Chapter Five

Fluid Measurement

OBJECT

At the end of this chapter the student

should be able to:
Describe the importance of flow
sensing and its problem
Describe the principle of operation of
different flow meter
Describe the constructional and mean
aspects of differential meter.

WHY IT IS IMPORTANT?

Almost all practical fluids engineering problems are

associated with the need for an accurate flow
measurement, since sometimes the material
transport from place to other entails payment of
financial dues
There is a need to measure :
local properties (velocity, pressure, temperature,
density, viscosity, turbulent intensity),
integrated properties (mass flow and volume flow),
global properties (visualization of the entire flow
field).

WHAT WE MEASURE
Liquid
Gases
Multiphase fluid
Solids
Custody Transfer Measuring System
Meter measurement system
Tank measuring system
Measuring system by balance

LOCAL VELOCITY MEASURMENTS

1. Trajectory of floats or neutrally buoyant

particles
2. Rotating mechanical devices
a. Cup anemometer
b. Savonius rotor c. Propeller meter d. Turbine
meter
3. Pitot-static tube
4. Electromagnetic current meter
5. Hot wires and hot films
6. Laser-doppler anemometer (LDA)

VOLUME-MASS MEASURMENTS

These devices split into two classes:

mechanical instruments
1. Mass measurement
a. Weighing tanks
b. Tilting traps
2. Volume measurement
a. Volume tanks
b. Reciprocating pistons
c. Rotating slotted rings
d. Nutating disk
head-loss instruments.
1. Bernoulli-type devices
a. Thin-plate orifice
b. Flow nozzle c. Venturi tube
2. Friction-loss devices
a. Capillary tube
b. Porous plug
There are other widely used meters operate on different physical principles:
1. Turbine meter
2. Vortex meter
3. Ultrasonic flowmeter

TYPES OF FLOW MEASURING

The flow measurements can be classified into:

Obstructive Device
Differential pressure flow meter like:
Venture, orifice, pitot tube
Rotameter
Turbines
Non-obstructive
Electormegnatic
Ultrasonic
Cross-correlation

DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE FLOW METER

Its widely used to measure the liquid

and gas
The principle is that a restriction is
placed in the pipe and the differential
pressure developed across the
restriction is measured
The differential pressure output is
calibrated in terms of volumetric flow
rate (not mass this will need density)

1- ORIFICE METER

The primary element of an orifice

meter is simply a flat plate containing
a drilled (hole) located in a pipe
perpendicular to the direction of fluid
flow

Or

2- VENTURI METER

Or

These equations for venture and orifice are valid

for
Turbulent flow
Incompressible flow
For gases : additional expansibility factor
The values of discharge coeffiecient depends on
Type of flow measurement; venture and orifice
Diameter ratio
Reynold number

CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

No moving parts, cheap, maintainable

Well established, calibration available
Permanent head loss
Nonlinear relationship, so its not use for low pressure
since the pressure has square root with velocity
Discharge coefficient changes with wear, flow
distribution
Generally applicable for clean fluids
Installation constraints (for straight pipe not elbow)

COMPARISON OF VENTURE AND ORIFICE

Venturi
Expensive but offer good
accuracy

orifice
Least expensive

Long working life and almost no

maintenance

Low working life due to wear in

the edge

Can measure flow for fluid with

suspended solid

Used for clean fluid, can be used

for dilute slurries

High rang
Lowest permanent head loss

3- PITOT TUBE

The Pitot tube is used to measure the local velocity at a

given point in the flow stream and not the average velocity in
the pipe or conduit.
One tube, the impact tube, has its opening normal to the
direction of flow and the static tube has its opening parallel
to the direction of flow.

The fluid flows into the opening at point 2, pressure builds up, and
then remains stationary at this point, called Stagnation Point.
The difference in the stagnation pressure (impact pressure) at this
point (2) and the static pressure measured by the static tube
represents the pressure rise associated with the direction of the
fluid.
Impact pressure head = Static pressure head + kinetic
energy head

where, Cp: dimensionless coefficient to take into account

deviations from Bernoullis equation and general varies between
about 0.98 to 1.0.

