable
distances before being deposited.
- the action of flowing water may dissolve some
minerals, carry some articles in suspension and
bounce or roll others along.
12
Transported soils may be classified into several
groups depending on their mode of transportation

and deposition:
Glacial soils-formed by transportation and deposition
of glaciers
Alluvial soils-transported by running water and
deposited along streams
Lacustrine soils-form by deposition in quiet lakes
Marine soils-formed by deposition in the seas
Aeolian soils-transported and deposited by wind
Colluvial soils-formed by movement of soil form its
original place by gravity, such as during landslides
13
1.1.2: Mineral composition of soil
Soil commonly consists of mixtures of inorganic

mineral particles, water and air. Therefore it is
convenient to think of soil model which has three
phases: solid, liquid and gas
gas
Air
Water vappour
liquid
Water
Dissolved salts
solid
Rock fragments
Mineral grains
Organic matter
Three phase soil model
14
Rock fragments
identifiable
pieces of the parent rock

containing several minerals.
Rock fragments usually > 2mm (sand to
gravel)
Soundness of the soil will depend on the
extend of differential mineral decomposition
within individual fragments.
For example, the presence of kaolinised
granite fragments could influence the shear
strength of soil.
15
Mineral grains
Separate particles of each particular mineral and
range in size from gravel to clay (> 2mm to 1m)

Mostly soil will consist almost entirely of one minerals
but some soils will contain mixtures of different
minerals.
Soil could be divided into 2 major groups; coarse and
fine.
Coarse soil classified as particles size > 0.06mm
such as sands and gravels.
Fine soil are finer than 0.06 mm such as clay and silt.
16
Organic matter
Origin from plant or animal remains (called as
humus).
Also featured as top soil, occur in the upper layer not
more than 0.5 m thickness.
Peat deposits are predominantly fibrous organic
material.
In engineering, organic matter has undesirable
properties (e.g: highly compressible, absorb large
quantities of water and low shear strength and thus
low bearing capacity)
17
Water
Fundamental part of natural soil and in fact has a
greater effect on engineering properties than any

constituent
Water has no shear strength, it is incompressible,
therefore transmit direct pressure. So that, the
drainage conditions in soil mass are of greatly
significance when considering its shear strength
Water can dissolve in solution a wide range of salts
and other compounds, some of it has undesirable
effects. E.g. the presence of sulphate ions has a
serious deleterious effect on one of the compounds in
Portland cement and can therefore be harmful to
concrete structures
18
Air
Soils may be considered in a practical sense
to be perfectly dry or fully saturated

To be exact, the 2 extremes do not occur
In a so-called dry soil there will be water
vapor present, while fully-saturated soil may
contain as much as 2% air voids
Air is compressible and water vapor can
freeze
19
Clay minerals
Mainly produced from feldspar
and micas.
It form part of a group of complex
alumino-silicates of potassium,
magnesium and iron (layer-lattice).
Tetrahedral unit
Very small in size, very flaky in shape and have considerable
surface area
Two basic structural units; tetrahedral and octahedral unit.
4 main group of clay;
- kaolinite: derived from weathering of feldspar.
- illite: degradation of micas under marine condition.
- montmorillonite: from further degradation of illite.
- vermiculite: weathering products of biotite and
chlorite.
Octahedral unit
20
1.1.3: Engineering Soil Terminology

a) Rock Hard rigid deposit forming part of the earths
crust (eg: igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary
rock).
b) Soil any loose or diggable material that is worked
in, worked on and worked with.
c) Organic Soil a mixture of mineral grains and
organic material of mainly vegetable origin in
varying stages of decomposition.
d) Peat made up entirely of organic matter, very
spongy, highly compressible, and combustible.
21
Residual soil the weathered remains of rocks that

have undergone no transportation. Normally sandy
or gravelly with high concentrations of oxides.
f) Alluvium sands and gravels which have been
deposited from rivers or streams.
g) Cohesive soil fine soil containing sufficient clay or
silt particles to impart significant plasticity and
cohesion.
h) Cohesionless soil coarse soils (sand and gravel)
which do not exhibit plasticity or cohesion.
i) Boulder clay - also called till. Soil of glacial origin
consisting of a very wide range of particle sizes
from finely ground rock flour to boulders.
j) Drift geological term to describe superficial
unconsolidated deposits of recent origin such as
alluvium.
e)
22
1.1.4: Soil Composition

Soil formation
Formed from physical and chemical weathering of
rocks
Physical weathering exfoliation, unloading, erosion,
freezing and thawing
Chemical weathering hydration, carbonation and
oxidation
- The composition of these soils depends on the
environment under which they were transported and
is often different from the parent rock.
23
Soil types
Common descriptive terms gravels, sands,
silts and clays

Gravels and sands
grouped together as
coarsed grained soils
- Silts and clays are fine-grained soils
24
Clay minerals
Minerals are crystalline materials and make
up the solids constituents of a soil

- Minerals are classified according to chemical
composition and stucture
25
Surface forces and adsorbed water

Because of the large surface areas of fine-
grained soils, surface forces significantly

influence their behavior compared to coarsegrained soils
- The clay-water interaction coupled with the
large surface areas results in clays having
larger water-holding capacity in a large
number of smaller pore spaces compared
with coarse-grained soils
26
Soil fabrics
Soil particles are assumed to be rigid
During deposition, the mineral particles are arranged
into structural frameworks that we call soil fabric

Each particle is in random contact with neighboring
particles
The environment under which deposition occurs
influences the structural framework that is formed
- 2 common types of soil fabric flocculated and
dispersed
27
1.2.1: Soil Phase Diagram

(WEEK TWO)
Soil commonly consists of mixtures of inorganic mineral
particles (solid), water and air.

