Hormone

by
Piyush Ingle
Shankar

Bhandalkar

Hormone

Hormone is the organic substance, produced

in small amounts by endocrine glands,
secreted into bloodstream to control metabolic
and biological activities in Target cells.

It may be chemical messenger involved in

transmission of information from cell to cell .

Classification of
Hormones

Protein or Peptide hormone- e.g. insulin,

glucagon, antiduratic hormone .

Steroid hormone- e.g. Glucorticoids, sex

hormones.

Amino acid derivatives e.g. epinephirne,

thyroxine .

Group 1 hormones- These hormones binds to intracellular receptors

to form receptor hormone complexes.
e.g. estrogen, androgen , glucocortiocoids.

Group 2 hormones-

These hormones binds to cell surface receptor

and stimulates certain secondary messenger.
E.g. glucagon, growth hormone , insulin, oxytocin.

Hormones

Insulin
Glucagon
Epinephrine
Growth hormone
Thyroid hormones
Parathyroid hormones
Glucocoricoids

INSULIN

Insulin is small peptide hormone with two

polypeptide chains,joined by disulfied bond.
Molecular weight of insulin is 5800 daltons.
Prduced by the B-cells of islets of langerhans of
pancreas.
It is anabolic hormone as it promotes the
synthesis of glycogen, triacylglycerols and
proteins.
This hormone has been implicated in the
development of dibetes mellitus.

Biosynthesis of insulin

Insulin is produced by b-cells of islets of

langerhans of pancreas.
The gene for synthesis is located in chromosome
11
Synthesis involves two precursors, namely
preproinsulin and proinsuline .
These precursors are synthesisly degraded to
form insulin.
Insulin is stored in granules of cytosol releaes in
response by various cells.

six insulin molecules

assembled in a hexamer

Regulation of insulin

1.
2.
3.

About 40-50 units of insulin is secreted by

human pancreas
Factors stimulates secretion of insulin are as
Glucose
Amino acids
Epinephrine
Insulin degraded in a liver and kidney by
insulinase.

Synthesis reaction of
insulin-

Metabolic action of
insulin

Effect on carbohydrate metabolism

-lowers blood glucose level
Effect on glucose uptake by tissues such as
muscle cells and adipose tissue.
-promote the uptake of glucose
Effect on glucose utilization & production
-increases utilization & decrease production

Effect on lipogenesis
-Favours synthesis of triacylglycerol

Effect on protein metabolism

-enhance protein synthesis & reduce protein
degradation.

Abnormalities related to
insulin

Insulin dependant diabetes mellitus (IDDM)mainly occurs in childhood (12-15 yrs

age).10-20 % of the diabetics are having IDDM.
It is characterized by almost total deficiency
of insulin due to destruction of B cells of
pancreas .The destruction of B cells is caused by
drugs, viruses or autoimmunity.
The pancreas ultimately fails to secrete
insulin in response to glucose ingestion.
Patient of IDDM require insulin therapy.

Glucagon

Glucagon a polypeptide hormone composed of

29 amino acids.
It is of molecular wt 3500 Da
It is secreted by alpha-cell of pancreas.
it opposes to the action of insulin.
Amino acid sequence of all glucagon is same in
all mammaliam species.
Short half life in plasama i.e. 5 min.

Ribbon dig of glucagon

Regulation

Scretion of glucagon is stimulated by low blood

glucose concentration
amino acid derived from dietary proteins

And low levels of epinephrine.

Increased blood glucose level inhibits glucagon

secretion.

Metabolic activity

It opposes the effect of insulin.

I.

Effects on carbohydrate metabolism

-enhances blood glucose level
Effect on lipid metabolism
-promote fatty acid oxidation resulting in energy
production
Effects on protein metabolism
-lowers plasma amino acids.
Glucagon binds to the specific receptors on the
plasma membrane acts through mediation of cAMP ,
second messenger.

I.

I.
I.

Thyroid hormones

1.
2.
3.

These hormons as name suggests secreted by

the thyroid glands
Hormons secretd by thyroid glandsThyroxine (T4)
Triiodothyronine
Calcitonin
These all hormones are secreted by thyroid
glands so called as thyroid hormones.

Structure of thyroid
hormones-

BiosynthesisIodine is essential for synthesis of thyroid

hormone.
a) Uptake of iodine- iodine is uptaking by thyroid
gland against conc. Gradient these active
transport is driven by Na+-K+ pump.
b) Formation of the active iodine-conversion of
iodide to iodine is imp step for incorporation to
thyroid glands. And it is only tissue where this
process ll take place

And it requires H2O2 as catalyst.

And TSH promotes the oxide of iodine.

And then further triglobulin get synthesised
Which is precursor for thyroxine.
Thyroxin is digested by the lysosomal
proteolytic enzyme in the thyroid glands.

