7 QC Tools

Essae Chandran Institute
Stratification
Divide and Conquer
Essae Chandran Institute Stratification
A technique used to divide data
into sub–categories or
classification to provide useful
insight into the problem.

Essae Chandran Institute Meaning of “Stratification”
• Root Word is “Strata” which means

– Group
– Division
– Sub–class
– Levels
– Layers
• Stratification is an act of dividing

data based on group, division, sub –
class, causes etc.
Essae Chandran Institute Rationale & Benefits
• Data comes from difference

sources.
– E.g. : Different Machines, Instruments,
Cities, Operators etc.
• Data sometimes masks real

information.
• Stratification helps in getting

meaningful information from data.
• Divide the data and Conquer the

Information.
Essae Chandran Institute Example : Late to Work
• Reached late to office on following

dates (un–stratified data)
– 2/7, 6/7, 9/7, 16/7, 23/7, 30/7
• Stratified data by day of the week.

– Mon ⇒ 5
– Tue ⇒ 0
– Wed ⇒ 0
– Thu ⇒ 0
– Fri ⇒ 1
– Sat ⇒ 0
Essae Chandran Institute Example : PCB Rejection
Un–stratified Data
Date 3/6 4/6 5/6
Rejection 33 30 32
Essae Chandran Institute Example : PCB Rejection
Stratified Data
Time 3/6 4/6 5/6
9:00 – 10:00 15 14 16
10:00 – 11:00 1 2 0
11:00 – 12:00 2 0 1
12:00 – 1:00 1 0 1
1:00 – 1:30 Lunch
1:30 – 2:30 10 11 12
2:30 – 3:30 3 1 0
3:30 – 4:30 0 2 1
4:30 – 5:30 1 0 1
E.g. Accidents in Machine
Essae Chandran Institute Shop
14
13
12 12 12
No. of Accidents
11
10 10
9
8
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun
Month
Essae Chandran Institute After Stratification
14
Press Shop
12 12 Welding
No. of Accidents
11
10 10
9
8 8 8
6
4
3
2 2 2
1 1
0 0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun
Month
Essae Chandran Institute Steps in Stratification
1. List all conditions
2. Collect and Stratify Data
3. Interpret the Data

Essae Chandran Institute Step 1 : List all Conditions
• List all conditions that may seem to be the

cause of the problem.
– Shift
– Day of Week
– Location
– Raw Material Source – Time of Day
– Operator – Material Batch
– Product – Inspector
– Machine
– Production Batch
– Inspection Equipment
Step 2 : Collect and Stratify
Essae Chandran Institute Data
• Collect additional data based on

classification, if necessary.
• Stratify data based on the

classification
Essae Chandran Institute Step 3 : Interpret the Data
• Calculate average of each

classification or plot appropriate
graph.
• Look for significant differences OR

abnormalities in data.
• Generate a list of possible causes.

Pareto Chart
Vital Few and Trivial
Many
Essae Chandran Institute Pareto Chart
Pareto Chart is a diagram that shows

the order of the largest number of
occurrences by item or by classes, and
the cumulative sum total.
Essae Chandran Institute Genesis of Pareto Chart
• Vilfredo Pareto (1848 –
1923), an Italian
economist discovered in
1897 that 80% of a
nation’s wealth was owned
by 20% of the population.
• Dr. Joseph M. Juran applied

this principle to Quality
Management and called it
the Pareto Principle.
Essae Chandran Institute Pareto Principle
Inputs
Causes 20%
Effort
Outputs
80% Effects
Results
Essae Chandran Institute Rationale and Benefits
• Pareto Principle : 80 % of the problems

comes from 20% of the causes.
• Distinguishes between vital few and
trivial many.
• Displays relative importance of causes
of a problem.
• Helps the team to focus on those
causes that will have the greatest
impact when solved.
Causes for Starting Late to
Essae Chandran Institute Office
100%
140
78%
120 80%
Cumulative Percentage
100
Frequency
60%
80
60 40%
40
20%
20
0 0%
Newspaper Bathroom Overslept Garage I ron Clothes Others
Delay Door
Causes
Essae Chandran Institute Causes for Surface Defects
100%
160
140 84%
80%
120
Frequency
100 60%
80
40%
60
40
20%
20
0 0%
Stain Scratch Peeling Crack Pinhole Gap Others
Causes
Essae Chandran Institute Response
What did you like least after the
surgery ?
100%
60
76%
80%
50
Frequency
40 60%
30
40%
20
20%
10
0 0%
Waiting Nursing No Privacy No Pain No I nfo. Others
Empathy
Causes
Steps in making a Pareto
Essae Chandran Institute Chart
1. Select the problem.
2. Collect data.
3. Sort data & calculate cumulative
percentage.
4. Draw the axes.
5. Construct the bars.
6. Draw the cumulative percentage line.
7. Title and label the chart.
8. Identify Vital Few from the Trivial
Many and plan further action.
Essae Chandran Institute Step 1 : Select the Problem
• Select the problem for investigation.
• Decide what data will be necessary
and how to classify them.
• Determine the method of collecting
data and period of data collection.
• Design a separate Check Sheet if
necessary.
• Eg : Causes for Service Complaints
of Computer System.
Essae Chandran Institute Step 2 : Collect Data
Causes Frequency
Print Problems 11
Rodent Problem 3
Server Crash 23
Boot Problems 8
Bad Configuration 6
Virus Attack 52
System Re-configuration 3
Operating System 9
Corrupted
Email not functioning 4
Loose Connection 5
Others 12
Step 3 : Sort Data &
Calculate Cumulative
Code Percentage
Causes Freq- Cumulative Cumulative
uency Freq. % age
A Virus Attack 52 52 52/136 = 42%
B Server Crash 23 52+23=75 75/136 = 55%
C Print Problems 11 75+11=86 63%