The first method, the velocity is measured

at the exact center of the tube to obtain
umax. then by using the Figure, the average
velocity can be obtained.
The second method, readings are taken at
several known positions in the pipe cross
section and then a graphical or numerical
integration is performed to obtain the
average velocity, from the following
equation;

4 - THE NOZZLE

The nozzle is similar to the orifice meter other than

that it has a converging tube in place of the orifice
plate, as shown in below. The velocity of the fluid is
gradually increased and the contours are so designed
that almost frictionless flow takes place in the
converging portion; the outlet corresponds to the vena
contracta on the orifice meter. When the ratio of the
pressure at the nozzle exit to the upstream pressure is
less than the critical pressure ratio c, the flow rate is
independent of the downstream pressure and can be
calculated from the upstream pressure alone.

Nozzle
Expensive
Long working life and almost
no maintenance
Generally Used to measure
steam
High discharge coefficient =
0.99
It has permanent head loss

orifice
Least expensive
Low working life due to wear
in the edge
Used for clean fluid, can be
used for dilute slurries
Low discharge coefficient=
0.62
The same permanent head
loss since it has no
diverging cone

5 VARIABLE AREA METERS

ROTAMETERS
In

the Rotameter the drop in pressure is constant and the flow rate is function of the area of constriction. When the fluid is flowing the float rises until its weight is balanced by the up thrust of
the fluid.
Force balance on the float
Gravity force = up thrust force +(drag force)Pressure forec
Vf f g = Vf g + (P) Af

A1
A2

: cross-section area of the tube when the float arrived.

: cross-section area of the annulus (flow area).

EXAMPLES

1- A horizontal Venturi meter is used to measure the flow rate of

water through the piping system of 20 cm I.D, where the diameter
of throat in the meter is d2 = 10 cm. The pressure at inlet is 17.658
N/cm2 gauge and the vacuum pressure of 35 cm Hg at throat. Find
the discharge of water. Take Cd = 0.98.

2- A Venturi meter is to be fitted to a 25 cm diameter pipe, in which

the maximum flow is 7200 lit/min and the pressure head is 6 m of
water. What is the maximum diameter of throat, so that there is
non-negative head on it?

3- A (30cm x 15cm) Venturi meter is provided in a vertical pipe-line

carrying oil of sp.gr. = 0.9. The flow being upwards and the
difference in elevations of throat section and entrance section of the
venture meter is 30 cm. The differential U-tube mercury manometer
shows a gauge deflection of 25 cm. Take Cd = 0.98 and calculate: i-The discharge of oil
Ii-The pressure difference between the entrance and throat sections.

EXAMPLES

4- An orifice meter consisting of 10 cm diameter orifice in a 25

cm diameter pipe has Cd = 0.65. The pipe delivers oil of sp.gr.
= 0.8. The pressure difference on the two sides of the orifice
plate is measured by mercury oil differential manometer. If the
differential gauge is 80 cm Hg, find the rate of flow.

5- Water flow through an orifice meter of 25 mm diameter

situated in a 75 mm diameter pipe at a rate of 300 cm 3/s, what
will be the difference in pressure head across the meter = 1.0
mPa.s.

6- Water flow at between 3000-4000 cm3/s through a 75 mm

diameter pipe and is metered by means of an orifice. Suggest a
suitable size of orifice if the pressure difference is to be
measured with a simple water manometer. What approximately
is the pressure difference recorded at the maximum flow rate?
Cd = 0.6.

EXAMPLES

7- A rotameter tube of 0.3 m long with an internal diameter of 25 mm at

the top and 20 mm at the bottom. The diameter of float is 20 mm, its
sp.gr. is 4.8 and its volume is 6 cm3. If the coefficient of discharge is 0.7,
what will be the flow rate water when the float is half way up the tube?

8- A Pitot tube is inserted in the pipe of 30 cm I.D. The static pressure

head is 10 cm Hg vacuum, and the stagnation pressure at center of the
pipe is 0.981 N/cm2 gauge. Calculate the discharge of water through the
pipe if u/umax = 0.85. Take Cp = 0.98.

9- A Pitot tube is placed at a center of a 30 cm I.D. pipe line has one orifice
pointing upstream and other perpendicular to it. The mean velocity in the
pipe is 0.84 of the center velocity (i.e. u/ux =0.94). Find the discharge
through the pipe if: i-The fluid flow through the pipe is water and the pressure difference
between orifice is 6 cm H2O.
Ii-The fluid flow through the pipe is oil of sp.gr. = 0.78 and the reading
manometer is 6 cm H2O. Take Cp = 0.98.

