Chapter 3 Vectors in

2-Space and 3Space

Chapter Contents

3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5

Introduction to Vectors (Geometric)

Norm of a Vector; Vector Arithmetic
Dot Product; Projections
Cross Product
Lines and Planes in 3-Space

3.1 Introduction to
Vectors
(Geometric)

Geometric Vectors

Symbolically, we shall denote vectors in lowercase

boldface type. All our scalars will be real numbers
and will be denoted in lowercase italic type

terminal point
initial point

The vector of
length
zero is called the
zero
vector and is
denoted
by 0.
Since there is no
natural direction for
the zero vector
the negative of v, is
defined to be the
vector having the
same magnitude as
v,

Definition

If v and w are any two

vectors, then the sum
v+w is the vector
determined as follows:
Position the vector w so
that its initial point
coincides with the
terminal point of v. The
vector v+w is
represented by the arrow
from the initial point of v
to the terminal point of
w.

Definition

If v and w are any

two vectors, then
the difference of w
from v is defined
by
v w = v + (-w)

Definition

If v is a nonzero vector
and k is nonzero real
number (scalar), then the
product kv is defined to be
the vector whose length is
|k| times the length of v
and whose direction is the
same as that of v if k > 0
and opposite to that of v if
k < 0. We define kv =0 if k
= 0 or v = 0.

A vector of the form kv is

called a scalar multiple.

Vectors in coordinate
Systems(1/2)

In Figure 3.1.6, that v

has been positioned so
its initial point is at the
origin of a rectangular
coordinate system. The
coordinates v1 , v2
of the terminal point of
v are called the
components of v, and
we write
v (v , v )
1

Vectors in coordinate
Systems(2/2)

If v (v1 , v2 ) and w ( w1 , w2 )
two vectors are
w1 and
v2 if w2
equivalentv1ifand
only
and

Vectors in 3-Space (1/4)

coordinate axes

origin

rectangular coordinate system

Each pair of
coordinate
axes determines a
plane
called a coordinate
plane. These are
referred to as the xyplane, the xz-plane,
and the yz-plane.
To each point P in 3space we assign a
triple
of numbers (x, y, z),
called the
coordinates

Vectors in 3-Space (2/4)

Rectangular
coordinate systems in
3-space fall into two
categories, lefthanded and righthanded.
In this book we shall
use only right-handed
coordinate systems.

Vectors in 3-Space (3/4)

If
v
then

A vector v in 3-space is
positioned so its initial point is
at the origin of a rectangular
coordinate system. The
coordinates of the terminal
(v1 , v2 ,the
v3 )
point of v arev called
components of v, and we write

in 3-space,
(v1 , v2 , v3 ) and w ( w1are
, w2two
, w3vectors
)

v and w are equivalent if and only if v1 w1 , v2 w2 , v3 w3

v w (v1 w1 , v2 w2 , v3 w3 )
kv (kv1 , kv2 , kv3 ), where k is any scalar

Vectors in 3-Space (4/4)

Sometimes a vector is positioned so that
its initial point is not at the origin.
If the vector P1 P2 has initial point P1 ( x1 , y1 , z1 )
and terminal point P2 ( x2 , y2 , z 2 ), then
P1 P2 ( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) ( x2 x1 , y2 y1 , z 2 z1 )

In 2 - space the vector with initial point P1 ( x1 y1 ) and terminal point

P1 ( x1 y1 ) is
P1 P2 ( x2 x1 , y2 y1 )

Example 1
Vector Computations with
Components
If v=(1,-3,2) and w=(4,2,1),then
v + w=(5,-1,3), 2v=(2,-6,4) -w=(-4,2,-1),
v w=v + (-w)=(-3,-5,1)

Example 2
Finding the components of a
Vector
The components of the vector v P1 P2 with initial point P1 (2,1,4)
and terminal point P2 (7,5,8) are
v (7 2,5 (1), (8) 4) (5,6,12)

Translation of Axes

In Figure 3.1.14a we have translated

the axes of an xy-coordinate system
to obtain an xy-coordinate system
whose O is at point (x ,y)=(k ,l ).

A point P in 2-space now has both (x

,y) coordinates and (x ,y)
coordinates.

x= x k , y= y l , these formulas
are called the translation equations.

In 3-space the translation equations

are x= x k , y= y l , z= z m
where ( k, l, m ) are the xyzcoordinates of the xyz-origin.

Example 3
Using the Translation Equations
(1/2)

Suppose that an xy-coordinate system is

translated to obtain an xy-coordante system
whose origin has xy-coordinates (k ,l )=(4,1).
(a) Find the xy-coordinate of the point with
the xy-coordinates P(2,0)
(b) Find the xy-coordinate of the point with
the xy-coordinates Q(-1,5)

Example 3
Using the Translation Equations
(2/2)

Solution (a). The translation equations are

x=x-4, y=y-1
so the xy-coordinate of P(2,0) are x=2-4=-2 and
y=0-1=-1.
Solution (b). The translation equations in (a) can be
written as
x=x+4, y=y+1
so the xy-coordinate of Q are x=-1+4=3 and
y=5+1=6.