Unit solid volume model is the most convenient.
air
water
solid
Va
Vw
Va = volume of air
1
VwVs
= =volume
of water
Vs = volume of solid = 1
(1m3 of solid material)
28
The model is constructed of 1m 3 of solid material and
Voids
(air +
Water)
No water
No air
Air
only
Water
only
solid
solid
b) Completely dry soil
c) Saturated29 soil
1+e
will remain constant.

Volume of solid is fixed while volume of air and water
can change.
Volume of water and air = void space.
Perfect dry soil no water is present and void space
completely fill with air.
Saturated soil no air is present and void space
completely fill with water.
solid
a) Void ratio
1.2.2: Mass-Volume relationship

Total volume,
V = Vs + Vv = Vs + Vw + Va
Assuming the weight of air is negligible, total
mass,
M = M s + Mw
30
Masses
Mass of water, Mw = wGsw

Mass of soil, Ms = Gsw
Va = e (1-Sr)
water
Vw = Sre = wGs
solid
Vs = 1
V=1+e
(Specific volume)
air
Volumes
Three separate phases of a soil element with volume of soil solids equal to one
w = density of water = 1000kg/m3 = 1.0Mg/m3

31
a)
Void ratio (e)

The volume not occupied by solids known as voids volume.
May occupied by water or air or both.
e = volume of voids = Vv = e
volume of solid
Vs 1
b)
c)
(1)
Porosity (n)
To expressing the quantity of voids.
n = volume of voids = Vv
total volume
V
n=
e
(2)
1+e
Specific volume (V)
The total volume of the soil model.
V=1+e
(3)
32
d)
Degree of saturation (Sr) measure how saturated the soil is.

Sr = volume of water = Vw
volume
of void e
Vw = Sre
(4)
% of saturation = 100Sr
w= moisture content
*For perfectly dry soil, Sr = 0
Gs = specific gravity
*For saturated soil, Sr = 1
e)
Air void ratio (Av) ratio of air voids volume to specific volume.
Av = volume of air = Va = e (1-Sr)
total volume 1 + e
1+e
but Sr = wGs/e
Av = e (1-Sr) = e
1- (wGs/e) =
e - wGs
1+e
1+e
1+e 1+e
therefore, Av = e wGs
(5)
1+e
33
f)
Specific gravity (Gs)

Ratio of the mass of a given volume of a material to the mass
of the same volume of water.
Gs = mass of a given volume of a material
mass of the same volume of water
= Ms
(6)
Vsw
Gs = 2.55 to 2.75 with average value = 2.65
g)
Moisture content ()
Ratio of the mass of water to the mass of solid.
w = mass of water = Mw = Vww
mass of solid
Ms
G s w
but Vw = Sre = wGs
Therefore, w = Sre
Gs
(7)
34
h)
Dry density (d) (kg/m3, Mg/m3)

d = mass of solid = ms
total volume
V
therefore, d = Gsw
1+e
i)
(8)
Bulk density (b) (kg/m3, Mg/m3)

b = total mass
total volume
= mass of solid + mass of water
total volume
= Gsw + Vww = Gsw + Srew
1+e
1+e
therefore, b = Gs + Sre w
(9)
35
1+e
j)
Relation between dry density (d) and bulk

density (b)
Gs + Sre w
b =
1+e
= Gs + Sre
d Gs
w
1 +e
Gs
b = Gs + Sre
d Gs
Gs
b
d
1 + wGs
Gs
1 + S re
1+e
1+e
but Sre = wGs
b = (1 + w) d
(10)
36
k) Saturated density (sat) (kg/m3, Mg/m3)

when soil become saturated, Sr = 1 and b becomes
saturated (sat)
From equation (9), the saturated density becomes
sat = Gs + e
(11)
1+e
37
l) Submerged density or effective density (

or sub) (kg/m3)
= sub = sat w
(12)
Note:
b is bulk density above water table
sat is saturated density or bulk density above
water table.
= sub is submerged or effective density
for calculation, use = sub when it
is below water
table. Ground level
Water table
sat
= sub = sat 38
w
m) Unit weight () (kN/m3, N/cm3)

Unit weight is a weight of soil per unit volume
=W
V
= force/unit volume
= .g
(13)
where g = 9.81 m/s
* Formula is same for all condition
39
Determination of Specific Gravity

Fine soil density bottle
Coarse soil gas jar or glass jar fitted with a
conical screw top (pycnometer)

Testing procedure - An appropriate quantity
of dried soil is placed in the jar and weight.
The jar is filled with de-aired water and
agitated to remove any air bubbles. After
carefully topping-up with water, the jar is
weighed again. Finally, the jar is emptied
and cleaned, and the filled with de-aired
water and weighed again.
40
Determination of Specific Gravity

