HT 02 Conduction

HEAT TRANSFER
CONDUCTION HEAT TRANSFER
gjv
Recap
Heat flows from hot to cold regions (Third
Law)
Ease of movement of electrons in metals the
reason for greater distribution of energy

compared to other substances and explains
the relationship between thermal and
electrical conductivities
Conducting medium necessary for conduction
Basic law of conduction

Temperature gradient leads to energy
transfer
Heat transfer per unit area (heat flux)
proportional to normal temperature

gradient
dQ dT
dA
dx
Proportionality constant
Fouriers Law of heat conduction
dQ
dT
k
dA
dx
For steady state one dimensional heat flow,
the rate of heat flow in the x direction normal

to the surface area, is directly proportional to
the temperature gradient, the area of flow and
inversely proportional to the distance.
Fouriers Law
Key features of the law
Not an expression that may be derived from
first principle
A generalization based on experimental
evidence
Defines the important material property of
thermal conductivity
One dimensional steady flow
Isothermal
surface
T
x
d
x
x
2
T1
d
T
T2
Temperature
profile
Assumptions
Uniform temperatures over the surface perpendicular to x
which is the direction of heat conduction ( isothermal

surface)
Steady flow ( Temperature does not vary with time)
Rate of heat flow constant
Consider an element of thickness dx with surfaces at
temperature of T and T+dT
From Fouriers
Law:
dT
Q kA
dx
1
Qdx
0
T2
T1
kAdt
T1 T2
Q kA
x
Thermal conductivity of
material
Thermal Conductivity
k, though not a function of temperature
gradient, is a function of temperature and

from experimental data:
'
0
k k 1 k T
dT
combining q kA
and rearrangin g
dx
qdx
'
kdT k 0 1 k T dT
A
T1 T2
kdT T1 T2 k 0 1 k
T1
2
x2 dx
Q
x1 A
and sin ce k is a linear function of T
T2
k a T1 T2 q
x2
x1
dx
A
'
For a nonlinear k the mean value is given by:
T2
1
km
kdT
T2 T1 T1
Thermal conductivities of metals

are usually very high
Non-metallic solids and liquids
The Solid State

Modern view of solids highlights free electrons
and atomic lattice structure

Thermal energy determined by Lattice
vibrations which are additive:

k = ke+kl
but we know that
ke= 1/e
electrical resistivity
For pure metals with low e
ke>>kl
The Solid State

Hence contribution of kl to k is negligible
For alloys where e is large contribution of kl
to k is no longer negligible
For non-metals, k is determined primarily by
kl and depends on the frequency of

interaction between atoms of the lattice
Chrystalline, well ordered substances such as
diamond & quartz have high k values

compared with amorphous substances (glass)
The fluid state

Larger intermolecular spacing and greater random
motion lead to lower thermal energy transport

Thermal conductivity of gases and liquids more
similar than solids

Kinetic theory of gases gives a good account of
their thermal conductivities

Thermal conductivity of gases is directly
proportional to the number of particles per unit

volume, mean molecular speed and mean free
path (Average distance travelled by a molecule
before a collision)
Fluids
k
nc
Thermal conductivities of gases
increase with increasing temperature

and decreasing molecular weight
since c increases accordingly
Thermal conductivities of gases are
independent of pressure since n &

are directly and indirectly proportional
to gas pressure respectively
Thermal conductivity
Conductivity of alloys less than the pure
metals
Gases have very low conductivities and for
ideal gases k is proportional to mean

molecular
mean free path and molar
For
monoatomicvelocity,
gases :
heat capacity
1/ 2
0.0832 T
k
M
T Temperatur e, K
M Molecular weight
Effective collision diameter,

k Thermal conductivity, W / mK
Liquid metals
Physical mechanisms of the
thermal conductivity of liquid

metals are still not well
understood
Liquid metals are commonly
used in high heat flux application

such as in nuclear power plants.
Liquid metals thermal
Temperature dependence of conductivity

Thermal insulation comprise low conductivity materials
which when combined achieve even lower system thermal

conductivity
Fiber, powder and flake type insulation have solid
material finely dispersed in air spaces

The nature and volumetric fraction of the solid to void
ratio characterizes the thermal conductivity of the

insulation
Insulation
Cellular insulation hollow spaces or small voids are
sealed from each other and formed by fusion or bonding

of solid material in a rigid matrix
Foam systems (plastic or glass)
Reflective insulation thin sheets of high reflectivity foil
spaced to reflect radiant energy

Evacuation of air from voids reduce effective thermal
conductivity
Thermal conductivity of materials @ 0 oC

Metals
Silver 410
W/mK
Copper 385 W/mK
Aluminium 202 W/mK
Iron 73
W/mK
Lead 35
W/mK
Chrome-nickel steel (18%Cr, 8%Ni) 16.3 W/mK
Non-metallic solids
Diamond 2300 W/mK
Marble 2.08-2.94
Glass wool 0.038
Ice 2.22
Thermal conductivity of materials @ 0 oC

Liquids
Mercury
8.21 W/mK
Water
0.556
Lube oil, SAE 50
0.147
Freon 12, CCl2F2
0.073
Gases
Hydrogen
Helium
Air
H2Og
CO2
0.175
0.141
0.024
0.026
0.0146
Example
One face of a copper plate 3.0 cm thick is maintained at
400.0 oC and the other face is kept at 100.0 oC. How much
heat is transferred through the plate?
kCu = 370.0 W/mK @ 250.0 oC
Estimate the heat loss per m2 through a brick
wall 0.5 m thick when the inner surface is at

