RCD Protection

Improved monitoring and protection
RCD-based protection plan
COMBT13FR-11/02
Contents
Protection of life and property
standard IEC 60479-1
standard IEC 60364
fire protection
Disturbances on distribution systems
earth-leakage currents
non-linear loads
overvoltage disturbances
Vigirex
four mesurement features
protection on disturbed distribution systems
Applications
EMC tests and voltage-dip immunity
measurement of fault currents with a DC component
RCD coordination
protection plans for different system earthing arrangements
load leakage currents
Vigirex - installation of toroids
protection of property
COMBT13FR-11/02
23
27
36

Standard IEC 60479-1
Impedance of the human body ZT
UC = Z T I D
ZT depends on:
the frequency
the touch voltage
the path through the body
ZT
ID
UC
Skin
(hand)
Internal
= ZT
resistance
E92455
Skin
(foot)
COMBT13FR-11/02

Impedance of the human body ZT
UC = ZT ID
ID
ZT depends on:
the frequency
the touch voltage
the path through the body
ZT
ID
UC
Skin
(hand)
Internal
= ZT
resistance
E92456
Skin
(foot)
The level of danger depends on:

the current ID
the duration of current flow
COMBT13FR-11/02

Time/current zones defining the effects of AC current
(15 Hz to 100 Hz)
Zone 1 : perception
Duration of current flow

T(ms)
10 000
5000
Zone 2 : unpleasant sensation

b
Zone 3 : muscular contractions

b (10 mA) let-go threshold
c1 c2 c3
2000
1000
500
200
100
b - c1
E92444
50
20
10
0.1 0.2
1
0.5 mA
COMBT13FR-11/02
Zone 4 : risk of ventricular fibrillation

(cardiac arrest)
c1 (30 mA)
: probability 0 %
c1 - c2 : probability ~ 5 %
2
5 10
100
500 2000 5000 (mA)

30 mA
1000
Current flowing through the body
c2 - c3 : probability ~ 50 %
> c3
: probability > 50 %

Critical current thresholds
E92450
mA
COMBT13FR-11/02
1A
Cardiac arrest
75 mA
Irreversible cardiac
fibrillation
30 mA
Breathing arrest
10mA
Muscular contraction
0.5 mA
Tingling

Effect of frequency
Current-sensitivity thresholds
(mA)
500
100
30
50
100
1000
(f)
E92451
DC
The human body is most sensitive to frequencies

in the 50 Hz / 60 Hz range
COMBT13FR-11/02

Standard IEC 60364
Standard IEC 60364 converts the current/exposure-time curves of
standard IEC 60479-1 into tables presenting the disconnecting-time
versus the nominal AC-voltage (Uo)
50 V < Uo 120 V
120 V < Uo 230 V 230 V < Uo 400 V Uo 400 V
Disconnecting time (s) AC
DC
AC
DC
AC
DC
AC
DC
TN or IT system
0.8
0.4
0.2
0.4
0.1
0.1
TT system
0.3
0.2
0.4
0.07
0.2
0.04
0.1
From table 41A of standard IEC 60364
COMBT13FR-11/02

Standard IEC 60364
Direct contact
"Contact of persons or livestock
with live parts of the installation"
Equivalent electrical circuit
COMBT13FR-11/02
E92459
E92458
Uc

Standard IEC 60364
Direct contact
Insulation
E95155
Out of reach
COMBT13FR-11/02
IP2X or IPXXB
ELV < 25 V
30 mA
10

Standard IEC 60364
Indirect contact
Contact of persons or
livestock with exposed
conductive parts in case
of a fault
E92454
E92460
Uc
COMBT13FR-11/02
11

E56887
Standard IEC 60364

Standard IEC 60364 defines three system earthing arrangements
to ensure:
Protection of persons against indirect contact
Protection against fire hazards
TT system
TN system
IT system
RCD protection is a fundamental part of the TT system
COMBT13FR-11/02
12

Standard IEC 60364
TT system
L1
L2
L3
N
The neutral point of the LV

transformer is directly
connected to an earth electrode
The exposed conductive parts
of the installation are connected
to a separate earth electrode
PE
Ru
E95152
Rn
COMBT13FR-11/02
13

Standard IEC 60364
Uo = 230 V
TT system
L1
L2
L3
N
Earth fault protection

Value of fault current
Id = Uo / (Rn + Ru)
400/230 V
= 230 / (10 + 10)