3.2 Norm of a Vector;

Vector
Arithmetic

Theorem 3.2.1
Properties of Vector
Arithmetic

If u, v and w are vectors

in 2- or 3-space and k
and l are scalars, then
the following
relationship

Norm of a Vector (1/2)

The length of a vector u is often called

the norm of u and is denoted by u .

Figure (a): it follows from the Theorem of

Pythagoras that the norm of a vector

u (u1 , u2 )in 2-space is

Figure (b): Let

in 3-space.

u u12 u22

u (u1 , u2 , u3 )be a vector

u u12 u22 u32

A vector of norm 1 is called a unit vector.

Norm of a Vector (2/2)

If P1 ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and P2 ( x2 , y2 , z 2 )
are two points in 3-space,
then the distance s between
them is the norm Pof
1 P2vector

P1 P2 ( x2 x1 , y2 y1 , z 2 z1 )

Similarly in 2-space:

the length of the vector ku : ku k u

Example 1
Finding Norm and Distance
The norm of the vector u (-3,2,1 ) is
u (3) 2 (2) 2 (1) 2 14
The distance d betwwen the points P1 (2,-1,5) and P2 (4,3,1) is
d (4 2) 2 (3 1) 2 (1 5) 2 44 2 11

3.3 Dot Product;

Projections

The Angle Between

Vectors

Let u and v be two nonzero vectors in 2space or 3-space, and assume these vectors
have been positioned so their initial points
coincided. By the angle between u and v,
we shall mean the angle determined by u
and v that satisfies 0 .

Component Form of the Dot

Product (1/2)
Let u (u1 , u2 , u3 ) and v (v1 , v2 , v3 ) be two nonzero vectors.
If as shown in figure 3.3.3, is the angle between u and v,
then the law of cosines yields
2

PQ u v - 2 u v cos

(2)

Since PQ v u , we can rewrite (2) as

2

u v cos ( u v v u )
1
2

or

u v 12 ( u v v u )

Component Form of the Dot

Product (2/2)
Substituting
2

u u1 u 2 u3 ,
and

v v1 v2 v3

v u (v1 u1 ) 2 (v2 u2 ) 2 (v3 u3 ) 2

we obtain after Simplfying

u v u1v1 u2 v2 u3v3
Similarly in 2 - space :

u v u1v1 u2 v2

The formula is also valid if u=0 or v=0.

Finding the Angle Between

Vectors

If u and v are nonzero vectors then

u v u v cos
it also can be written as

u v
cos
u v

(1)

Example 2
Dot Product Using [3]

Example 4
Finding Dot products from
Components

Orthogonal Vectors

Perpendicular vectors are also called

orthogonal vectors.
In light of Theorem 3.l.1b, two nonzero
vectors are orthogonal if and only if
their dot product is zero.
To indicate that u and v are orthogonal
vectors we write u v.

Example 5
A Vector Perpendicular to a
Line
Show that in 2-space the nonzero vector

n=(a,b) is perpendicular to the line

ax+by+cz=0.
Let P1 ( x1 , y1 ) and P2 ( x2 , y2 ) be distinct points on the line, so that
Solution
ax1 by1 c 0
ax2 by2 c 0

(6)

Since the vector P1 P2 ( x2 x1 , y2 y1 ) runs along the line (Figure 3.3.5),

we need only show that n and P1 P2 are perpendicular. But on subtracting
the equations in (6) we obtain
a( x2 x1 ) b( y2 y1 ) 0
which can be expressed in the form
( a, b) ( x2 x1 , y2 y1 ) 0 or n P1 P2 0
Thus, n and P1 P2 are perpendicular.

Theorem 3.3.2
Properties of the Dot
Product
If u, v and w are vectors in 2- or 3space and k is a scalar, then:

An Orthogonal Projection
(1/2)

To "decompose" a vector u into a sum of two

terms, one parallel to a specified nonzero
vector a and the other perpendicular to a.
Figure 3.3.6: Drop a perpendicular from the
tip of u to the line through a, and construct
the vector w1 from Q.
w2 u w1 then w1 w2 w1 (u w1 ) u
Next form the difference:

An Orthogonal Projection
(2/2)

The vector w1 is called the orthogonal

projection of u on a or sometimes the
vector component of u along
proja.a Itu is
denoted by

(7)

w2 u w1
The vector w1 is called the vector
component of u orthogonal to a. Since we
have
, this vector can be written
w2 u proj a u
in notation (7) as

Example 6
Vector Component of u Along
a
Let u (2,1,3) and a (4,1,2). Find the vector component of u along a
and the vector component of u orthogonal to a.
Solution :

u a (2)(4) (1)(1) (3)(2) 15

2

a 4 2 (1) 2 2 2 21
Thus, the vector component of u along a is
ua
20
5 10
proj a u 2 a 15
21 ( 4, 1, 2) ( 7 , 7 , 7 )
a
and the vector component of u orthogonal to a is
u proj a u (2,1,3) ( 207 , 75 , 107 ) ( 76 , 72 , 117 )
Verify tha t the vector u proj a u and a are perpendicular by showing that
their dot product is zero.