Function of thyroid
hormone

Thyroid hormone influence on metabolic

rates and increases oxygen cosumption in
most of tissues.
Thyroid hormone mostly act as steroid
hormone on promoting the protein synthesis
in various tissues.
Thyroid hormone promotes the intestinal
adsoption of glucose and increas process of
gluconeogensis.

Function

Lipid turnover and utilization are stimulated

by thyroid hormons.
Hypothyroidism is accosiated with eleveted
plasama level which reserved by thyroid
hormone conc.
In children hypothyroidism causes cretinism.
And in adults it causes myxedema.
These hormones are regulated by the TSH
hormone by pituitary glands.

Abnormalities of Thyroid
function
Goiter- Any abnormal increase in thyroid gland

is called goiter. It is associated with elevated

TSH. This may be caused by deficiency or
excess of iodine.
Hyperthyroidism (thyrotoxicosis) by
overproduction of thyroid hormones. It is
characterized by increased metabolic rate,
nervousness, irritability, anxiety, rapid heart rate,
loss of weight, increased appetite, weakness,
diarrhea, sweating, sensitivity to heat.

Hypothyroidism
It is due to impairment of thyroid gland
causing decreased circulatory levels of
TSH.
It is characterized by slow heart rate,
weight gain, sluggish behaviour,
constipation, sensitivity to cold, dry skin.
In children it causes cretinism.
In adults it causes myxoedema.

Growth Hormone

The growth hormone is secreted by the

pituitary gland.
These are endocrine hormone.
The growth hormone is produced by
somatotropes, a special group of
acidophilic cells of anterior pituitary glands.
Growth hormone also called as
somatotropin.

General str. Of GH-

Regulation of GH
1.
2.

Two hypothalemic factors play main role in

regulation of GH realeasesGRH (GH releasing hormone)
GRIH (GH release inhibiting hormone)
It is regulated by the feedback mechanism.
GH production is influnced by the factors
such as sleep; stress; food intake; and
exersice.

Biochemical function of
GHEffect on growth

it is essential for the growth

Effect on protein metabolism
increases the protein synthesis
Effect on carbohydrate metabolism.
increases gluconeogenesis, increases tissue
uptake of glucose
Effect on lipid metabolism
increase the circulatory levels of fatty acids.
Effect on minreal metabolism.
promote bone mineralization & its growth.

Abnormalities of GH
production

Difficiency of GH cause dwarfsim.

Overproduction of GH causes gigantism

in children and acromegaly in adults.

Epinephrine

Adrenal medulla produces 2 important hormones

1.

Epinephrine (adrenaline)
Norepinephrine (noradrenaline)

2.

Amine derivatives of catechol hence called

catecholamines.
Dopamine intermediate during synthesis of
epinephrine.
Dopamine & norepinephrine are important
neurotransmitters in the brain & autonomic nervous
system.

Structure of epinephrine-

Biochemical functions

Effects on carbohydrate metabolism :increase degredation of glycogen, synthesis of

glucose, decrease glycogen formation.

Effects on lipid metabolism:enhances breakdown of triacylglycerol

Effects on physiological function:increases cardiac output, BP & oxygen

consumption.

Metabolism of
catecholamines

Catecholamines are rapidly inactivated

and metabolized.

The enzyme catechol - O methyltransferase (COMT) found in many

tissues acts on catecholamines.

Abnormalities of
catecholamines production.

Pheochromocytomas- tumors of adrenal

medula.

Diagnosis of pheochromocytoma is possible

only when there is Excessive production of
epinephrine & norepinephrine that causes
severe hypertension.

Glucocorticoids

This hormone is produced by Adrenal cortex.

These are 21 carbon steroids produced mostly
by zona fasciculata.
They affect glucose, amino acid & fat
metabolism in a manner that is opposite to the
action of insulin.
Cortisol is most important glucocorticoid found in
humans
&
Corticosterone is predominantly found in rats.

Biochemical function of
Glucocorticoids

Effect on carbohydrate metabolism

promote synthesis of glucose.
Effect on lipid metabolism
increase the circulating free fatty acids.
Effect on protein & nucleic acid metabolism
promote transcription & protein synthesis in liver.
Effect on water & electrolyte metabolism
maintains water level in the body by maintaining
ADH.

Effect on the immune system

in high doses suppresses host immune
response.

Other physiological effects

Increase the production of gastric HCl &
pepsinogen
Inhibition of bone formation.

1.
2.

Mechanism of action

Glucocorticoids binds on the specific

receptors on the target cells & bring
about the action.

Mostly acts at the transcription level &

control the protein synthesis.

Abnormalities of
adrenocortical function

Addisons disease
result of impairment in adrenocortical function.
decreased blood glucose level, loss of body wt,
loss of appetite, muscle weakness, low B.P., etc

Cushings syndrome
caused by hypersecretion.
Characterized by hyperglycemia, edema,
hypertension, etc.

