Teaching Methods

Zhong Caishun
hokmdj@163.com
13699529035

What is the conceptual structure of

a teaching method?
What are some of the major method
s witnessed in the history of langua
ge teaching

Questions on teaching a language

Approach, method, technique

Changes in language teaching meth

ods throughout history have reflecte
d recognition of the changes in the
kind of proficiency learners need.

Approaches and methods

Grammar translation Method

Direct method
Situational/oral
Audiolingual
The total physical response
The silent way
Suggestopedia
Community language learning
The natural approach
Communicative approach
Task-based language teaching
Competency-based instruction
Cooperative learning
Whole language approach
Multiple intelligence

Grammar translation method

Objectives
To be able to read literature written in the t
arget language
To be able to translate from one language t
o another
To develop reading and writing skill

Principal Characteristics

Grammar Translation is a way of learning a language by firstly analy

zing its grammar rules , and then applying this knowledge to the task
of translating sentences and texts into and out of the target languag
e.
Grammar
Rules

Target
Language

Translation

Reading and writing are the major focus; little or no systematic atte
ntion is paid to speaking and listening .
Vocabulary selection is based solely on the reading texts used , and
words are taught through bilingual word lists, dictionary study, and
memorization.
The sentence is the basic unit of teaching and language practice. Mu
ch of the lesson is devoted to translating sentences into and out of t
he target language, and it is this focus on the sentence that is a disti

Principle Characteristics

Accuracy is emphasized . Students are expected to attain high stand

ards in translation, because of "the high priority attached to meticu
lous standards of accuracy which, as well as having an intrinsic mor
al value, was a prerequisite for passing the increasing number of fo
rmal written examinations that grew up during the century" (Howat
t 1984: 132, cf. Jack C. Richards & Theodore S. Rodgers, 1986,4).

Grammar is taught deductively , that is, by presentation and study o

f grammar rules, which are then practiced through translation exer
cises.

The student's native language is the medium of instruction . It is us

ed to explain new items and to enable comparisons to be made bet
ween the foreign language and the student's native language.
----Richards, J. C., & Rodgers, T. S. (1986). Approaches and
Methods in Language Teaching.Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press pp.3-4.

Application: Typical Techniques

(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)

Translation of a Literary Passage

Reading Comprehension Questions
Antonyms/Synonyms
Cognates
Deductive Application of Rule
Fill-in-the-blanks
Memorization
Use Words in Sentences
Composition

Shortcomings

Wrong idea of what language is

Lead to Less learners motivation or frustration f
or learners

"a tedious experience of memorizing endless lists of unusable

grammar rules and vocabulary and attempting to produce perf
ect translations of stilted or literary prose."

---from (Richards & Rodgers 1986 p.4).

"It is a method for which there is no theory. Ther
e is no literature that offers a rationale or justific
ation for it or that attempts to relate it to issues i
n linguistics, psychology, or educational theor
y."(ibid.p.5)

Advantages of GTM
An

effective way for application of

grammar and sentence structure
Few demands on teachers
Least stressful for students

The Direct Method

Background

In the late 19th century in Europe, for economic

development, the cross-language communication
became more frequent. As a result, there was an
increasing demand on foreign languages learning
and oral communication became the main goal of
foreign language teaching.
First introduced in France and Germany.
Berlitz (Maximilian D. Berlitz,1852-1921) used ex
tensively in Rhode Island, USA, and opened the f
irst language school.

Objectives

Learn how to communicate in the ta

rget language- learn to think in the
target language.
Correct pronunciation
Emphasize listening and speaking.
Think in target languages. No native
language. No translation.
Learning basic sentences, introducin
g daily life.

Rationale of DM

First language learning process

(1) No grammar
(2) No mother tongue
(3) No translation
(4) Postponement of printed word
(5) Postponement of written word

Rationale of DM

Linguistic theory
Strong

theoretical base in linguistics and

psychology.
Language is primarily spoken, not writte
n.
The basic unit of a language is sentence.
Language is learned through communicat
ion.