D Operating System 9 86+9=95 70%
Corrupted
E Boot Problems 8 103 76%
F Bad Configuration 6 109 80%
G Loose Connection 5 114 84%
H Email not functioning 4 118 87%
I System Re-configuration 3 121 89%
J Rodent Problem 3 124 91%
K Others 12 136 100%
Essae Chandran Institute Step 4 : Construct the Axes
136 100%
120
136 = 100%
80%
100
Frequency
80 60%
60
40%
40
20%
20
0 0%
A B C D E F G H I J K
Causes
Essae Chandran Institute Step 5 : Draw the Bars
136 100%
120
80%
100
Frequency
80 60%
60
40%
40
20%
20
0 0%
Causes
Essae Chandran Institute Step 6 : Draw the
Cumulative Percentage Line
136 100%
120
80%
100
Frequency
80 60%
60
40%
40
20%
20
0 0%
Causes
Essae Chandran Institute Step 7 : Label & Title the
136 Chart
Pareto of Service Complaints 100%
120
80%
100
Frequency
80 60%
60
40%
40
20%
20
0 0%
Causes
Step 8 : Interpret the Chart
Pareto of Service Complaints
136
100%
120
80%
100 70%
Frequency
80 60%
60
40%
40
20%
20
0 0%
Causes
Flat Pareto ??
100%
120
80%
100
Frequency
80 60%
60
40%
40
20%
20
0 0%
Causes
Tips for Making a Good
Pareto Chart
• It is undesirable that “others”
represent a high percentage (should
be < 10%).
• If the cause of a problem can be
solved easily, implement it even if it
belongs to the trivial many.
• Wherever possible, compare monetary
data with frequency data.
• Draw the Pareto chart before and after
improvement.
Which problem to solve ?
Rejections by PPM 100% Rejections by Rs. 100%
140
1200
80% 120 80%

1000
100
800 60% 60%
Rs. in '000
80
PPM
600
40% 60 40%
400 40
20% 20%
200 20
0 0% 0 0%
A B C D E F G H I J K D B C E A G F J I H K
Frequency
0
10
20
30
40
50
Waiting 60
Nursing
No Privacy
No Empathy
Causes
Pain
No I nfo.
Others
0%
50%
100%
Frequency
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Nursing
No Privacy
Improvement
No Empathy
Before and After
Waiting
Causes
Pain
No I nfo.
Improvement
Others
0%
100%
Brainstormin
g
Creativity at
Work
Essae Chandran Institute Brainstorming
Creativity and Collective Wisdom

at Work Place.
Diagnose, Solve and Prevent

Problems and Effect
Improvements
Essae Chandran Institute Brainstorming – Contd..
Technique for a team to
creatively and efficiently generate
the greatest possible number of
ideas on any topic.

Essae Chandran Institute Father of Brainstorming
• Brainstorming was first
effectively used and
introduced by Alex F.
Osborn of U.S.A. in 1941.
• An Advertisement Exe-
cutive.
• Author of Book “Applied

Imagination”.
Essae Chandran Institute Brainstorming
Brainstorming is a conference technique of
solving specific problems, amassing information,
stimulating creative thinking, developing new
ideas by unrestrained and spontaneous
participation in discussion.
– The Random House Dictionary
• Person close to the job knows more

about the job.
• Encourages OPEN thinking.
• Enables people to participate in a

creative way.
• Minimizes domination by a few people.
• Self – Fulfilling.
Essae Chandran Institute Types of Brainstorming
Brainstorming
Structured Un–Structured
A process in A process in
which each team which each team
member give member give
ideas in turn. ideas as they
come to mind.
Essae Chandran Institute Stages of Brainstorming
1. Stating the Problem.
2. Re – stating the problem.
3. Brainstorming.
4. Evaluating the ideas produced.

Essae Chandran Institute Pre–Requisites
• Relaxed and cordial atmosphere.
• Information to all members about

the theme of the session.
• All ideas should be recorded and

recalled, if necessary.
• All should participate.