M1 = mass of empty jar
M2 = mass of jar + dry soil
M3 = mass of jar + soil + water
M4 = mass of jar + water only
Then the specific gravity of the soil particles
is obtained as follows:
41
EXAMPLE 1
42
EXAMPLE 2
43
EXAMPLE 3
44
EXAMPLE 4
45
Learning outcome
(WEEK THREE)
At the end of this lecture, students should be
able to:
1.3 Describe and classify the soil based on:
mineral composition, particles sizes and
grading, density, moisture content, void ratio.
Soil consistency Atterberg Limits
and soil
quality test
1.4 Classify the soil using BS and compare
with USA Standard (ASTM)
46
Introduction
Soil is generally classified into 3 phases
Solid, Liquid & Gas
Soil, Water & Air
Solid particles & Voids
Solid particles = Soil particles
Voids = Water + Air
47
Field Identification
Particle size : by implementing visual
examination and feel.
Grading : either the soil is well graded/
poorly graded/uniform graded.
Compactness : sometimes regarded as field
strength and can be reported as loose/
dense/slightly cemented.
Structure : either the soil is classified as
homogenous/inter-stratified/intact/fissured.
48
Cohesion, Plasticity & Consistency : this
method can be used for identifying soil
particles by hand squeezing. Soil can be
classified as either; very soft / soft / firm /
very firm / hard / crumbly.
Dilatancy : dilatancy will exhibits a glossy
water film marking on the surface of the
pat.
49
Dry strength : can be identified by breaking
the soil.
Weathering : can be classified into
unweathered / slightly weathered /
moderately weathered / highly weathered /
fully weathered.
50
Types of Classification
Description is simply what you see and how the soils responds to simple
tests
Classification is a scheme for separating soils into broad groups, each with
broadly similar behavior
There are various classification schemes for different purposes. For civil
engineering purposes soil classifications should be based mainly on
mechanical behavior
There are several schemes published in National Standards. A simple and
universal scheme for soil description is as follows:
1. The nature of soil grains size, grading, shape, surface texture and their
mineralogy
2. The current state of soil current stresses, water content and history of
loading and unloading
3. The structure of fabric layering or bedding, fissuring or jointing and
cementing
4. The formation of the soils may be deposited naturally by water, ice or
wind, may be residual products of rock weathering or may be compacted by
51
machines into embankments and fills
BS 1377 (British Standards Institutions)
ASTM (American Standard of Testing
Materials)
AASHTO (American Association State
Highway & Transportation Official)
MS (Malaysian Standards)
52
53
54
ASTM or Unified Soil Classification System
55
Soil Classification
Particle Size Test
Typical Grading Curve
Grading Characteristics
56
Soil Classification
Particle Size Test
The aim is to measure the distribution of
particle size in the sample.
When a wide range of sizes is present, the
sample will be sub-divided, and separate tests
carried out on each sub-sample.
Wet sieving is used to separate fine grains from
coarse grains and is carried out by washing soil
specimen on a 60 mm sieve mesh.
57
Soil Classification
Particle Size Test
Dry sieving analyses can only be carried out on
particles > 60 mm; samples (with fines
removed) are dried and shaken through a nest
of sieves of descending mesh size.
Sedimentation is used only for fine soils
(hydrometer test).
58
Soil Classification
Hydrometer analysis
For particle sizes smaller than 0.075mm in diameter
Based on principle of sedimentation of soil grains in water
When soil specimen is dispersed in water, the particles settle at
different velocities
depending on their shape, size and weight and the viscosity of the
water
This analysis is effective for separating soil fractions down to a size of
about 0.5m
59
Classification of Coarse Soil

Particle Size Test
The cumulative percentage quantities finer than
certain sizes (e.g. passing a given size sieve
mesh) are determined by weighing.
Points are then plotted of % finer (passing)
against log size.
A smooth S-shaped curve drawn through these
points is called a grading curve.
60

Particle Size Test
The position and shape of the grading curve
determines the soil class; also, geometrical
grading characteristics can be determined from
the grading curve.
61

62

A - a poorly-graded medium SAND (probably
estuarine or flood-plain alluvium)
B - a well-graded GRAVEL-SAND (i.e.. equal
amounts of gravel and sand)
C - a gap-graded COBBLES-SAND
D - a sandy SILT (perhaps a deltaic or
estuarine silt)
E - a typical silty CLAY
63

A grading curve is a useful aid to soil
description.
Grading curves are often included in ground
investigation reports.
Results of grading tests can be tabulated using
geometric properties of the grading curve.
These properties are called grading
characteristics.
64

First of all, three points are located on the
grading curve :
D10 = the maximum size of the smallest 10% of
D30
the sample
= the maximum size of the smallest 30% of
D60
the sample
= the maximum size of the smallest 60% of
the sample
65

66

From these, the grading characteristics are
then calculated :
Effective size = D10
Uniformity coefficient, Cu = D60 / D10
Coefficient of gradation, Cg = (D30) / (D60 x D10)
67

Both Cu and Cg will be 1 for a single sized soil
Cu > 5 indicates a well-graded soil
Cu < 3 indicates a uniform soil
Cg = 0.5 - 2.0 indicates a well-graded soil
Cg < 0.1 indicates a possible gap-graded soil
68
69
Sieving Testing Procedure
Electric Sieve Shaker
70
Hand Operated Sieve Shaker
71
Small
Aperture
Big
Aperture
72
Perforated Plate Sieve

(Square Hole)
Woven Wire Mesh Sieve

73
Perforated Plate Sieve

(Square Hole)
Woven Wire Mesh Sieve

74

Perforated Plate Sieve (Square Hole)
20 mm
20 mm
75

Woven Mesh Sieve
76
Sieving Test Procedure
Sieve Size 37.5mm

Larger Aperture Size
Weigh all the empty test

sieves selected for the
testing including the pan.
Smaller Aperture Size
Sieve Size 3.35mm
Pan
77

Weigh the mass of the
soil which is going to be
Used for the testing
Mass of soil = 2458 g

78

Size 37.5 mm
Size 28 mm
Size 20 mm
Size 14 mm
Size 10 mm
Size 6.3 mm
Size 5 mm
Size 3.35 mm
Pan
Sieve
Arrangement
Preparing of the Test

Sieve
1st Stage of sieving.
stack the test sieve in a
proper sequence.
In this example, the lid or
cover will be placed on the
top of the sequence.
It then followed by the test
sieve of size 37.5 mm until
the test sieve of size 3.35
mm with the pan at the
bottom most order
of the
79
stack.
Size 37.5 mm
Size 28 mm
Size 20 mm
Size 14 mm
Set Up the Sieve Shaker

Transfer the stacked test
sieve to the sieve shaker.
Do not attached the
stabilizing bar yet.
Size 10 mm
Size 6.3 mm
Size 5 mm
Size 3.35 mm
Pan
Sieve Shaker
Endecott EFL 2000
80
Size 37.5 mm
Size 28 mm
Size 20 mm
Size 14 mm
Size 10 mm
Size 6.3 mm
Size 5 mm
Transferring the Soil