Rationale of DM

Learning theory

Emphasising vocabulary acquisition through ex

posure to its use in situations.
Meaning is to be conveyed directly in the targe
t language through the use of demonstration a
nd visual aids.
Direct communication: as baby learning mothe
r tongue.
Imitation: repetition and practice
Association: e.g.: hand arm, shoulder, foot, l
eg
Grammar is taught inductively: Ss are present
ed with examples.

Teaching model
Kellys 5 steps of teaching:
Preparation: review previous lesson.
Presentation: introduce new lesson.
Association: associate previous and
new lessons.
Systematization: systematize the ne
w lesson in certain situation.
Application: practice

Techniques

Reading loud
Question and answer exercise
Getting students to self-correct
Conversation practice
Fill-in-the-blank exercise
Dictation
Map drawing
Paragraph writing

Role of the teacher/ students

Teacher centered. Student role is le

ss passive than in GTM.
T/S are partners.
Teacher is the only demonstrator. H
e/she never translates but demonstr
ates the meaning through the use o
f realia, pictures or pantomime.

ActivitiesBerlitz School(1)

Never translate: demonstrate.

Never explain: act.
Never make a speech: ask question
s.
Never imitate mistake: correct.
Never speak with single words: use
sentences.
Never speak too much: make Ss sp
eak much.

Activities Berlitz School(2)

Never
Never
Ss.
Never
Never
Never
Never

jump around: follow your plan.

go too fast: keep the pace of the
speak too slowly: speak normally.
speak too quickly: speak naturally.
speak too loudly: speak naturally.
be impatient: take it easy.

Advantage of DM
An

effective way in creating learner

s to be competent in using the targe
t communicatively.

Disadvantage of DM
Difficult

to implement in public sec

ondary school education
Time-wasting
Not all teachers were proficient eno
ugh in the foreign language

Oral-Situational Approach
Developed in Britain and popular
between the 1930s and 1960s

Main difference between DM

and OSA
Oral-Situational Approach has a
systematic planed vocabulary
and grammar rules, DM hasnt.

Main difference between AL

M &OSA
Oral-Situational Approach doesnt
mention about reinforcement,
ALM does.

Purpose
Teaching a practical skill of L2
through copy the way children
acquire L1

Characteristic
Start from spoken language
Avoid errors
Teacher-centered
Focus on Listening and speaking
Chosen the vocabulary
The first method uses structural
syllabus

Typical Procedure
Teacher gave a topic
Demonstrate with teaching aids
Key word changed

Advantages with using OSA

Bring the reality situation in
the classroom
Scheduled progress

Disadvantages with using O

SA
Turn students into parrots
Boring and mindless
Reduce the motivation

The Audiolingual Method

Founded during World War II for
military purposes in USA
Popular in the 1960s but died out in
the 70s

Audiolingual

Objective

Teaching model

Focus on students pronunciation, and train their abilit

y of listening by dialogues and drills
Stimulus-response-reinforcement model (imitation, p
atterned drilling, substitution)

Language and Learning theory

Structuralism/Behaviorism

Role of the teacher and students

The

controller and the controlled

An example

Teaching procedures

1 hear a dialogue
2 repeat the dialogue
3 key words or structures
changed
4 practice substitutions in t
he pattern drills

Features

1 Imitation
2 repetition
3 Positively reinforced
4 Over learn
*Emphasize in the Form, not t
he Meaning

Criticism

Disadvantages

It fails to address the context and function of l

anguage.
It banish all forms of language processing that
help students sort out new language informatio
n in their own minds.
Turn Students into parrots
Boring and mindless
Reduce the motivation

advantages

Allows Students to communicate quickly

Students became good at pattern

Total Physical Response/TPR

(James Asher , 1966)
founded by James Asher, a
professor of psychology at San
Jos State University, California,
USA

The Purpose
To have basic oral expression
ability through using imperative
sentences.