Essae Chandran Institute Four Rules of Brainstorming
Encourage Wild
 
“Quantity” rather
Ideas than Quality Ideas
Four Rules of Brainstorming –
Contd.
Ride on Another’s
Suspend Judgement
Idea – Piggyback
Guidelines and Ground
Rules
• Freewheeling is encouraged.
– Wilder, Off–beat, Erratic, Stupid, Trail–

blazing, Impractical ideas are welcomed
– Be open minded
– Spontaneity required
– Evoke fun atmosphere
– Heart rules over Head

Guidelines and Ground Rules –
Contd..
• Judgement Suspended.
– Criticism Ruled out.
– Participation by All.
• Quantity is encouraged.
– Structured or Unstructured.
• Combination and Improvement of

Ideas.
– Cross Fertilisation.
– Piggyback.
• Six Persons - Six Minutes Formula.

Cause and Effect

Diagram
Identify and Cure Causes
Essae Chandran Institute Cause and Effect Diagram
A diagram which represents

meaningful relationship between
an effect and its causes.
A diagram which shows the

relation between a Quality
Characteristic and the Cause
Factors.
– JIS
Definition
Rationale and Benefits
• Enables a team to identify, explore and
graphically display all the possible causes
related to a problem.
• A cause and effect diagram is good for

seeing the whole “causal” relationship.
• Enables identification of root causes and

not symptoms.
Father of Cause & Effect
Diagram
• Dr. Kaoru Ishikawa

developed the first cause
and effect diagram in 1943
while consulting for
Kawasaki Steel Works.
• Dr. Juran named it as

Ishikawa diagram.
Essae Chandran Institute Structure of C & E Diagram
Causes (Factors)
Big Bone
Medium Sized
Bone Effect
Back Bone
(Characteristic)
Small
Bone
C & E Diagram is also known
as Fishbone Diagram
Three Types of Cause and
Effect Diagram
1. Dispersion Analysis type.
2. Process Flow Classification type.
3. Cause – Enumeration type.
Note : Dispersion Analysis type and

Cause – Enumeration type differ
only in the method of construction.
Dispersion Analysis type
Cause and Effect Diagram
Size
2.6
Over
6.4
Materials
workers experienced Small Large 6
Central Large
axle
Content Experienced G axle bearing
Material Quality 11.6 Material quality
Under-experienced
Training
Uneven Threads
Knowledge Personality F Cover

Nuts
9
Axle hole
Interval Loose Tight
Off-centre
Wobble
Measurement Adjustment Off-centre
Measuring Errors Training
tool G axle cover
Cover hole
Inspector
Judgement Metal drill Axle stop
G axle bearing cover
Experience
F axle cover Uneven Plating
Judgement
method Punch width
F cover
Inspection Tools
Process Flow Classification
type Cause & Effect Diagram
Bench movement Common aberration

Roll
Dropping Bench movement
Impurity Bunching
Group movement
Flare
Conveyor Loosening
Position placement
Water Steel
Pipe Bed
Material Correcting Planning Pressure Inspection Pipe
making removing
test scars
Bench rolling
Difference
Movement Position placement
Weight
Polishing Arrange bench drop Movement Bench rolling
Polish
Weight
Surface paint
Bunching Value
Carriage
Wire
Steps in Constructing
Dispersion
type C & E Diagram
1. State the undesirable effect.
2. Identify the main cause groups.
3. Identify causes and sub–causes.
4. Identify potential root cause(s).

Essae Chandran Institute Step 1
State the undesirable effect and draw
the back bone and draw a line.
Causes Effect
High Process
Rejection
Identify the main cause groups such
as man, machine, method, material,
measurement, tool.
Causes Effect
Machine Man
High Process
Rejection
Material Method
Identify the causes and sub – causes.
Ask “WHY” several times.
Causes Effect
Machine Man
High Process
Not Specified No Inspection
Rejection
to Vendor
Rod
High
Bent
Hardness
Poor
Material Handling
Method
Step 4
Identify potential root cause(s).
Causes Effect
Machine Man
High Process
Not Specified No Inspection
Rejection
to Vendor
Rod
High
Bent
Hardness
Poor
Material Handling
Method
Identify Significance of Each
Cause
 High Significance
 Moderate Significance
 Weak Significance

Steps in Constructing Process
Flow Type C & E Diagram
2. Draw the main process flow

diagram.
3. Identify the cause and sub–causes

at each stage of the process.

Step 1
State the undesirable effect and draw
a verticle line.
Causes Effect
Delay in
Delivery
Step 2
Draw the main process flow.

Causes Effect
Material Delay in
Machining Assembly Inspection
Receipt Delivery
Identify the cause and sub–causes at each
stage of the process.
Causes Effect
Material Capacity
Incomplete
Rejected Constraint Absenteeism
Assembly
Material Delay in
Receipt Delivery
Vendor Tool
Damaged
Material Machine High Cycle Rectification
Shortage Breakdown Time
Causes Effect
Material Capacity
Incomplete
Rejected Constraint Absenteeism
Assembly
Material Delay in
Receipt Delivery
Vendor Tool
Damaged
Material Machine High Cycle Rectification
Shortage Breakdown Time
Steps in Constructing Cause
Enumeration Type C & E
Diagram
2. List all possible causes using brainstorming.
3. Arrange causes and sub–causes showing the

relationship between cause and effect.