Remove the lid.
Pour the soil to the top
most of the stacked test
sieve.
Be extra careful when
pouring the soil into the
test sieves.
Size 3.35 mm
Pan
Sieve Shaker
Endecott EFL 2000
81
Size 37.5 mm
Size 28 mm
Size 20 mm
Size 14 mm
Size 10 mm
Size 6.3 mm
Size 5 mm
Size 3.35 mm
Pan
Sieve Shaker
Endecott EFL 2000
Get Ready to Shake

Fasten the lid.
Fasten and tighten the
stabilizing bar on top of
the stacked sieve.
Set the dial knob to 10
minutes.
Press On.
The shaking starts.
82
Size 37.5 mm
Size 28 mm
Size 20 mm
Size 14 mm
Size 10 mm
Size 6.3 mm
Size 5 mm
Size 3.35 mm
Pan
Sieve Shaker
Endecott EFL 2000
Weighing the Retained

Soil on the Test Sieves
Remove the stabilizing
bar on top of the stacked
sieve.
Remove the lid.
Remove the stacked
sieves from the sieve
shaker.
Prepare the test sieves
for individual weighing
with the retained soil.
83

No Soil
Retained
Size 37.5 mm

Size 28 mm
Size 20 mm
Size 14 mm
Size 10 mm
Size 6.3 mm
Size 5 mm
Size 3.35 mm
Pan
The mass of soil retained can be obtained

by deducting the mass of the
test sieve
84
obtained during the initial stage of testing.

Size 2 mm
Size 1.18 mm
Size 600 m
Size 425 m
Size 300 m
Size 212 m
Size 150 m
Size 63 m
Pan
Sieve
Arrangement

Sieve
2nd Stage of sieving.
Similar to the 1st Stage,
proper sequence.
The lid or cover will be
placed on the top of the
sequence.
The sequence is the test
sieve size of size 2 mm on
top and the test sieve of
size 63 m with
85 the pan
will be at the bottom.

Example :
Total mass of soil used = 2458 g
Stage 1
Sieve size (mm) 37.5
Mass of soil
0
28
55
20
14
100 154
10
6.3
205 305
5.0
199
3.35
275
Retained (g)
Pan Contents = 1165 g
Riffled sample to = 196 g
Stage 2
Sieve size
2
1.18
(mm or m)
Mass of soil 54.3 38
Retained (g)
600
425
300
212
150
63
30
14.2
15.5
13.1
11.2
16.5
Pan Contents = 3.1 g
86

S.O.L.A.T
Interface
87
S.O.L.A.T
Print Out
Layout
88

Pan
Soil Mass of
1165 g
Sieve size 2.0 mm

Maximum Soil Mass of
200 g
Sieve size 1.18 mm

Maximum Soil Mass of
100 g
Riffling the Soil Sample

The mass of the soil
sample collected in the
pan @ passing the 3.35
mm test sieve is 1165 g.
These mass exceeds the
mass that are allocated
for the next stage of test
sieve which is sieve size
2.0 mm (Refer Table).
Riffling has to be
conducted.
89
90

Soil Mass of
1165 g
Soil Mass of
500 +/- g
This portion will
be discard
Soil Mass of
500 +/- g
This portion will
be riffled again

The riffle box has two
compartments.
When the soil mass is
poured into the riffle box,
it divides the mass into
half @ 2 portions.
In this case, the 1st riffling
process will generate 2
portions of soil with each
has a mass of 500 +/g.
91

Soil Mass of
500 +/- g
Soil Mass of
200 +/- g
This portion will
be discarded
Soil Mass of
196 g
This portion will
Be used for the 2nd stage of
sieving

The other half will be reriffled.
Whilst the other half will
be discarded.
In the 2nd riffling process
the amount collected in
each of the portion will be
200 +/- g.
So, the other half will
again be discarded, whilst
the 196 g will be used for
92
the 2nd stage of sieving.
S.O.L.A.T
Print Out
Layout
93

Size 2 mm
Size 1.18 mm
Size 600 m
Size 425 m
Size 300 m
Size 212 m
Size 150 m
Size 63 m
Pan
Sieve
Arrangement

Sieve
2nd Stage of sieving.
Similar to the 1st Stage,
proper sequence.
The lid or cover will be
placed on the top of the
sequence.
The sequence is the test
sieve size of size 2 mm on
top and the test sieve of
size 63 m with
94 the pan
will be at the bottom.
Size 2 mm
Size 1.18 mm
Size 600 m
Size 425 m
Set Up the Sieve Shaker

Transfer the stacked test
sieve to the sieve shaker.
Do not attached the
stabilizing bar yet.
Size 300 m
Size 212 m
Size 150 m
Size 63 m
Pan
Sieve Shaker
Endecott EFL 2000
95
Size 2 mm
Size 1.18 mm
Size 600 m
Size 425 m
Size 300 m
Size 212 m
Size 150 m
Transferring the Soil

Remove the lid.
Pour the soil (196 g) to
the top most opening of
the stacked test sieve.
Be extra careful when
pouring the soil into the
sieves.
Size 63 m
Pan
Sieve Shaker
Endecott EFL 2000
96
Size 2 mm
Size 1.18 mm
Size 600 m
Size 425 m
Size 300 m
Size 212 m
Size 150 m
Size 63 m
Pan
Sieve Shaker
Endecott EFL 2000
Get Ready to Shake

Fasten the lid.
Fasten and tighten the
stabilizing bar on top of
the stacked sieve.
Set the dial knob to 10
minutes.
Press On.
The shaking starts.
97
Size 2 mm
Size 1.18 mm
Size 600 m
Size 425 m
Size 300 m
Size 212 m
Size 150 m
Size 63 m
Pan
Sieve Shaker
Endecott EFL 2000

Remove the stabilizing
bar on top of the stacked
sieve.
Remove the lid.
Remove the stacked
sieves from the sieve
shaker.
Prepare the test sieves
for individual weighing
with the retained soil.
98

Size 2 mm

Size 1.18 mm
Size 600 m
Size 425 m
Size 300 m
Size 212 m
Size 150 m
Size 63 m
Pan
The mass of soil retained can be obtained

by deducting the mass of 99the test sieve
obtained on earlier stage of testing.