The Characteristic
1 retention
2 Direct commands
3 No stress
4 Listen first
*Emphasize in the Meaning,
not the Form

Typical Procedure in a TPR

Course
1 input
2 comprehension
3 express

Advantages with using TPR

Fun.
Memorable.
Good for kinesthetic learners.
No matter the class size.
>>>

Advantages with using TPR

Work well with mixed-ability
classes.
No requirement for many
preparation or materials.
Effective with young learners.
Involves both left and right-brained
learning

Disadvantages with using TP

R
Students feel shy
Less useful for upper levels
overuse TPR

The silent way

Background
In the 1960s, both Behaviorism (psychological
foundation) and Structuralism (linguistic fou
ndation) were attacked by linguists and psyc
hologists.
Behaviorism was followed by Cognitive Psy
chology.
Structuralism was followed by Transformatio
nal-generative linguistics.

Theoretical foundation
Transformational generative grammar:
Language learning is not the outcome of habit formation
(Behaviorism). It is the process of creative rule formation
or discovery.
Theory internalized grammar of a language Competence
enables one to create and understand totally new sente
nces.
Cognitive psychology
Human is creative, so mimicry, memorization, repetition a
nd parrot learning (Behaviorism) do not lead to real learni
ng

Features of SW
All four skills are worked on from the
beginning. In addition. Form and me
aning are both important.
It assigns an active role to the learner.
The teacher goes from familiar to unfa
miliar. For example, he starts with L
2 sounds which are similar to L1 so
unds.

Features of SW
The teacher speaks very little, only when needed. His silence
motivates the learners to participate more and be active.
The teacher is not the model. His gestures work. Students se
lf criteria for correctness are emphasized. The student tak
es the responsibility of learning.
Students actions show if they have learned.
Students help each other.
The teacher uses gestures and L1 to help them learn.
Students familiar knowledge (old context) helps them learn th
e unfamiliar (new context). The teachers interference is ve
ry little.

Features of SW
Meaning is achieved through perceptions (senses), not translation.
Group cooperation is the norm.
Little praise and punishment.
Errors are important. They are the road signs.
Self correction over teachers correction.
Students listen to each other.
Learning rates are different. Perfection is not the target.
The teacher frees his time by his silence.
Students are attentive.
Meaningful practice is preferred to repetition.
Logical presentation of language elements from familiar to unfamiliar.

Features of SW
Autonomy is gained by exploring and making choices.
Feedback from students informs the teacher.
No homework:sleeping practice
Syllabus is structure based.
Structures are not presented in a linear way.
Skills (speaking, reading and writing) reinforce one anot
her.

Suggestopedia
The name is from the words
suggestion and pedagogy.
Developed in the 1970s by the
Bulgarian psychologist Georgi
Lozanov

Attention and memory studi

es

(Adapted from: Richards & Rodgers 2001 Approaches & Methods in Language Teaching
Cambridge)

Purpose
Desuggest the psychological
barriers to learn vocabulary and
conversation

Characteristics
Present text with music
Practiced breathing
Comfortable
Choose target language name
Colorful posters on the wall
Liberate instead of teach

Elements to Suggestopedia
Authority: people remember best and are most influenced by
information coming from an authoritative source
Infantilization: authority is also used to suggest a teacherstudent relation like that of parent to child. In the child's
role the learner takes part in role playing, games, songs,
and gymnastic exercises that help "the older student
regain the self-confidence, spontaneity, and receptivity of
the child."
Double-planedness: The learner learns not only from effect of
direct instruction but from the environment in which the
instruction takes place (e.g. classroom decoration,
music, shape of charts, teacher's personality)
Intonation, Rhythm and concert pseudo-passiveness:
Both intonation and rhythm are coordinated with a musical
background. The musical background helps to induce a
relaxed attitude, which Lozanov refers to as concert pseudopassiveness
The type of music is critical to learning success: Lozanov
recommends a series of slow movements (sixty beats a
minute) in 4/4 time for Baroque concerto (strung together into
a half-hour concert)
The body relaxed, the mind became alert