= 11.5 A
Metal exposed
conductive part
Id = 11.5 A
Ud =
115 V
Load
E95153
Rn
10
COMBT13FR-11/02
Ru
10
Ud = Ru x Id
= 10 x 11.5
= 115 V > UL = 50 V
The fault current creates
a dangerous touch voltage
The SCPD is not capable
of clearing this type of fault
14

Standard IEC 60364
Uo = 230 V
400/230 V
SCPD
25 A
TT system
L1
L2
L3
N
In = 5A
Metal exposed
conductive part
Load
E95154
Rn
10
COMBT13FR-11/02
Ru
10
Earth fault protection

Solution
The SCPD is not capable of
clearing this type of fault
(ST setting = 25 A)
The solution is a residual-current
device (RCD) designed for the
protection of persons
Tripping conditions
UCmax
UL
Ru x In < UL
(In is the setting for the RCD)
In = UL / Ru
= 50 /10
=5A
15

Standard IEC 60364
TT system
L1
L2
L3
N
PE
IPE = 0
At A
I1 + I2 + I3 + IN = IPE
Well designed network
IPE = 0
I1 + I 2 + I 3 + I N = 0
Rn
Ru
Current in the neutral

does not depend on current IPE
equal to unbalanced load
currents and/or 3rd order
harmonics (3 k)
E92457
COMBT13FR-11/02
IN = Iunbalance + I3 k
16

Standard IEC 60364
TT system
L1
L2
L3
N
PE
IPE 0
Faulty distribution system
IPE 0
I1 + I 2 + I 3 + I N 0
Current in the neutral

does not depend on current IPE
equal to unbalanced load
currents and/or 3rd order
harmonics (3 k)
E94409
Rn
Ru
IN = Iunbalance + I3 k
Measurement of current IPE can be used for protection of persons

(values depend on the earthing arrangement) and protection
against fire hazards. However, it is necessary

to detect the true IPE
COMBT13FR-11/02
17

Standard IEC 60364
"Deep" earth
the earth does not act as an insulator

"Deep" earth is equipotential in nature
whatever the distance!
11
1000 km
"Deep" earth
15
10
10
COMBT13FR-11/02
E92453
E92452
"Deep" earth
18

Fire protection
Risk analysis - the origins of fires in buildings
Study carried out in Germany between 1980 and 1990
Fire 37%
Lightning 1%
Explosions 1%
Cigarettes 6%
Other 7%
E92446
Accidents 7%
Electricity 41%
41% of fires are electrical in origin

this risk is far from negligible
it can be eliminated
COMBT13FR-11/02
19

Fire protection
Main cause
Ageing of the installation results in:
less effective insulation
the risk of very small leakage currents
Presence of humidity
Leakage
currents
Small
discharges
E92462
E92461
Carbonisation
of insulation
(dust)
There is a real risk of fire starting at leakage currents of 300 mA
COMBT13FR-11/02
20

Fire protection
E94550
I E C 6 0 3 6 4
Standard IEC 60364

Standard IEC 60364, section 3-32, defines premises presenting a
risk of fire (BE2) or explosion (BE3)
Standard IEC 60364, section 4-48, deals with premises where there
is a risk of fire
imposes use of a 500 mA RCD device
recommends use of a TT or IT system for the electrical installation
in such premises
prohibits use of a TN-C system
In TT, IT and TN-S systems, a 300 mA RCD eliminates the risk of fire
COMBT13FR-11/02
21

Fire protection
In the USA
The National Electrical Code (NEC) defines a TN-S system
the neutral conductor is not interrupted
the PE protective conductor is created by connecting the metal parts
of the equipment
The NEC considers that the TN-S system cannot control
the impedance of the insulation-fault loop
E92447
The NEC requires specific ground fault protection) (GFP) to protect

against fire hazards (maximum setting of 1200 A)
COMBT13FR-11/02
22

Earth-leakage currents
Cable leakage capacitance
continuous leakage current
called
"natural leakage current"
Load leakage capacitance

continuous leakage current
called
"intentional leakage current"
L1
COMBT13FR-11/02
E92463
E92449
23