Example 7
Distance Between a Point and
Line
(1/2)
Find aa
formula
for the distance
D between point P ( x , y ) and the line ax by c 0.
0

Solution :

Let Q ( x1 , y1 ) be any point on the line and position the vector n (a, b) so that its initial
point is at Q.
By virtue of Example5, the vector n is perpendicular to the line (Fig 3.3.8).
As indicated in the figure, the distance D is equal to the length of the orthogonal
projection of QP0 on n; thus,
D proj n QP0
But

QP0 n
n

QP0 ( x0 x1 , y0 y1 ),

QP0 n a( x0 x1 ) b( y0 y1 ),

n a2 b2

Example 7
Distance Between a Point and
a Line (2/2)
Solution (count)
so that
D

a ( x0 x1 ) b( y0 y1 )

(12)

a b
Since the point Q( x1 , y1 ) lies on the line, its coordinates satisfy
2

the equation of the line, so

ax1 by1 c 0 or c ax1 by1
Substituti ng this expression in (12) yields the formula
D

ax0 by0 c
a b
2

(13)

Example 8
Using the Distance
Formula

It follows from Formula (13) that the distance D from the point (1,-2)
to the line 3x 4y - 6 0 is

(3)(1) 4(2) 6
32 4 2

11
25

11
5

3.4 Cross Product

Cross Product of Vectors

Recall from Section 3.3 that the dot

product of two vectors in 2-space or
3-space produces a scalar.
We will now define a type of vector
multiplication that produces a
vector as the product, but which is
applicable only in 3-space.

Example 1
Calculating a Cross
Product

Example 2
uv Is Perpendicular to u and
to v

Determinant Form of Cross

Product (1/2)

A cross product can be represented

symbolically in the form of 3 3
determinant:

For example :

if u (1,2,-2) and v (3,0,1), then

i j k
u v 1 2 2 2i 7 j 6k
3 0 1

Example 5
Calculating a Scalar Triple
Product (1/2)

Independence of Cross
Product and Coordinates
Question: two fixed vectors u and v might have different
(2/2)
cross products in different coordinate systems.

Recall :

the direction
the length

Since these properties of u x v depend only on the lengths

and relative positions of u and v and not on the particular
right-hand coordinate system being used.
Thus, we say that the definition of u x v is coordinate free.
This result is of importance to physicists and engineers
who often work with many coordinate systems in the same
problem.

3.5 Lines and Planes

in 3-Space

Planes in 3-Space

One can specify a plane in 3-space by giving its

inclination and specifying one of its points.
A convenient method for a plane is to specify a nonzero
vector, called a normal, that is perpendicular to the
plane.
We want toPfind
the equation of a plane passing through
0 ( x0 , y0 , z 0 )
the point
; and have a nonzero vector n =
(a. b. c) as a normal. From Figure 3.5.1:

the vector P0 P is orthogonal to n, that is,

n P0 P 0
a ( x x0 ) b( y y0 ) c( z z0 ) 0
We call this the point-normal form of the equation
of a plane.

Example 1
Finding the Point-Normal
Equation of a Plane

The Solution of a System in

3-Space
the solution of a system
ax by cz k1
dx ey fz k 2
gx hy iz k3
correspond to the
points of intersection
of three planes.

Example 2
Equation of a Plane Through
Three Points (1/2)

Example 2
Equation of a Plane Through
Three Points (2/2)

Vector Form of Equation of

a Plane

Referring to Figure 3.5.3, let r=( x, y, z) be the

vector from the origin to the point P (x , y, z),

let r0 ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) be the vector from the origin

to the point P0 (x 0 , y 0 , z 0 ) and let n (a, b, c) be
a vector normal to the plane. Then P0 P r - r0 , so
n (r r0 ) 0

This is called the vector form of the equation of a

plane.

Example 3
Vector Equation of a Plane
Using(5)

Lines in 3-space
We shall now show how to obtain equations for lines
in 3 - space. Suppose that l is the line 3 - space through
the point P0 ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) and parallel to the nonzero
vector v (a, b, c). It is clear (Figure 3.5.4) that l
consists precisely of those points P( x, y, z )
for which the vector P0 P is parallel to v,
that is, for which there is a dalar t such that
P0 P tv

(6)

Example 4
Parametric Equations of a
Line

Example 5
Intersection of a Line and the
xy-Plane

Example 6
Line of Intersection of Two
Planes

Vector form of Equation of

a Line

Example 7
A Line Parallel to a Given
Vector

Example 8
Distance Between a Pont and
a Plane

Example 9
Distance Between Parallel
Planes