Step 1
State the undesirable effect.

Time for
Installation
of Machine
is High
Step 2
List all possible causes using brainstorming.

Time for
Installation
of Machine
Performance
problems is High Poor follow-
during installation up
by branch
Relevant Forms Lorry
No communication not received not
to branch on civil availabl
e Payment not
work
collected as per
Customer wants terms
Customer’s Civil work
see our
Project not Parts not
installation
Postponed commenced available on
time
Lack of Do not have
Funds license
for stamping
Arrange causes and sub–causes suitably.
Branch
HO Delay Causes Delay Effect
Relevant Forms Poor follow-up

Parts not avai- not received by branch
lable on time
Do not have license
for stamping Poor information
Performance problems
Payment not on site readiness Time for
during installation
collected as per terms
Installation
of Machine
No Lack of Funds is High
communication Lorry not
Customer wants available
to branch on civil see our installation
work
Project Civil work not
Postponed commenced
Customer
Others
Delay
HO Branch
Delay Causes Delay Effect
Relevant Forms Poor follow-up

Parts not avai- not received by branch
lable on time
Donot have license Poor information
for stamping on site readiness
Performance problems Payment not
during installation Time for
collected as per terms
Installation
of Machine
is High
No communication Lack of Funds
Lorry not
to branch on civil work Customer wants available
see our installation
Project Civil work not
Postponed commenced
Customer
Others
Delay
Essae Chandran Institute Hints for Constructing a C &
E Diagram
• Identify all the relevant causes (factors)
& the causes most strongly influencing
the effect (characteristic).
• Express the effect (characteristic)
“negatively”.
• The linking question between effect and
its cause is “WHY ?”.
• Make the same number of cause and
effect diagrams as that of effects.
Scatter
Diagram
Identifying Correlation
Essae Chandran Institute Scatter Diagram
A chart used to study and identify the
possible relationship between two
variables.
Essae Chandran Institute Scatter Diagram – Contd..
 To identify the possible relationship

between the changes observed in
two variables.
 To establish the
– Existence of correlation
– Type of correlation
– Strength of the relation

 To confirm a hypothesis (assumption) that

two variables are related.
 Provide both visual and statistical means

to test the strength of a potential
relationship.
 Provide a good follow up to a cause and

effect diagram to find out if there is more
than just a consensus connection between
causes and effects.
Essae Chandran Institute Examples of Two Variables
 Cake height and Oven temperature.
 Weight and Height of a person.
 Population & Literacy levels in a state.
 Weight error and Earthing voltage.
 Nonconformance & Operator experience

Examples of Two Variables –
Contd..
 Hardness & Carbon content
 Inspection Mistakes & Illumination levels
 Elongation of threads & Moisture content
 Child’s height & Father’s height
 Quality characteristic and the Factor

affecting it.
Essae Chandran Institute Weight & Height of a Person
110
100
90
Weight (kg)
80
70
60
50
40
155 160 165 170 175 180 185 190
Height (cm)
Essae Chandran Institute Capacitance & Line Width
Capacitance (Pictofarads) 3.5
2.5
1.5
0.5
30 40 50 60 70 80
Line Width / Spacing (in microns)

Steps in making a Scatter
Diagram
1. Collect paired data.
2. Choose independent and dependent variable.
3. Draw the axes.
4. Plot the points
5. Label and title the chart
6. Interpret the chart.

Essae Chandran Institute Step 1: Collect Data
Collect 50 – 100 paired data (X,Y) between
which you want to study the relation, and
construct a data sheet
Sample Oven Temperature Cake Height
1 60o 3.2 cm
2 49o 2.8 cm
3 57o 3.0 cm
. . .
. . .
60 68o 3.3 cm
Step 2 : Choose Independent
and Dependent Variables.
 Always choose ‘X’ axis for the

cause and ‘Y’ axis for the effect,
when the two variables consist of a
factor and quality characteristics.
– Oven Temperature = Independent
– Cake Height = Dependent
 Find the respective maximum and

minimum values of the variable.
Essae Chandran Institute Step 3 : Draw the Axes.
5
4.5 Dependent Variable,

4
Cake Height
3.5
3
Independent Variable,
2.5
Oven Temperature
2
35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
Essae Chandran Institute Step 4 : Plot the data
5
4.5
3.5
2.5
2
35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
Essae Chandran Institute Step 5 : Label & Title the chart
Oven Temperature vs. Cake Height
5
Cake Height (cm)
4.5
3.5
2.5
2
35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
Oven Temperature (oC)
Essae Chandran Institute Step 6 : Interpreting the Chart
Strong Positive Correlation
3.5
Increase in x, will increase
y
Variable y, Dependent
2.5
1.5
1
35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
Variable x, Independent
Step 6 : Interpreting the Chart
– Contd..
Strong Negative Correlation

-1
Increase in x, will decrease y
35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
-1.5
-2
-2.5
-3
-3.5
– Contd..
Positive Correlation
3.5
Increase in x, may
increase y
2.5
1.5
1
35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
– Contd..
Negative Correlation
-1
Increase in x, may Decrease y
35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
-1.5
-2
-2.5
-3
-3.5
– Contd..
No Correlation
3.5
2.5
1.5
1
30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
Control
Chartand
Understanding
Reducing Variation.
Essae Chandran Institute Control Chart
It is a type of run chart used for
studying process performance
over time in order to understand
and reduce variation.