Non-linear loads
Harmonic currents
non-linear loads cause harmonic currents,
as a result, the intentional leakage currents are "amplified"
Amplitude
%
100
80
60
40
E92464
20
0
COMBT13FR-11/02
E94410
VSD
IH
11
13
Harmonic
order
24

Non-linear loads
UPS
COMBT13FR-11/02
E92465 - E92499
Fault currents
fault currents have DC components
PE
25

Overvoltages (surges)
Lightning and switching overvoltages cause high transient currents
in distribution-system leakage capacitances
A
6
10
4
2
Ir1
E94412
0
-2
-4
0Current
COMBT13FR-11/02
in the PE
0,02
0,04
E94167
-6
T(s)
26
Vigirex
Four mesurement features
Reduced tolerances
Rms
measurement
Frequency filtering
E94411
Inverse time
Vigirex implements four functions to:

analyse leakage currents to avoid nuisance tripping
trip immediately when required for the protection of persons
COMBT13FR-11/02
27
Vigirex
Filtering of harmonic frequencies
frequency converters create leakage currents
with high harmonic components
In
15 x
30 mA
ihf
Ich ihf = ihf
5x
30 mA
a /a
E94413
1x
30 mA
50/60 Hz
1000 Hz
these currents are not dangerous

the RCD must not trip
PE
10 KHz
Ich = 0
ihf
E94414
Eliminate
nuisance tripping
M
1
Analyse leakage currents
COMBT13FR-11/02
28
Vigirex
Eliminate
nuisance tripping
RMS measurement
non-linear loads can cause leakage currents with high
form factors 1
I
+ In
1
2
E94415
T (ms)
In
RMS measurement is the means to react only
to dangerous currents
COMBT13FR-11/02
29
Vigirex
Reduced tolerances
Eliminate
nuisance tripping
RCDs never operate below 50% of In

RCDs always operate at 100% of In
In
2
0.8 In
In
Standard RCD
I fault
Non-operation
Operation
E94416
Vigirex
Vigirex has a non-operating current equal to 80% of In,
i.e. better immunity to both natural and intentional leakage currents

COMBT13FR-11/02
30
Vigirex
Inverse time
T (s)
Eliminate
nuisance tripping
energisation of loads
with filters can create major

inrush currents 2
0,3
0,15
0,1
these currents must not trip
the RCD
0,04
0,01
E94417
Vigirex does not trip

2
10
COMBT13FR-11/02
31
Vigirex
Ensure
effective
protection
of persons
Inverse time
T (s)
1
dangerous faults can occur
0,3
0,15
Vigirex, combined
0,1
0,04
1
0,01
1
E94418
10
with a Compact NS, has an

instantaneous total break
time that complies
with table B1 of standard
IEC 60947-2, appendix B 2
Schneider guarantees the break time for a Vigirex combined with circuit
breakers rated up to 630 A, even for the 30 mA threshold
COMBT13FR-11/02
32
Protection on disturbed distribution systems

EMC tests and voltage-dip immunity
Vigirex goes beyond the maximum requirements of standard IEC 60947-2
for EMC immunity
Test standard
Electrostatic-discharge
immunity test
Radiated EM-field
immunity test
Surge immunity test
Voltage-dip
immunity test
Standardised test as per IEC 60947-2

8 kV contact
8 kV in air
10 V/m
80 to 1000 MHz modulated at 1 kHz
- On supply > 100 V AC
4 kV line-to-earth, 4 kV line-to-line
- On supply < 100 V AC
- On DC supply
0.5 kV line-to-earth, 0.5 kV line-to-line
- On input/output (I/O)
1.2/50 s wave, open circuit
8/20 s short circuit
Single-phase supply: Us 85 V
Three-phase supply: Us 70%
Vigirex tests
8 kV contact
15 kV in air
12 V/m
80 to 1000 MHz modulated at 1 kHz
- For all supplies (*)
- On supply < 100 V AC
- On DC supply
- On input/output (I/O)
1.2/50 s wave, open circuit
8/20 s short circuit
Single-phase supply: Us 85 V
(*) for V AC < 48 V, the Vigirex relay does not have a supply transformer
COMBT13FR-11/02
33

Measurement of fault currents with a DC component
Classification of faults and types of RCDs
Fault
If
T
If
If
E94419
Loads
Linear - frequent
Non-linear - frequent
Non-linear - rare
Examples
Lamps
AC motors
Capacitors
Dimmers, soft starters (*)