S.O.L.A.T
Interface
100
S.O.L.A.T
Print Out
Layout
101
S.O.L.A.T
Print Out
Layout
102
S.O.L.A.T
Print Out
Layout
103
S.O.L.A.T
Print Out
Layout
104

Determine the Characteristics Size :
(from the PSD plot @ chart)
D10 = 0.27 mm
D30 = 1.60 mm
D60 = 5.30 mm
105
Sieving
D60
D30
D10
0.27
1.6
5.3
106

Determine the Grading Characteristics :
(i) Effective size = D10 = 0.27 mm
(ii) Coefficient of Uniformity
Cu = D60 = 5.30 = 19.6
D10
0.27
107

Determine the Grading Characteristics :
(iii) Coefficient of Gradation or
Coefficient of Curvature
Cg = (D30)2
=
(1.60)2
D60 x D10
= 1.78
(5.30 x 0.27)
108

Determine the Percentage of Particle
Size :
(from the PSD plot @ chart)
Gravel = 65 %
Sand= 35 %
Fines = 0 %
109
Sieving
Percentage of Particle Size
65 %
Gravel
35 %
Sand
0%
Fines
(Silt & Clay)
110

Classifying the Soil :
(from data @ grading and BS1377/BS5930)
Cu > 5 ; It indicates that it is a well graded
soil.
&
0.5 < Cg < 5 ; It indicates that it is a well
graded soil.
111
Sieving
112

Classifying the Soil :
(from data @ grading and BS1377/BS5930)
It is a Well graded Gravel (GW).
113
Lesson Outcomes
(WEEK FOUR)
At the end of the lecture, students should be
able to:#1understand and explain the concept of soil
consistency.
#2understand and explain the usage of soil
classification system.(fine soil classification)
114
Classification of Fine Soils

Consistency Limits & Plasticity
Consistency varies with the water content of
the soil.
The consistency of a soil can range from
(dry) solid to semi-solid to plastic to liquid
(wet).
The water contents at which the consistency
changes from one state to the next are
called consistency limits (or Atterberg limits)
115

Two of these are utilised in the classification
of fine soils :
1. Liquid limit (wL) - change of consistency
from plastic to liquid.
2. Plastic limit (wP) - change of consistency
from brittle/crumbly to plastic.
Measures of liquid and plastic limit values
can be obtained from laboratory tests.
116

Plasticity Index
Measures of liquid and plastic limit values
can be obtained from laboratory tests.
The consistency of most soils the ground
will be plastic or semi-solid.
Soil strength and stiffness behaviour are
related to the range of plastic consistency.
117

The range of water content over which a soil
has a plastic consistency is termed the
Plasticity Index (IP or PI).
IP = Liquid Limit - Plastic Limit
= wL wP
Plasticity Index = Liquid Limit Plastic Limit
Shrinkage
limit
Plastic
limit
Liquid
limit
118
water
content

Plasticity Index
IP
Volume
Natural Water Content, W
Semi
Plastic
Solid
Va
VS
Solid
WS
Liquid
Plastic
Wp
WL
119
% Water
Content
120

Plasticity Chart
Measures of liquid and plastic limit valuesIn
the British Standard Soil Classification fine
soils are divided into ten classes based on
their measured plasticity index and liquid
limit values.
CLAYS are distinguished from SILTS, and
five divisions of plasticity are defined as
given below :
121

Low plasticity
wL = < 35%
Intermediate plasticity wL = 35 - 50%

High plasticity
Very high plasticity
wL = 50 - 70%
wL = 70 - 90%
Extremely high plasticity wL = > 90%
122
123

Plasticity Chart USCS / ASTM
124

Activity
Skempton (1953) showed that for a soil with a
particular mineralogy, the plasticity index is linearly
related to the amount of the clay fraction. He coined a
term called activity.
The proportion of clay mineral flakes (< 2 m size) in a
fine soil affects its current state, particularly its
tendency to swell and shrink with changes in water
content.
The degree of plasticity related to the clay content is
called the activity of the soil.
Activity = Ip / (% clay particles)
125

Some typical values are:
Mineral
Activity
Soil
Activity
Muscovite 0.25
Kaolin clay
0.4-0.5
Kaolinite
0.40
0.5-0.75
Glacial clay and loess

126

The measure of soil strength using Atterberg
limits and the relationship between the soils

natural water content and its consistency
limits, i.e. its natural or in situ consistency is
given by the liquidity index (IL):
Where w =natural or in situ water content

127
Atterbergs Limits
Testing Procedure
Liquid Limit (LL) Testing
1. Cone Penetrometer Method
2. Casagrande Method
Plastic Limit (PL) Testing
Shrinkage Limit Testing
128
Atterbergs Limits
Testing Procedure (Cone Penetration)
Dial gauge with
360O read out.
Example :
(1O = 0.1 mm)
Height adjustment
for cone and dial
gauge assembly
Cone :
Mass 80 g
Length 35 mm
Angle 30O
Penetration lever.
This lever moves
the dial gauge needle.
Manual cone release and

locking device.
An automatic electric
release and locking device
is also available.
Soil in metal cup :

55 mm diameter
40 mm deep
iDeaz
129
Atterbergs Limits
Testing Procedure (Cone Penetration)
Electric LL Cone
Penetrometer
130
Atterbergs Limits
Testing Procedure
Cone Penetrometer
Method
Stages involve in
testing :
1. Sample preparation
2. Mixing with water
3. Maturing
4. Remixing
5. Placing in cup
6. Setting up the Cone