Essae Chandran Institute Father of Control Chart
 Dr. Walter A. Shewhart

invented the control chart.
 He was working in Bell Labs

on a project to make all
telephones alike.
 Published the book

“Economic Control of
Quality of Manufactured
Product” in 1931.
Essae Chandran Institute Principles of Variation
1. Every process is subject to variation.
2. More the variation in the process,

more the loss to society.
3. Two types of causes affect variation.

a. Common Cause (also known as
Chronic cause, Chance cause)
Principles of Variation –
Essae Chandran Institute Contd..
b. Special Cause (also known as

Sporadic cause, Assignable
cause)
4. Action on variation entirely depends

on type of cause identified.
Essae Chandran Institute Common Cause
The cumulative effect of many small and

“individually uncontrollable” causes of
variation in a process.
Special Cause
One or a few causes of variation that

result in a large variation in the process.
Essae Chandran Institute Common vs. Special Cause
Common Cause Special Cause
• Consists of many • Consists of one or a
individual causes. few causes.
• Results in relatively • Results in large

smaller variation. variation.
• Process need not • Process needs to

be tampered with. be investigated and
corrected.
• Process is consi-
dered stable. • Process is unstable.
 Control chart is used for differentiating
between common causes and special
causes of variation.
 Control chart also helps in determining

whether the
– process is stable.
– process is capable.
 It helps in predicting process performance.

Essae Chandran Institute Types of Data
Variable Data
Data that can be measured.
E.g.: Weight, Length, Diameter,
Hardness, Angle.
Attribute Data
Data that can be counted.
E.g.: Defects, Scratches, Dent,
Spatters,
Blow holes, cracks.
Classification of Control
Essae Chandran Institute Chart
Control Chart
Variable Data Attribute

Data
X – R Chart
X – mR chart p chart
mX – mR Chart c chart
np chart
u chart
Essae Chandran Institute Example of Control Chart
26.25
UCLx
Diameter (mm)
26.00
25.75
25.50
X
25.25
25.00
24.75
LCLx
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
2.0
UCLR
Range (mm)
1.5
1.0
R
0.5
0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 LCLR
Sub-group
Essae Chandran Institute Parts of a Control Chart
X – Axis Central
Variable Line
Data
Diameter (mm)
26.25
26.00 UCLx
25.75
25.50 X
25.25
25.00
LCLx
24.75
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Sub-Group Contro Data

l Points
Limits
Essae Chandran Institute Definition of Terms
 Sub Group
– Smaller groups of sample data collected over
time.
 Central Line
– The average of all the sub group averages.
 Control Limits
– The outer limits of “Process Variation”.
Control Limit vs. Specification
Limit
Control Limit Specification Limit

 Variation in the  Requirement of the
process. customer.
 “Noise of the  “Voice of the

process”. customer”.
 Limits change with
setting, correction,  Limits change only
process changes etc. when customer
wishes to change.
 Indicates Capability.
 Indicates
Requirement.
Steps in Constructing a
Control Chart
1. Collect the data.
2. Calculate sub–group average.
3. Calculate overall average.
4. Calculate the range.
5. Compute average of range.
6. Calculate control limits for X and R
7. Plot the chart.
8. Interpret the chart.

Step 1: Collect Data
Collect and stratify data into sub-groups.
Sub- X1 X2 X3 X4 X5
Group
1 47 32 44 35 20
2 19 37 31 25 34
3 29 11 16 11 44
4 28 29 42 59 38
Step 2: Calculate Subgroup
Average,
X
X1 + X 2 + X 3 + X 4 + X 5
X1 =
n
47 + 32 + 44 + 35 + 20
X1 = = 35.6
5
where n is the size of the subgroup.
Essae Chandran Institute Step 3: Calculate the Overall
Average,X
X1+ X 2 + X 3 + X 4
X =
k
35 .6 + 29 .2 + 22 .2 + 39 .2
X =
4
where k is the number of subgroups.
Essae Chandran Institute Step 4: Calculate the
Subgroup Range, R
R = Maximum Value – Minimum Value
R1 = 47 – 20 = 37
Essae Chandran Institute Step 5: Calculate the Average
of Ranges,
R
R1 + R 2 + R 3 + R 4
R=
k
27 +18 + 33 + 31
R= = 27 .25
4
where k is the number of subgroups.
Step 6: Compute Control
Limits
 Control Limits for Xchart