400.0 K and the outside surface is at 300.0 K.
kbrik = 0.7 W/mK @ 350.0 oC
Thermo physical properties

Important ant properties for heat
transfer calculations:
Kinematic
viscosity, (m2/s)
Density,
(kg/m3)
Heat capacity,
cp, cv (J/kgK)
Thermal
diffusivity, (m2/s)
Thermal diffusivity
The ability to conduct thermal energy
relative to the ability to store it:
k

c P
Materials with large respond
quickly to changes in their thermal

environment
Accuracy of engineering calculations
depend on the accuracy of
determining the thermophysical
properties
Example
Use tables to calculate for the
following:
Pure Aluminium @ 300K & 700 K
Silicon Carbide @ 1000 K
Parafin @ 300 K
Steady state conduction

Heat flow into & from tank
T
Tank
wall
Boiling H2O
refrigera
nt
Air
insulatio
n
Air
x
Insulation
x
Consider a flat walled insulated tank containing a refrigerant

at -10.0 oC with outside air at 28.0 oC
Steady flow conduction

For x distance from the hot side:
Q
dx kdT
A
x2
x1
T2
Q
dx k dT
T1
A
Q
x2 x1 k T1 T2
A
Q
T1 T2
T
T
k
k
A
x2 x1
B
R
Thermal
resistance
Compound resistance in series

Consider a flat wall with three layers, A,B & C
Let thicknesses be BA, BB & BC and average
thermal conductivities be kA, kB & kC for the

layers respectively.
Temperature
Q
TA
TB
RA
RB
drop
TC
RC
As
BA
BB
BC

T TA TB TC
sin ce
Q
T
k
As
B
BA
TA QA
k A As
then
BB
& TB QB
k B As
BA
BB
Bc
T QA
QB
Qc
k A As
k B As
kc As
Q
T
As
BA BB BC
k A k B kC
Bc
Tc Qc
kc As
As B A
Q T
As
R
T
T
BC
BB
R A RB RC
kA
kB
kC
Example
An exterior wall of a house consists of a 4.0
cm of common brick [k=0.7 W m-1 oC-1] and a

1.5 cm layer of gypsum plaster [k =0.48 W m-1
o -1
C ]. What thickness of loosely packed rockwool [k=0.065 W m-1 oC-1] insulation should be
added to reduce the heat loss (or gain)
through the wall by 80.0 %?
Radial Systems
Cylindrical shape (Thick walled tube)
Assumptions:
T
1
r2
T2
r1
r
dr
d
T
T+d
T
T2
Internal & external

temperatures are
constant
Area exposed to heat
flow proportional to
the radius
Thick walled tube

dT
dT
qr kA
k 2rl
dr
dr
qr
r2
r1
T2
dr
2lk dT
T1
r
T1 T2
r
2
ln
r1
2lk
T1 T2
r
2
ln
r1
qr 2lk
2lkr T1 T2
m
r2 r1
Thick walled tube
r2 r1
rm
r2
ln
r
1
T1 T2
qr kAm
r2 r1
T1 T2
qr 2ra lk
r2 r1
Example
A tube of 60.0 mm OD is insulated with a 50.0
mm layer of silica foam [k=0.055 W/moC] and

a 40.0 mm layer of cork [k=0.05 W/moC].
Calculate the heat loss per unit length of pipe
given that the temperature at the outer
surface of the pipe is 150.0 oC while the
outer surface of the cork is kept at 30.0 oC .
Conduction through a spherical shell

T2
r1
r2
T1
dr r+d
r r
dT
2 dT
q kA
k 4r
dr
dr
dr
q r 2 4k dT
T1 T2
q 4k
1
1
r1
r2
Very important for applications such as heat transfer in fluidized beds ,

rotary kilns & spray dryers where conduction takes place through a
stationary fluid to a spherical particle or droplet of radius r.
Spherical shells
When T1-T2 is spread over large distances so that r2 =
And T1 is the temperature of the surface of the drop then
qr
1
2
4r T1 T2 k
or
hd
Nu 2
k
qr
where
h
2
4r T1 T2

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HEAT TRANSFER

CONDUCTION HEAT TRANSFER

reason for greater distribution of energy

Basic law of conduction

proportional to normal temperature

Fouriers Law of heat conduction

For steady state one dimensional heat flow,

the rate of heat flow in the x direction normal

One dimensional steady flow

which is the direction of heat conduction ( isothermal

temperature of T and T+dT

gradient, is a function of temperature and

For a nonlinear k the mean value is given by:

Thermal conductivities of metals

The Solid State

and atomic lattice structure

vibrations which are additive:

but we know that

For pure metals with low e

The Solid State

kl and depends on the frequency of

diamond & quartz have high k values

The fluid state

motion lead to lower thermal energy transport

similar than solids

their thermal conductivities

proportional to the number of particles per unit

Thermal conductivities of gases

increase with increasing temperature

independent of pressure since n &

ideal gases k is proportional to mean

Effective collision diameter,

Physical mechanisms of the

thermal conductivity of liquid

used in high heat flux application

Temperature dependence of conductivity

which when combined achieve even lower system thermal

material finely dispersed in air spaces

ratio characterizes the thermal conductivity of the

sealed from each other and formed by fusion or bonding

Foam systems (plastic or glass)

Reflective insulation thin sheets of high reflectivity foil

spaced to reflect radiant energy

Thermal conductivity of materials @ 0 oC

Thermal conductivity of materials @ 0 oC

Estimate the heat loss per m2 through a brick

wall 0.5 m thick when the inner surface is at

Thermo physical properties

relative to the ability to store it:

Materials with large respond

quickly to changes in their thermal

Use tables to calculate for the

Steady state conduction

Consider a flat walled insulated tank containing a refrigerant

Steady flow conduction

Compound resistance in series

thermal conductivities be kA, kB & kC for the

Compound resistance in series