Variable-speed drives
Variable-speed drives
with accessible
braking resistors
RCD
Type AC
Type A
Type B
(*) Type AC
is sufficient
COMBT13FR-11/02
For power distribution, a type A RCD is required for effective

protection against insulation fault
34

Measurement of fault currents with a DC component
Combination of different types of RCDs
type A
Vigirex
RCD1
type A
RCD
type A or
type AC RCD
300 mA
inst
type A
Vigirex
RCD1
type B
RCD2
300 mA
60 ms
type A
RCD2
E94441
Class II
insulation
Different types of RCDs may be combined as long as none

of the devices are blocked by the fault current
COMBT13FR-11/02
35
Applications
RCD coordination
Discrimination rules
CB1
two conditions:
RCD1
1
2
CB2
E94442
RCD2
COMBT13FR-11/02
In (RCD1) > 2 In (RCD2)

t (RCD1) > t (RCD2) + t (CB2)
(including the interrupting time)
To implement condition 2 , it is necessary to know the total break

time guaranteed for the CB2 + RCD2 combination or to run tests
on the combination
36
Applications
Coordination of
RCDs
Discrimination rules
CB1
two conditions:
RCD1
CB2
E94442
RCD2
COMBT13FR-11/02
In (RCD1) > 2 In (RCD2)

setting (RCD1) setting (RCD2) +1
Condition 2 is automatically obtained for (RCD2) +1 if RCD2

is combined with a circuit breaker/switch disconnector from
the
Multi 9 or Compact ranges
37
Applications
Coordination of
RCDs
Discrimination rules with a Vigirex upstream

CB1
two conditions:
Vigirex
1
2
RCD1
In (RCD1) > 1.5 In

setting (RCD1) setting (RCD2) +1
Condition 2 is automatically obtained for (RCD2) +1 if RCD2

is combined with a circuit breaker/switch disconnector from
the
Multi 9 or Compact ranges
CB2
E94442
RCD2
COMBT13FR-11/02
38
Applications
Protection plans for different system earthing arrangements
TT system
I n
CB1
RCD1
2,5 A
5A
1s
E94479
CB2
E94478
RCD2
UL = 50 V
RT = 10
COMBT13FR-11/02
In current setting on upstream RCD

standardised rules (maximum): In = 5 A
t = 1 s
39
Applications
TT system
IL
CB1
RCD1
Vigi 3 A
NS250
60
t(ms)
0,3
vigi MH
T R
10
vigi
NS 250
200 /440 V - 5
0,55 1,5 A
3A 5A
1s
N 1 3 5
In(A)
HS 0,03 (t = 0)
2 4 6
E94478
E94479
CB2
310
150
I n
Process
ILA
20 VSDs
ILB
ILA = 150 mA
ILB = 400 mA
IL = 550 mA
COMBT13FR-11/02

t = 1 s
leakage-current IL withstand (min.): In 2 IL = 1.1 A In = 3 A

Example. NS250 Vigi 3 A
40
Applications
TT system
Vigirex
MERLIN GERIN
IL
I n
0,55 0,7 A 2,5 A 1 A 55 A

A
CB1
1 ss
RCD1
RH99 1A
B
E94479
NS250
A
E94478

Process
ILA
20 VSDs
ILB
ILA = 150 mA
ILB = 400 mA
IL = 550 mA
COMBT13FR-11/02
t = 1 s
leakage-current IL withstand (min.): In 1.5 IL = 825 mA In = 1 A

Example. Vigirex RH99
41
Applications
TT system
IL
I n
In2
CB1
RCD1
0,55 1,5 A 3 A 5 A
1s
300 mA
CB2
E94478
RCD2
RCD2
300 mA - s
COMBT13FR-11/02
E94479
60 ms

standardised rules (maximum): In = 5 A t = 1 s
leakage-current IL withstand (min.): In 2 IL = 1.1 A In = 3 A
discrimination rules
In1 In2 x 2 = 600 mA In = 1 A
t1 > t2 + break time CB2
42
Applications
TT system
In2
NS250
RCD1
Vigi
3 A - 150 ms
150
150
t(ms)
0,3
vigi MH
10
T R
vigi
NS 250
200 /440 V -5
0,55 1,5 A 3 A 5 A
150 ms 1 s
N 1 3 5
In(A)
HS 0,03 (t = 0)
CB2
310
60
I n
2 4 6
300 mA
E94479
CB1
IL
60 ms
E94478
RCD2
RCD2
C60 Vigi if s 300 mA
RCD1
NS250
Vigi
COMBT13FR-11/02