 Central Line = X
 Upper Control Limit :
UCL X = X + A2 R
 Lower Control Limit :
LCL = X − A R
X 2
 A2 is the coefficient whose value depends

on
the subgroup size
Step 6 : Control Limits for R
Chart
 Central Line : R
 Upper Control Limit : UCL R = D4 R
 Lower Control Limit : LCL R = D3 R

 D3 and D4 are coefficients whose
value depend on the subgroup size.
Step 6: Coefficients for –R
chart X
Subgroup X Chart R Chart
Size
n A2 D3 D4 d2
2 1.880 0 3.267 1.128
3 1.023 0 2.574 1.693
4 0.729 0 2.282 2.059
5 0.577 0 2.114 2.326
6 0.483 0 2.004 2.534
Essae Chandran Institute Step 7 : Plot the Control Chart
 Vertical Axis:X and R values
 Horizontal Axis : Sub–group number
X
 Draw the central line : and R.
 Draw the control limit lines.

Essae Chandran Institute Step 7 : Plot the Control Chart
– Contd..
 Plot the X and R values and join the
points.
 Write necessary items like name of

the process, product, size of the
subgroup, work conditions, shift,
etc.
Essae Chandran Institute Step 8 : Interpret the chart
Process Stability Process

 Look at the pattern of Capability
variation.
– Should be random and
 Establish process
not a systematic variation.
pattern.
 Compare with
 Look for presence of
special causes.
customer speci-
– 5 rules of special cause fication and
identification. establish process
capability.
Essae Chandran Institute Stable Process
X bar or R
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
- Random variation and no systematic

pattern
- No action required (if Cpk > 1.67)
Rule 1: Points beyond Control
Limit
X bar or R
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
- Presence of special cause

- Identify root cause and take action.
Rule 2: Run of 7 points on one
side
of Central Line
X bar or R
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

- Process has shifted.
Essae Chandran Institute Rule 3: Six Consecutive Points
Increasing or Decreasing
X bar or R
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

- Process is deteriorating.
Essae Chandran Institute Rule 4: Periodicity
X bar or R
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

- Periodic Interference in the process.
Essae Chandran Institute Rule 5: Fourteen Consecutive
Points Alternating Up and Down
X bar or R
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
- Presence of special cause.

- Identify root cause and take action.
Essae Chandran Institute Process Capability
Process Capability is a measure of

inherent variability of the process
when compared with the customer
requirements.
 Assess capability of a process to meet
customer’s requirement.
 Assist in selecting or modifying a process.
 Assist in selection of machine.
 To build quality into the product and

process rather than achieving quality by
inspection.
Essae Chandran Institute Process Capability Assessment
 Establish Process Variation
Process Variation = 6
R
σ=
d2
 d2 is a constant based on sub – group
size.
– Refer slide number 101 / PST&T / O -
22
Compare with Customer
Specification
Customer Requirement
Capability
= Process Variation
USL − LSL
Cp =
6σ
Cp > 1.33; Process is more capable
than customer
requirement
Specification – Contd..
Cp = 1.0; Process is just capable of

meeting customer’s require-
ment
Cp< 1.0; Process is not capable of

meeting customer’s requirement
Specification – Contd..
 (USL − X ) ( X − LSL) 
Cpk = Minimum  ; 
 3σ 3σ 
Cpk = Cp; Process is centred with

respect
to customer’s requirement.
Cpk  Cp; Process is NOT centred with

respect to customer’s
requirement.
Essae Chandran Institute Accidents in a Factory
Total Accidents : 94
A - Accidents with respect to Head : 1
B - Accidents with respect to Face : 3
C - Accidents with respect to Body : 7
D - Accidents with respect to Hand : 9
E - Accidents with respect to Fingers : 69
F - Accidents with respect to Leg : 5
94
Essae Chandran Institute Cause Percentage
Percentage
Cummulative
Percentage
E 69 / 94 x 100 = 73.40% 73.40 %
D 9 / 94 x 100 = 9.57% 82.97 %
C 7/ 94 x 100 = 7.45% 90.42 %
F 5 / 94 x 100 = 5.32% 95.74%
B 3 / 94 x 100 = 3.19% 98.93%
A 1 / 94 x 100 = 1.07% 100.00%
100.00%
90
80
69
70 73.4%
60
Frequency
50
E : VITAL FEW D, C. F. B, A = TRIVIAL
40 MANY
30
20
9 7
10 5 3 1
0
E D C F B A
Causes
“VITAL FEW FROM TRIVIAL MANY”
A “PCB” Rejected 30% @ Wave Soldering Stage
Causes :
A - Wrong Mounting - 3
B - Compt Missing - 2
C - Dry Solder - 16
D - Compt Jumping - 8
E - Wrong Polarity - 1
30
Rearranging the same
Causes :
C 16 16 / 30 * 100 = 53.33%
53.34%
D 8 8 / 30 * 100 = 26.66%
80.00%
A 3 3 / 30 * 100 = 10.00%
90.00%
B 2 2 / 30 * 100 = 6.66%
96.66%
E 1 1 /30 * 100 = 3.33%