Parathyroid hormones

Parathyroid gland consists of 4 small glands

closely associated with the thyroid gland.
In human it is Reddish or yellowish brown
egg-shaped bodies.
Weight 0.05 to 0.3 gm.
Hormone produced
Parathormone

Parathormone

It is polypeptide consist of 84 amino

acids.
Mol. wt. = 9500
Differ slightly from species to species.
The secreted hormone is degraded
rapidly,
its half life is just 18 min.
Normal level in serum is 150-300 pg/ml.

Biochemical function

Stimulates membrane bound adenylate cyclase

causing increase in synthesis of cAMP.
It metabolizes calcium & phosphorus from
bones.
It increase serum calcium & lowers serum
phosphorus.
It increases urinary excretion of phosphates but
decreases excretion of calcium.
It elevates the serum alkaline phosphatase
activity.

It increases the absortion of calcium &

phosphorus from the intestine.
In the kidney, it affects renal tubular
reabsorption of calcium & phosphorus.
It may stimulate protein synthesis in the
osteoclasts which affect reabsorption of bone.

Control of release of
parathormone

Calcium loss associated with uremia results in

an increase in circulating parathormone.

Vit A administration decreases parathormone

by increasing calcium uptake into the
parathyroid gland.

Abnormalities of
parathyroid function

1.
2.
3.
4.

Hypoparathyroidism
Symptoms are muscular weakness & irritability.
In children stunting of growth, defective tooth
development & mental retardation.
Serum calcium is low, serum phosphate is
increased, urinary calcium is low.
Calcium & vit D precursors are used in the
treatment of hypoparathyroidism


1.
2.
3.
4.

Hyperparathyroidism
It occurs due to tumor of the gland.
Symptoms are decalcification of bones causing
pain & deformities, renal stones.
Serum phosphorus is low & excretion of
calcium in urine is highly increased.
Removal of tumor brings about prompt relief &
injection of calcitonin helps to reduce serum
calcium level.

Ca- metabolism

Calcium metabolism or calcium

homeostasis is the mechanism by which the
body maintains adequate calcium levels.

Derangements of this mechanism lead to

hypercalcemia
or hypocalcemia,
both of which can have important
consequences for health.

The serum level of calcium is closely

regulated with a normal total calcium of 2.22.6 mmol/L (9-10.5 mg/dL) and a normal
ionized calcium of 1.1-1.4 mmol/L (4.55.6 mg/dL)

Mechanism of action of
PTH
PTH binds to a membrane receptor protein on

1.
2.
3.

the target cell & activate adenylate cyclase to

liberate cAMP.
This increases intracellular Ca that promotes the
phosphorylation of protein which finally brings
about biological actions.
PTH has 3 independent tissues to exert its
action,
Bone
Kidney
Intestine

Action on the bone

Causes decalcification of bones

Stimulated PTH increases the activity of

enzymes pyrophosphatase & collagenase,
which results in bone resorption.

Demineralization ultimately leads to increase in

the blood Ca level.

Action on kidney

PTH increases the Ca reabsorption by kidney

tubules.

It is Most rapid action of PTH to elevate blood

Ca levels.

But quantitatively it is less important as

compared to action of PTH on bone.

Action on the intestine

The action of PTH on the intestine is

indirect.

It increases the intestinal absorption of

Ca by promoting synthesis of calcitriol.

Glucose homeostasis

It is the maintenance of the constant

glucose level in the body.
The body requires volumes of glucose in
order to create ATP. The amount of ATP
demanded will fluctuate, and therefore the
body regulates the availability of glucose
to maximize its energy making potential.

Mechanism

Two hormones are responsible for controlling

the concentration of glucose in the blood.

insulin

glucagon.

Pancreas ReceptorsThe receptors of the pancreas are responsible for

monitoring glucose levels in the blood, since it is
important in every cell for respiration.
Two types of cell release two different hormones from
the pancreas, insulin and glucagon. These hormones
target the liver, one or the other depending on the
glucose concentration
In cases where glucose levels increase, less glucagon
and more insulin is released by the pancreas and
targets the liver
In cases where glucose levels decrease, less insulin
and more glucagon is released by the pancreas and
targets the liver

The Liver
The liver acts as a storehouse for glycogen, the
storage form of glucose. When either of the above
hormones target the liver, the following occurs
Insulin - Insulin is released as a result of an increase
in glucose levels, and therefore promotes the
conversion of glucose into glycogen, where the
excess glucose can be stored for a later date in the
liver
Glucagon - Glucagon is released as a result of an
decrease in glucose levels, and therefore promotes
the conversion of glycogen into glucose, where the
lack glucose can be compensated for by the new
supply of glucose brought about from glycogen

Fight or Flight

In emergencies, adrenaline is released by the

body to override the homeostatic control of
glucose. This is done to promote the
breakdown of glycogen into glucose to be used
in the emergency. These emergencies are
often known as 'fight or flight reactions'.
Adrenaline is secreted by the adrenal glands.
The secretion of it leads to increased
metabolism, breathing and heart rate. Once the
emergency is over, and adrenaline levels drop,
the homeostatic controls are once again back
in place.

ALL THE BEST FOR EXAMS