6- THE NOTCH OR WEIR

It is an obstruction in the channel that causes the liquid to back up behind it

and to flow over it or through it. By measuring the height of upstream water
surface, the rate of flow is determined. The velocity with which the liquid
leaves depends on its initial depth below the surface.
Many shapes of notch are available of which three shapes are given here as
follows,

6-1 Rectangular Notch

To prove this equation applies Bernoullis equation between points M and N as
shown in Figure;

The cross sectional area of flow at point M

is larger than that at notch (point N), then (uM 0)
PM = PN = Po atmospheric pressure
The discharge will be:

6- THE NOTCH OR WEIR

6-2 Triangular Notch
A triangular notch
is also called a V-notch.
H: height of liquid above
base of the apex of the notch.
: Angle of the notch.
tan (/2) = x / H = x' / (H-h)
The width of the notch at liquid surface = 2x = 2H tan(/2)
The width of the strip = 2x' = 2(H-h) tan(/2)
The area of the strip = 2x' dh = 2(H-h) tan(/2)dh
The discharge is:

6- THE NOTCH OR WEIR

6-3 Trapezoidal Notch
A trapezoidal notch is
a combination of a
rectangular notch
and triangular notch as shown in Figure;
Discharge over the trapezoidal notch,
Q=[Discharge over the rectangular notch
+ Discharge over the triangular notch]
The discharge is

EXAMPLES

10- A rectangular notch has a discharge of 21.5 m3/min,

when the head of water is half the length of the notch. Find
the length of the notch where Cd = 0.6.

11- A rectangular channel 1.5 m wide is used to carry 0.2

m3/s water. The rate of flow is measured by placing a 90 Vnotch weir. If the maximum depth of water is not to exceed
1.2 m, find the position of the apex of the notch from the bed
of channel. Cd = 0.6.

12- A trapezoidal notch 120 cm wide at top and 45 cm at the

bottom has 30 cm height. Find the discharge through the
notch, if the head of water is 22.5 cm. Cd1 = Cd2 = 0.6.

NON-OBSTRACTIVE DEVICES

Ultrasonic flowmeters.
Two examples are shown. The pulse-type flowmeter. Upstream
piezoelectric transducer A is excited with a short sonic pulse which
propagates across the flow to downstream transducer B. The arrival at
B triggers another pulse to be created at A, resulting in a regular pulse
frequency f
The same process is duplicated in the reverse direction from B to A,
creating frequency . The is proportional to the flow rate.
The doppler type arrangement, where sound waves from transmitter T
are scattered by particles or contaminants in the flow to receiver R.
Comparison of the two signals reveals a doppler frequency shift which
is proportional to the flow rate. Ultrasonic meters are nonintrusive and
can be directly attached to pipe flows in the field . Their quoted
uncertainty of 1 to 2 percent can rise to 5 percent or more due to
irregularities in velocity profile, fluid temperature, or Reynolds number.

Hot-wire anemometer. A very fine wire (d 0.01 mm or less)

heated between two small probes, It is ideally suited to
measure rapidly fluctuating flows such as the turbulent
boundary layer. The idea dates back to work by L. V. King in
1914 on heat loss from long thin cylinders. If electric power is
supplied to heat the cylinder, the loss varies with flow velocity
across the cylinder according to Kings law
Because of its frailty, the hot wire is not suited to liquid flows,
whose high density and entrained sediment will knock the
wire right off. A more stable yet quite sensitive alternative for
liquid-flow measurement is the hot-film anemometer . A thin
metallic film, usually platinum, is plated onto a relatively
thick support which can be a wedge, a cone, or a cylinder.

Laser-doppler anemometer. In the LDA a laser beam provides highly

focused, coherent monochromatic light which is passed through the flow.
When this light is scattered from a moving particle in the flow, a
stationary observer can detect a change, or doppler shift, in the
frequency of the scattered light. The shift f is proportional to the velocity
of the particle. There is essentially zero disturbance of the flow by the
laser.
The advantages of the LDA are as follows:
No disturbance of the flow
High spatial resolution of the flow field
Velocity data that are independent of the fluid thermodynamic properties
An output voltage that is linear with velocity
No need for calibration
The disadvantages are that both the apparatus and the fluid must be
transparent to light and that the cost is high