30
96.6 100
25
%
90
20 80
16
Percentage
Frequency
15
10
8
5
3
2
1 C+D : 80%
0
C D A B E A, B, E : 20%
Causes
Eg : A casting machine had 32% rejection
Causes :
A Due to Workmanship : 3
B Due to Casting Quality : 8

81.25%
C Due to Cutter Problem : 18
D Due to Machine problem : 2
E Due to Miscellaneous causes : 1
32
Data Structuring
Item Number Cummulative Percentage Cummulative
Total Percentage
C 18 18 56.25 56.25
B 8 26 25.00 81.25
A 3 29 9.37 90.62
D 2 31 6.25 96.87
E 1 32 3.13 100.00
40 100
35
90.6 96.8
80 7
2
30
81.2
5
Cummulative Percentage
25
60
Percentage
20
56.2
5 40
15
C+B : 81.25% = Vital few
25
A, D, E = Trivial many
10
18 20
5
8 9.37
3 2
0 1 0
C B A D E
6.25 3.13
Essae Chandran Institute Cause & Effect Diagram
Performance Planning Capacity

Monitoring Scheduling Assessment
Efficiency Identify Line Balance Shortage

Work Load
Bottle Neck MRP
Excessive
Monitoring Overtime
Training Mgmt. Style
Rejections Resignations
QC Rework
Wages
QC
Transport
Environment
High
Quality
Turnover
Cause & Effect Diagram depicting
the causes for Divorces
Family
Pressure
Incompatibility Ego
Social Demands Disliking Family
Sexual Superior
(Like Dowry) Members Educatio
n
Staying away Thought Family
Popularity
Special
Family Talent
Religious Over family Torture
affiliation by Rich Family
Work either spouse
Cultural Successful Background
Profession
Divorce
Non Inability to
Sexual availability earn Spirituality Character
Miser Illness
Materialistic (Like mental,
Greed Affairs psychological)
Monetary Popularity Spend
Insecurity
Thrift
Personal
Behavioural
Workaholic
Failure in Money
expectations
Distraction
Over s
Possessivenes
s
Essae Chandran Institute Q.C.C - Case Studies
 Reducing Rejections
 Reducing Cycle Time
 Reducing Consumables Cost
 Reducing Energy Cost
 Design Change
 Improving manufacturing process
 Eratic behaviour of machine
 Elimination of canteen Coupons
Essae Chandran Institute Q.C.C - Case Studies
 Elimination of Leave Application

 Elimination of mosquito menace in the colony
 Raising blood donations
 Reducing accidents
 Improving management education
 Improving security of goods in an organisation
 Improving Environment of Organisation
 Improving Safety provisions
Essae Chandran Institute Otto Bilz India Pvt. Ltd.
World Class Manufacturing Goals &
Targets
Sl.No Targets
. Goals Present / 2002
2003 2004 2005
1. Quality level 43545 PPM 2000 PPM 500 PPM 100 PPM
2. On time Delivery 43.05% >95% >98% 100%
3. Customer Satisfaction 7.3 in 10 Scale 8.5 in 10 9.0 in 10 9.5 in 10

scale scale scale
4. Employee Satisfaction To be measured 8.5 in 10 9.0 in 10 9.5 in 10

scale scale scale
5. Supplier Satisfaction To be measured 8.5 in 10 9.0 in 10 9.5 in 10

scale scale scale
Targets
Sl.No Targets
. Goals Present / 2002 2003 2004 2005
6. OEE 43% >65% >75% >85%

7. SGA 0 60 Nos. 100 Nos. 120 Nos.
8. Suggestion / Kaizen 0 300 Nos. 600 Nos. 1000 Nos.
9. Training Hrs / 5 man-days @ 5 man-days / 6 man- 7 man-

Employee / Year 35% Employee days days /
/Employee Employee
10. New customer for 16% 25% 35% 40%
existing product
New product for
existing customer
Targets
Sl.No Targets
. Goals Present / 2002 2003 2004 2005
11. Inventory Turn over 3.95 8 15 25

ratio
12. Sales Turn over 8 crores 10 crores 15 crores 25 crores
13. Std hrs cleared / 80 hrs 125 hrs 140 hrs 160 hrs
Employee / month
14. Debtors’ Turnover 69 days 45 days 40 days 30 days
Ratio
15. Certification Preparation ISO 14001 /
TS 16949
OSHAS
World Class Manufacturing
Goals & Targets
Sl.No Targets
. Goals Present / 2002
2003 2004 2005
16. Golden peacock Nil Implemen- Golden

award tation peacock
17. CII Excellence Nil
award Preparation Award 2006
18. Deming Award Nil
19. 6 Sigma Three Initiation 4 Sigma 5 Sigma
20. Quality cost / Sales Rs.4300000 Rs.3 lakhs @ Rs.1 lakh Rs.50000
@ 5.3% 0.3% @ 0.07% @ 0.02
World Class Manufacturing
Internal Goals & Targets
Sl.No Targets
. Goals Present
2003 2004 2005
1. Customer complaints 30 nos. 5 2 0
2. Operating profit % to sales -1.3% 15% 20% 25%
3. EVA % to Expected return -5% 5% 15% 30%
4. Energy cost to sales 5% 4% 3.5% 3%
5. Value added Per Employee 2.14 lakhs 3.25 4.5 7.0
EVA : Economic Value Addition