Penetrometer
7. Measuring the Cone
penetration
8. Moisture content
determination
9. Remixing & Repeat
test
10.Calculation
11.Results
131
Atterbergs Limits
Testing Procedure
Soil Sample
Size 425 m
Soil
Passing
Sieve
Size
425 m
1. Sample Preparation
The soil sample that are
used have to pass the
425 micron sieve.
Next a representative
sample is required
weighing around 200250 g.
Pan
Soil retained on pan

200 250 g
132
Atterbergs Limits
Testing Procedure
200 250 g
Pan
Glass Plate
2. Mixing with Water

Then the sample is
transferred to a flat glass
plate,
Distilled water is added
and the soil and water are
mixed thoroughly with two
palette knives until the
mass becomes a thick
homogenous paste.
133
Atterbergs Limits
Testing Procedure
Glass Plate
Air Tight
Container
3. Maturing
The paste is then transferred
to an air-tight container for
24 hours to allow the water
time to penetrate the soil
fully.
For a soil of a low clay
content, such as silty soil,
the curing period may be
omitted and the test can be
carried out immediately.
134
Atterbergs Limits
Testing Procedure
Air Tight
Container
Glass Plate
4. Remixing
Remove the soil from the
container after maturing.
Transfer the soil to the glass
plate.
Remix it with pallette knives
for 10 minutes.
It is essential to obtain a
uniform distribution of water
throughout the sample.
135
Atterbergs Limits
Testing Procedure
5. Placing in Cup
Push a portion of the sample
into the cup with a palette
knife taking care not to trap
air.
Strike off the excess and
with the pallette knife to get
a smooth and level surface.
Cone
Penetration
Cup
Cup fully
filled with
soil
136
Atterbergs Limits
Testing Procedure
1
6. Setting
Up the Cone
Penetrometer
Pull up the
penetration lever.
Dial gauge will be
set at Zero.
2
4
Adjust the height
till the top of the
cup comes at a
distance where it
do not come into
contact with the
tip of the cone.
iDeaz
Pull out the

locking device.
Push up the cone

until it come into
contact with the
end of penetration
lever.
137
Atterbergs Limits
Testing Procedure
6. Setting
Up the Cone
Penetrometer
Once the height of the

equipment has been set,
make sure that the small
gap is sufficient for the
penetration tin can slide
or move easily without
any contact with the tip of
the cone penetrometer.
138
Atterbergs Limits
Testing Procedure
7. Measuring
Cone
Penetration
1
Placed the cup
(containing soil)
at the center of
the base @ the
cone tip is at the
center of the cup.
iDeaz
Push in the
2
locking device in
Push In
order to unlock
the cone and
thus, releasing
the cone.
3
Cone
Penetrates
139
Atterbergs Limits
Testing Procedure
Initial Level
5
Read the dial
gauge reading, ie.
it will
corresponds to
the penetration of
the cone.
7. Measuring
Cone
Penetration
Push down carefully

the penetration lever.
The dial gauge needle
will move.
The lever
should be just come into
contact with the top end
of the cone piece.
Do not exert in pushing
the lever as it would
further penetrate the cup.
*Refer notes
iDeaz
140
Atterbergs Limits
Testing Procedure
*
7. Measuring
Cone
Penetration
Release the cone for a period of 5 s (plus or

minus 1 s) if the apparatus is not fitted with an
automatic release and locking device.
After 5s the cone should have, to some extent,
penetrated the smooth surface of the soil.
Record the penetration reading to the nearest
0.1 mm.
Lift out the cone and clean it carefully, to avoid
scratching, then add a little more wet soil and
repeat the test.
141
Atterbergs Limits
Testing Procedure
*
7. Measuring
Cone
Penetration
If the difference between the first and second

penetration readings is less than 0.5 mm
record the average of the two penetrations.
If the second penetration is more than 0.5 mm
and less than 1 mm from the first, carry out a
third test.
If the overall range is then not more than 1 mm
record the average of the three penetrations.
If the overall range is more than 1 mm remove
the soil from the cup, remix and repeat until
consistent results are obtained.
142
Atterbergs Limits
Testing Procedure
*
7. Measuring
Cone
Penetration
The ideal penetration for a first reading is

between 13 mm to 16 mm.
If it is less than 13 mm, than the test requires a
lot more nos. of tests (more plotting points).
If it is more than 16 mm the nos. of test will be
less and as a results the plotting points will not
look presentable.
143
Atterbergs Limits
Testing Procedure
8. Moisture Content
Determination
Take a moisture content
sample of about 10 g from
the cup around the area
penetrated by the cone.
The moisture content sample
should not be smeared into
the container but instead
dropped cleanly by tapping
the spatula held close to the
container.
Tapping
The soil sample falls into
the moisture content tin
144
Oven
Atterbergs Limits
Testing Procedure
8. Moisture Content
Determination
145
Atterbergs Limits
Testing Procedure
Transfer the
remainder of the
soil from the cup
to the glass plate
for remixing
9. Remixing & Repeat Test

Repeat the test at least
three more times using the
same sample of soil.
A further increments of
distilled water have been
added.
Proceeding from the drier
state to the wetter.
146
Glass Plate
Atterbergs Limits
Testing Procedure
*
9. Remixing &
Repeat Test
The amount of water added shall be such that

a range of penetration values of approximately
15 mm 25 mm is covered by four or more
test runs and is evenly distributed.
Each time the soil is removed from the cup for
the addition of water the cup and cone must be
thoroughly cleaned, if the soil is to be left for
any length of time it should be covered with a
damp cloth to prevent it drying out.
147
Atterbergs Limits
Testing Procedure
10. Calculation
Calculate the moisture content of each test

sample.
Each cone penetration (mm) is plotted as
ordinate against the corresponding moisture
content (%) as abcissa, both to linear scale on
a graph.
Plot the relationship between the moisture
content and the corresponding cone
penetration recorded on a linear chart.
148
Atterbergs Limits
Testing Procedure
10. Calculation
X axis : Moisture Content