leakage-current IL withstand (min.): In 1,5 IL = 825 mA In = 3 A
discrimination rules (Schneider)
In1 In2 x 2 = 600 mA In = 1 A
setting RCD1 setting RCD2 + 1
43
Applications
TT system
Vigirex
MERLIN GERIN
In2
IL
I n
0,3 0,55 0,7 A 1 A 5 A
CB1
RCD1
RH99
1 A - 150 ms
150 ms 1 s
300 mA
CB2
RCD2
E94478
C60 Vigi
If s 300 mA
COMBT13FR-11/02
E94479
60 ms

leakage-current IL withstand (min.): In 1.5 IL = 825 mA In = 1A
discrimination rules
In In x 1.5 = 450 mA In = 0.5 A
setting RCD1 setting RCD2 + 1
44
Basic principle
Applications
RCD at the head
RCD1
RCD2
In < 5 A
UL = 50UVL
1RT
In < 10 A
5RT
In < 5 A
RCD3
10 RT
Standardised rule An RCD must be installed at the head of the installation and at the
head of each group of separately earthed exposed conductive parts
Settings: current setting In < UL/RT
delay T < 1s
Implementation
In3 < 50 V = 5 A, In2 < 50 V = 10 A, In1 < min 50 , 50 V = 5 A
10
5
10 5
COMBT13FR-11/02
45
Applications
TT system
Typical leakage currents following a first fault
System leakage capacitance (F) First-fault current
In setting
70 mA
300 mA
360 mA
1A
30
2.17 A
5A
Standardised rule
IEC 60364-5-53: The RCD current settings must be greater than twice
the first-fault current
COMBT13FR-11/02
46
Applications
Load leakage currents
Equipment
Leakage currents IL are due to the natural or intentional capacitances

installed between the phases and earth
cable leakage currents
Differential-mode capacitance Common-mode capacitance
Standard cable (not shielded) 20 pF/m
150 pF/m
Shielded cable
200 pF/m
E94472
30 pF/m
leakage currents of computer equipment

Computer equipment
Standard IEC 60950
Maximum leakage current (mA)
All equipment
0.25
PC
Type A fixed or mobile
3.5
Computer room
Type B fixed
3.5 or 5% In
requirement for RCD protection - an RCD must not trip
for these natural currents, yet must protect life and property
COMBT13FR-11/02
47
Applications
Load leakage currents
Implementation of RCDs
E94473
ID63
30 mA
for RCDs protecting power outlets, In = 30 mA,
IL must therefore not exceed 15 mA

PC
IL = 3.5 mA
In?
xm
xn
Example. Maximum of 4 PCs per set of outlets
for RCDs upstream of a set of loads on a TT system
calculate current IL
E94474
RCD current setting In must be greater than 2 IL

IL2
IL1
check that In < UL / RT
IL = m IL2 + n IL
COMBT13FR-11/02
48
Applications
Vigirex - installation of toroids
6 In
E94484
< 15 mA
Recommendations
centre the conductors
respect the operational current In of the toroid, corresponding
to a 30 mA operating threshold, on a 6 In overload
E94523
Improve immunity to disturbances

use a toroid with a larger diameter
delay the protection function (< 1s)
install a magnetic sleeve
E94524
Toroid mounting on multi-conductor cable with PE

run the PE back down through the toroid
COMBT13FR-11/02
49
Applications
Protection of property
Protection of motors (TN-S system)
Vigirex
MERLIN GERIN
E94458
a low insulation fault can cause a short-circuit

an RCD with a current setting between 3 and 30 A avoids this risk
COMBT13FR-11/02
50
Applications
Protecting downstream
Monitored
Monitored system
system
A
T
PEN
E94481
PE
N
PE
PE
Toroid T measures all the fault currents downstream of A

the neutral is not earthed downstream of A
the system earthing arrangement is TT or TN-S
TT/ RCD - MS
TN-S RCD - BS / RS-type GFP
COMBT13FR-11/02
a few A
a few 100 A
51
Applications
COMBT13FR-11/02
PEN
PE source
PE
E94482
Protecting upstream
52
Applications
Protecting upstream
Monitored system
A
T
N amont
PEN
PEamont
source
PE
PE
PE
E94482
NPEN
amont
Toroid T measures all the fault currents upstream of A