Essae Chandran Institute What is Kaizen ?
 Kaizen means continuous improvement
 Kaizen is basically small small improvements

carried out by the person who is doing the job in
his day to day work
 Continuous improvement everyday through

involvement of everyone in the organisation is
the key for excellence.
Piling small improvements on top of each other

The Kaizen philosophy implies that :
 Whatever we do can be continuously improved-

be it our working life or personal life.
 Kaizen is something that anybody can do, every

operator must devote time for making
improvements.
 Kaizen means looking at everyday work in a

new way, seeking out area, aspects of work to
improve upon, it represents the struggles on the
job, and the means adopted to overcome these
struggles – with intuition, creativity,
resourcefulness, common sense and
determination – to break the status quo.
 Kaizen in essence, means adopting a new way,
not just of doing work, but a new way of
thinking, one in which problems are not
shunned but eagerly sought out, welcomed and
solved.
Kaizen means creating a place where
employees feel better at work.
- Y. Yasuda
KAIZEN INNOVATIO
N
Small Steps Big Steps
Conventional Know-How Technological Breakthrough
Efforts Investment
Process-Oriented Result-Oriented
Slow-Growth Economy Fast-Growth Economy

Cultural Differences Between
Essae Chandran Institute Kaizen and Traditional
Organisations
Sl.N Item Kaizen Traditional
o.
1. Management Culture Preventive Crisis
2. View of customer Market-In Product-Out
3. View of people Assets Costs
4. Shop floor (GEMBA) Improvement Source Problem / Failure
Source
5. Shop floor methods Constant ImprovementStatic and Routine
6. Measurements Trends of End result only

Improvement
7. Support staff Serving Shop Floor Critical of shop
floor
8. Problem focus of Treasures Rejection
solutions
Cultural Differences Between
Kaizen and Traditional
Organisations
Sl.N Item Kaizen Traditional
o.
9. Information Shared / Open Restricted / Closed
10. Approach to Employee Strengths Weakness
11. Appraisal Unions Partners Adversary

12. Development On-going learning Do as told
13. Supervision Despecialise Specialise
14. Career approach Coach Inspector
15. Movement Slow / Broadening Fast / Skimming
16. Management Concern Cross – Functional Functional control
Support Process Results only.
Results change long Routine short term
term
▲ Market-In ▲ Kanban
▲ TQC ▲ Quality Improvement
▲ Industrial Robots ▲ Just-In-Time
▲ QC Circles ▲ Zero Defects
▲ Suggestion System ▲ Small Group Activities
▲ Automation ▲ Labour-Management
▲ Discipline in the workplace Relations
▲ TPM
▲ Productivity Improvement
▲ New-Product Development
KAIZEN UMBRELLA

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Essae Chandran Institute

A technique used to divide data

classification to provide useful

insight into the problem.

• Root Word is “Strata” which means

• Stratification is an act of dividing

• Data comes from difference

• Data sometimes masks real

• Stratification helps in getting

• Divide the data and Conquer the

• Reached late to office on following

• Stratified data by day of the week.

Date 3/6 4/6 5/6

1. List all conditions

2. Collect and Stratify Data

3. Interpret the Data

• List all conditions that may seem to be the

• Collect additional data based on

• Stratify data based on the

• Calculate average of each

• Look for significant differences OR

• Generate a list of possible causes.

Pareto Chart is a diagram that shows

• Dr. Joseph M. Juran applied

• Pareto Principle : 80 % of the problems

B Server Crash 23 52+23=75 75/136 = 55%

C Print Problems 11 75+11=86 63%

80% 120 80%

800 60% 60%

Creativity and Collective Wisdom

Diagnose, Solve and Prevent

Technique for a team to

creatively and efficiently generate

the greatest possible number of

ideas on any topic.

• Author of Book “Applied

• Person close to the job knows more

• Encourages OPEN thinking.

• Enables people to participate in a

• Minimizes domination by a few people.

1. Stating the Problem.

2. Re – stating the problem.

4. Evaluating the ideas produced.

• Relaxed and cordial atmosphere.

• Information to all members about

• All ideas should be recorded and

• All should participate.

– Wilder, Off–beat, Erratic, Stupid, Trail–

– Evoke fun atmosphere

– Heart rules over Head

• Combination and Improvement of

• Six Persons - Six Minutes Formula.

Cause and Effect

A diagram which represents

A diagram which shows the

• A cause and effect diagram is good for

• Enables identification of root causes and

• Dr. Kaoru Ishikawa

• Dr. Juran named it as

1. Dispersion Analysis type.