Y axis : Cone Penetration
Draw a line of best fit between the points.
149
Atterbergs Limits
Testing Procedure
10. Calculation
Graph Plot.
150
Atterbergs Limits
Testing Procedure
11. Results
From the curve read off the moisture content

corresponding to a cone penetration of 20 mm
to the first decimal place.
Express this moisture content to the nearest
whole number and report it as the liquid limit.
For notification, the plastic limit and plasticity
index are usually reported with the liquid limit.
151
Atterbergs Limits
Testing Procedure
1
2
11. Results
Draw the 20 mm line
Intersection of the 20 mm
line with the best fit line
Read off the moisture

content value to the
nearest whole number;
67% i.e LL = 67
152
Atterbergs Limits
Testing Procedure (Casagrande)
iDeaz
153
Atterbergs Limits
Testing Procedure
(Casagrande)
Motorized
Casagrande
154
Atterbergs Limits
Testing Procedure
(Casagrande)
ASTM
BS
Casagrande Liquid
Limit
155
Equipment with Grooving Tools
Atterbergs Limits
Testing Procedure
Casagrande Method
Stages involve in
testing :
3. Maturing
4. Remixing
5. Setting the equipment
6. Placing soil in the
Casagrande cup
7. Applying the Groove

8. Applying the Blows @
Taps
9. Moisture content
determination
10.Remixing & Repeat test
11.Calculation
12.Results
156
Atterbergs Limits
Testing Procedure
Soil Sample
Size 425 m
Soil
Passing
Sieve
Size
425 m
1. Sample Preparation
The soil sample that are
used have to pass the
425 micron sieve.
Next a representative
sample is required
weighing around 200250 g.
Pan

200 250 g
157
Atterbergs Limits
Testing Procedure
200 250 g
Pan
Glass Plate
2. Mixing with Water

Then the sample is
transferred to a flat glass
plate,
Distilled water is added
and the soil and water are
mixed thoroughly with two
palette knives until the
mass becomes a thick
homogenous paste.
158
Atterbergs Limits
Testing Procedure
Glass Plate
Air Tight
Container
3. Maturing
The paste is then transferred
to an air-tight container for
24 hours to allow the water
time to penetrate the soil
fully.
For a soil of a low clay
content, such as silty soil,
the curing period may be
omitted and the test can be
carried out immediately.
159
Atterbergs Limits
Testing Procedure
Air Tight
Container
Glass Plate
4. Remixing
Remove the soil from the
container after maturing.
plate.
for 10 minutes.
160
Atterbergs Limits
Testing Procedure
5. Setting up the
equipment
Height adjustment screw
1cm
Adjust the drop height of the liquid limit device to 1 cm using the
space block or some grooving tool has an attached tip at the end of
the grooving tool.
Measure the drop height from the block to where the bowl hits
161 the
block.
Atterbergs Limits
Testing Procedure
6. Placing in Casagrande Cup
With the cup of the
apparatus resting on it's
base, place a portion of the
sample in the cup, without
entrapping air ensure the
cup is filled and level.
162
Atterbergs Limits
Testing Procedure
6. Placing in
Casagrande Cup
Soil Level
Soil Level
iDeaz
Soil should be levelled

as flat as possible
The level of the soil to be placed into the

Casagrande cup have to follow the dotted
line as indicated in the picture by using
the pallete knife.
163
Atterbergs Limits
Testing Procedure
7. Applying the
Groove
Grooving tool positioned

at the centre of the cup
Movement of grooving tool
iDeaz
The canal created using

the tip of the grooving tool
The level of the soil to be placed into the

Casagrande cup have to follow the dotted
line as indicated in the picture by using
the pallete knife.
164
Atterbergs Limits
Testing Procedure
7. Applying the
Groove
The Groove BEFORE applying

the blows @ bumps.
The channel created using

the tip of the grooving tool
The Groove mark

and canal
165
Atterbergs Limits
Testing Procedure
8. Applying the
Blows @ Taps
Turn the crank handle at a rate of approximately 2 rotations/s so that the cup
is lifted and dropped, counting the number of bumps.
Continue until the two parts of the sample come into contact at the bottom of
the groove along a distance of 13 mm.
166
Record the number of bumps required.
Atterbergs Limits
Testing Procedure
8. Applying the
Blows @ Taps
The Groove AFTER applying

the blows @ bumps.
13 mm
13 mm
The Groove mark
and canal is closed at
a length of 13 mm
13 mm
167
Atterbergs Limits
Testing Procedure
9. Moisture Content
Determination
sample of about 10 g from
the cup around the area
closed groove area.
The moisture content sample
should not be smeared into
the container but instead
dropped cleanly by tapping
the spatula held close to the
container.
Tapping
Oven
168
Atterbergs Limits
Testing Procedure
9. Moisture Content
Determination
169
Atterbergs Limits
Testing Procedure
Transfer the
remainder of the
soil from the cup
to the glass plate
for remixing
10. Remixing & Repeat Test

Repeat the test at least
three more times using the
same sample of soil.
A further increments of
distilled water have been
added.
Proceeding from the drier
state to the wetter.
170
Glass Plate
Atterbergs Limits
Testing Procedure
*
10. Remixing &

Repeat Test
The amount of water added shall be such that

a range of blows @ taps @ bumps values of
approximately 35 blows 15 blows count are
covered by four or more test runs and is evenly
distributed.
Each time the soil is removed from the cup for
the addition of water the cup must be
thoroughly cleaned, if the soil is to be left for
any length of time it should be covered with a
damp cloth to prevent it drying out.
171
Atterbergs Limits
Testing Procedure
11. Calculation
X axis : Number of Taps Counts (logarithmic)