the neutral is not earthed upstream of A
the downstream system earthing arrangement is TN-S, the upstream
system earthing arrangement is TN-C
COMBT13FR-11/02
53
Applications
Protecting upstream
Monitored system
COMBT13FR-11/02
PEN
N
amont
PEN amont
PE amont
PE
E94482
54
Applications
Protecting upstream
Monitored system
A
T
PEN
PE
E94482
PE source
RCD - BS / RS-type GFP

The fault current is a few 100 A
COMBT13FR-11/02
55
Applications
Protecting upstream
Monitored system
A
T
N amont
PEN amont
PE source
amont
PE
PE
PE
E94482
2nd source
Protection and/or decoupling of sources
COMBT13FR-11/02
56
Applications
Protecting upstream
Monitored system
PEN
T
PE
E94482
PE source
SGR
COMBT13FR-11/02
57
Applications
Protecting upstream
Monitored system
PE amont
PEN amont
N
T
PE
PE
E94482
N amont
PEN
SGR
Note. SGR-type GFP measures the upstream and downstream currents
COMBT13FR-11/02
58
Applications
Protecting upstream
Monitored system
A
T
N amont
PEN
PEamont
source
PE
PE
PE
E94482
NPEN
amont
Toroid T measures all the fault currents upstream of A

the neutral is not earthed upstream of A
the downstream system earthing arrangement is TN-S, the upstream is TN-C
RCD - BS / RS-type GFP
The fault current is a few 100 A Nota : GFP de type SGR mesure les
courants
amont etGFP
aval measures the upstream and downstream currents
Note.
SGR-type
Protection and/or decoupling of sources
COMBT13FR-11/02
59
Applications
Restricted Earth Fault (REF)
Generator
Protected
zone
Unprotected
zone
Generator
shutdown
PE
PEN
L
E94483
N
PE
Purpose
protection of generators
Upstream system earthing arrangement is TN-C
RS-type GFP or RCD - BS
COMBT13FR-11/02
60
Applications
Restricted Earth Fault (REF) - Multisource diagram
Generator no. 1
Generator no. 2
Protected
zone
Unprotected
zone
PE
PEN
PE
PEN
L
N
E94384
PE
Purpose
continuity of service (parallel-connected generators)
elimination of a generator if an insulation fault occurs
RS-type GFP or RCD - BS
COMBT13FR-11/02
61

RCD Protection

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RCD Protection

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Improved monitoring and protection

RCD-based protection plan

Protection of life and property

Protection of life and property

The level of danger depends on:

Protection of life and property

Duration of current flow

Zone 2 : unpleasant sensation

Zone 3 : muscular contractions

Zone 4 : risk of ventricular fibrillation

500 2000 5000 (mA)

Protection of life and property

Protection of life and property

The human body is most sensitive to frequencies

Protection of life and property

120 V < Uo 230 V 230 V < Uo 400 V Uo 400 V

Disconnecting time (s) AC

From table 41A of standard IEC 60364

Protection of life and property

Equivalent electrical circuit

Protection of life and property

Protection of life and property

Equivalent electrical circuit

Protection of life and property

Standard IEC 60364

Protection of life and property

The neutral point of the LV

Protection of life and property

Earth fault protection

= 230 / (10 + 10)

Protection of life and property

Earth fault protection

Protection of life and property

Current in the neutral

Protection of life and property

Faulty distribution system

Current in the neutral

Measurement of current IPE can be used for protection of persons

against fire hazards. However, it is necessary

Protection of life and property

Equivalent electrical circuit

Protection of life and property

41% of fires are electrical in origin

Protection of life and property

There is a real risk of fire starting at leakage currents of 300 mA

Protection of life and property

Standard IEC 60364

Protection of life and property

The NEC requires specific ground fault protection) (GFP) to protect

Disturbances on distribution systems

Load leakage capacitance

Disturbances on distribution systems

Disturbances on distribution systems

Disturbances on distribution systems

Vigirex implements four functions to:

with high harmonic components

Ich ihf = ihf

these currents are not dangerous

Analyse leakage currents