Typical Procedure
Deciphering
Concert session
Elaboration
Production

Advantages with using Sug

gestopedia
Increase oral proficiency
Lower classroom anxiety

Disadvantages with using S

uggestopedia
Unavailable of music and
comfortable chair
No advanced comprehension
technique

Community Language Learn

ing

Developed by Charles Curran and

his associates in 1970s

Comparison

Psychological Requirements fo
r Successful Learning
S stands for security
A stands for attention and aggression
R stands for retention and reflection
D represents discrimination

Purpose
The teacher can successfully
transfer his or her knowledge and
proficiency in the L2 to the
students; Specific purposes are
not mentioned.

Characteristics
Client-Counselor and LearnerKnower relationships
Humanistic Techniques
Code Alternation

Advantages with using CLL

Remove the feeling of distance
and insecure
Counselor allows the learner to
decide the topic

Disadvantages with using C

LL
Teacher may become too
indirective
Confidence based on an inductive
strategy for learning

Typical Procedure
Translation
Group Work
Recording
Transcription
Analysis
Reflection and observation

Main Steps of Procedure of

CLL
Investment
Reflection

The Comprehension-based
Approach
(Natural Approach)
The Natural Approach was developed by

Tracy Terrell and Stephen Krashen, starting

in 1977. It came to have a wide influence
in language teaching in the United States
and around the world.

Features of NA

Listening comprehension is very important

Begin by listening to meaningful speech
Speak when ready
One step beyond their level of competence
Error correction
Appropriate input for the learners
Adopt freely from various method sources

The NA v.s. The DM

The NA emphasize on
1.Exposure / input
2.Optimizing emotional prep
aredness
3.A prolonged period of hear
ing

The DM emphasize on
1.Teach monologue
2.Direct repetition
3.Formal Q/A
4.Accurate production

Objectives of NA
To be

able to function adequately in

the target situation.
To be able to convey their requests
and idea

Teacher and Student Roles

Teacher Roles
The primary source
Create a classroom atmosphere
Choose a rich mix of classroom activities
Student Roles
Participator ; responder

The Communicative A
pproach

Hymes view of communicative

competence (1979)
formally possible (grammatically acceptable)
understandable to human beings
in line with social norms
in fact done:
Do people actually use language this way?

Canale and Swains Four dimensions of

communicative competence (1980)
Grammatical competence
Sociolinguistic competence
Discourse competence
Strategic competence
(Richards & Rodgers, 1986:71)

Hedges five main components of

communicative competence
(2000)
Linguistic competence
Pragmatic competence
Discourse competence
Strategic competence
Fluency

Theory of Learning
the communication principle: Activities that
involve real communication promote learning.

the task principle: Activities in which

language is used for carrying out meaningful
tasks promote learning (Johnson 1982).

the meaningfulness principle: Language that

is meaningful to the learner supports the
learning process.

(P20)

Features of CA
Communicative

intent
The use of authentic materials
Activities are often carried out

Major Classroom Activities

Activities

Classification

Functions

Precommunicative
activities

Structural
activities

Primary focus on
linguistic forms

Quasicommunicative
activities

Focus on forms plus

meanings

Communicative
activities

Functional
communication
activities

Focus on meanings plus

forms

Social interaction Primary focus on

activities
meanings

Teacher and Student Roles

Teacher

roles
(1) To facilitate communication
(2) To be a co-communicator

Student

roles
Communicator

Advantages of the CA

(1) Students will be more motivated

(2) Students have opportunities to express

(3) Student security is enhanced

Disadvantages of the CA
No

environment of ESL
Difficulty in evaluating students
performance
Ignore the training of reading an
d writing

Typical techniques
Authentic

materials
Scrambled sentences
Language games
Picture strip story
Role play

Task-based language teaching

Competency-based instruction
Cooperative learning
Whole language approach
Multiple intelligence