Y axis : Moisture Content
Draw a line of best fit between the points.
172
Atterbergs Limits
Testing Procedure
11. Calculation
Graph Plot.
173
Atterbergs Limits
Testing Procedure
12. Results
From the curve read off the moisture content

corresponding to the 25 taps of the cup to the
first decimal place.
Express this moisture content to the nearest
whole number and report it as the liquid limit.
For notification, the plastic limit and plasticity
index are usually reported with the liquid limit.
174
Atterbergs Limits
Testing Procedure
12. Results
1
Draw the 25 taps line
Intersection of the
25 taps line with
the best fit line
Read off the moisture

content value to the
nearest whole number;
72.5% i.e LL = 73
25
175
Atterbergs Limits
Testing Procedure
Plastic Limit test
Stages involve in
testing :
3. Maturing
4. Remixing
5. Dry
(Plastic Limit)
6. Create ball shape

7. Hand drying
8. Dividing samples
9. Rolling and threading
10.Determine the
crumbling point
11.Moisture content
calculation
12.Results
*Step 1 3 from LL test

176
Atterbergs Limits
Testing Procedure
Air Tight
Container
Glass Plate
(Plastic Limit)
4. Remixing
Remove 20 g of the soil from
the container after maturing.
plate.
for 10 minutes.
177
Atterbergs Limits
Testing Procedure
(Plastic Limit)
5. Dry
Allow the soil to dry partially
on the plate until it becomes
plastic enough to be shape it
into a ball.
Glass Plate
178
Atterbergs Limits
Testing Procedure
(Plastic Limit)
6. Ball shape
Glass Plate
179
Atterbergs Limits
Testing Procedure
Glass Plate
(Plastic Limit)
7. Hand drying
Mould the ball of the soil
between the fingers and roll
it between the palms of the
hand until the heat of the
hands has dried.
The soil sufficient for slight
cracks to appear on it
surface.
180
Atterbergs Limits
Testing Procedure
(Plastic Limit)
8. Dividing samples
Devide the sample in two
sub sample of about 10 g
each and carry out a
separate determination on
each portion.
Each portion, futher divide
into 4 more smaller parts.
Glass Plate
10 g
10 g
181
Atterbergs Limits
Testing Procedure
(Plastic Limit)
9. Rolling and threading

Mould the soil in the finger to
equalize the distribution of
moisture, then form the soil into
the tread about 6 mm diameter
between first finger and thumb of
each hand.
Roll the tread to reduce to about 3
mm in 5 to 10 complete, forward
and backward movement of the
hand.
182
Atterbergs Limits
Testing Procedure
(Plastic Limit)
10. Crumbling point

Mould it between the fingers to dry
it further. The first crumbling point
is the plastic limit.
3 mm diameter
Cracking
183
Atterbergs Limits
Testing Procedure
(Plastic Limit)
184
Atterbergs Limits
Testing Procedure
(Plastic Limit)
11. Moisture Content

Determination
sample of all the samples.

Oven
185
Atterbergs Limits
Testing Procedure
(Plastic Limit)
11. Moisture Content

Determination
sample of all the samples.

Oven
186
Atterbergs Limits
Testing Procedure
(Plastic Limit)
12. Results
Moisture content results.
187
Atterbergs Limits
Testing Procedure
Classification
Moisture content results from

LL.
188
Atterbergs Limits
Testing Procedure
Classification

LL.
189
Atterbergs Limits
Testing Procedure
Classification

LL.
190
Atterbergs Limits
Testing Procedure
Classification
191
Classification
The range of water content over which a soil
has a plastic consistency is termed the
Plasticity Index (IP or PI).
IP = Liquid Limit - Plastic Limit
= wL wP
Plasticity Index = Liquid Limit Plastic Limit
Shrinkage
limit
Plastic
limit
Liquid
limit
192
water
content
Classification
193
Do make a lot of practice on the tutorials questions.

Practice makes better.
End of Week 4 & End of Topic 1
Week 5 : Shear Strength of Soil.
Wasslam & Thank You.
194

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ECG203

BASIC SOIL MECHANICS

Learning outcome (WEEK ONE)

1.1.1: Soil Origin

loose unconsolidated material extending

Soils originate from solid rocks such as igneous,

metamorphic and sedimentary.

Nature and composition of the parent rock.

Magma cools and crystallizes to form igneous rock.

sediment. The sediment is transported and deposited

- formed by solidification of molten magma

- the deposits of gravel, sand, silt and clay formed by

- process of changing the composition and texture of rocks,

Natural soil deposits

- soil produced by weathering of rocks can be

Transported soils may be classified into several

groups depending on their mode of transportation

1.1.2: Mineral composition of soil

Soil commonly consists of mixtures of inorganic

Three phase soil model

pieces of the parent rock

range in size from gravel to clay (> 2mm to 1m)

greater effect on engineering properties than any

to be perfectly dry or fully saturated

1.1.3: Engineering Soil Terminology

Residual soil the weathered remains of rocks that

1.1.4: Soil Composition

silts and clays

up the solids constituents of a soil

Surface forces and adsorbed water

grained soils, surface forces significantly

into structural frameworks that we call soil fabric

1.2.1: Soil Phase Diagram

particles (solid), water and air.

The model is constructed of 1m 3 of solid material and

b) Completely dry soil

will remain constant.

1.2.2: Mass-Volume relationship

Mass of water, Mw = wGsw

w = density of water = 1000kg/m3 = 1.0Mg/m3

Void ratio (e)

Degree of saturation (Sr) measure how saturated the soil is.

Specific gravity (Gs)

Dry density (d) (kg/m3, Mg/m3)

Bulk density (b) (kg/m3, Mg/m3)

Relation between dry density (d) and bulk

but Sre = wGs

k) Saturated density (sat) (kg/m3, Mg/m3)

l) Submerged density or effective density (

m) Unit weight () (kN/m3, N/cm3)

Determination of Specific Gravity

conical screw top (pycnometer)

Determination of Specific Gravity

Classification of Coarse Soil

Classification of Coarse Soil

Classification of Coarse Soil

Classification of Coarse Soil

Classification of Coarse Soil

Classification of Coarse Soil